ZETECH

FLUID NOTES

FLUID MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS:

Fluid mechanics is a branch of applied Mechanics concerned with the statics and dynamics of
fluids. The analysis of the behavior of fluids is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics
which relate continuity of mass and energy with force and momentum together with the familiar
solid mechanics properties.
The fundamental principles are those of:
1. Conservation of mass.
2. Conservation of energy.
3. Newton’s law of motion and for compressible fluids.
4. The law of thermodynamics.

What is fluid?
Matter is divided into two classes namely:
- Fluids.
- Solids.

If a portion of matter under given thermodynamic conditions and in absence of external forces
has a definite shape it is called a solid and if it takes the shape of the container is called the fluid.
Another criterion of classification of matter between solid and fluid is based on the deformation
of matter. A particle of matter is deformed or undergoes deformation if generally the distance
between two neighboring particle changes.
This criterion asserts that in solids when some external forces are applied it is the deformation
which is important i.e. there is a relationship between external force and the solid while in fluids
it is the rate of deformation which is important and not the deformation. Thus a portion of matter
is a solid if it undergoes deformation due to an external force for a long time and a fluid if it
undergoes deformation continuously.
Fluids can be divided into liquids and gases. The chief difference between liquids and gases are:
i. Liquids are practically incompressible whereas gases are compressible and often must
be so treated.
ii. Liquids occupy definite volumes and have free surfaces whereas a given mass of gas
expands until it occupies all portions of any containing vessel.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. DENSITY

We define the density of matter at a point as the mass of matter contained in a unit
volume around that point, mathematically suppose we take a volumedv around point V
containing mass or matter of valuedm . The density ρ at V is defined as
dm
ρ= lim
dv→0 dv
where
dv →0
In such a way that point p is always within thatdv .

Dimension:
mass
volume
m
=3
l
¿ ml−3

2. PRESSURE
This is the force per unit area.
F
P=
A
dim ensions
Force mass×acceleration mLT −2
= = 2
Area area L
−1 −2
I.e. ¿ ML T

3. SPECIFIC WEIGHT (r)

The magnitude of the gravity force acting on a portion of matter contained in a unit
volume is called specific weight of matter.
dF
r = lim
dv→0 dV

WheredF is the magnitude of the gravity force acting on volume elementdV . There is a
close relationship between a specific weight and the density of the fluid.
 Force
pressure= =hρg
Area
Force
= =ρg
h× Area
=r=ρg
Is the relationship between g and r can be determined from Newton’s 2nd Law so that
Weight per unit volume=mass per unit volume x g
∴ r= ρg
3
Units of r are N / m

4. SPECIFIC VOLUME

It is the volume occupied by the unit volume of matter. E.g. if the mass of the volume dv
Of the given matter is dm
Then
dv
lim
Specific volume=dm→0 dm

5. VISCOSITY

Mathematically we take two adjacent layers whose velocities are v and v+dv and being
dv
dy (a distance apart). The tangential force is proportional to dy .
dv
F=μ A .....................................................................................(1)
dy
Where the coefficient of proportionality u known as the coefficient of viscosity of the
fluid.
Equation (1) is known as the Newtonian law-any fluid which satisfies (1) is said to be a
Newtonian’s fluid. That is if the coefficient of viscosity is equal to constant, the fluid is
said to be a Newtonian fluid. Otherwise the fluid is said to be Non-Newtonian fluid.

For Newtonian fluids

dv
F=μ
dy
If otherwise the fluid is said to be non-Newtonian.
−1 −1
The dimensions are ML T
μ Is also referred to as the dynamic or absolute viscosity.
 μ mL−1 T −1 2 −1
V= = =L T
ρ mL−3
2
Where V is called the coefficient of Kinematics viscosity (m / s )
2
Or stokes. Note: 1stoke=1 cm / s .
Definition: coefficient of dynamic viscosity u is defined as the shear force per unit area
(or shear stress T) required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer
a unit distance away.

force
T area force ×time
μ= = =
du velocity area
dy dis tan ce

mass
=
length×time

−1 −1
Units of μ are Ns/ m orkgm s .
2

EXAMPLE 1
A plate of distance 0.2 cm from a fixed plate moves at 1m/s and requires a force of 40
−2
dynescm to maintain this speed. Determine the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid
between the two plates.
Solution.
By Newton’s law, the tangential force F is given by
dv
F=μ
dy
40 N
F= .......1cm/ s
↑
..........0.2.............dv=1−0=1cm /sec
...........↓............ v=0
For the given problem Dy=0.2cm/sec and F=40N
From the formula,
 F
A
μ= ,
dv
dy
where
dv
dy
Is the velocity gradient.
Substituting in the formula we have:
40
1
μ= =8 dynes
0.2
0r
8 N /sec
0r
2 .248×10−6 pounds

Note: 1 dyne is the force producing an acceleration of 1cm/s in the direction in which it
acts upon mass of 1g.
5
1N =10 dynes.

6. BULK MODULUS OR COMPRESSIBILITY

The bulk modulus of a fluid denoted by k is defined as the ratio of change in pressure to
the relative change in volume under constant temperature

dp
k= ......................................................................................(2)
dv
v ( )
Where dp is the change in pressure dv, change in volume and v= the original volume.
Bulk strain is the change in volume over original volume.

originalvolume¿
changeinvolume¿ ¿
−dv
= ¿
Bulk strain = v
 increase inf orce
area
Bulk stress =
dF
=
A

The bulk modulus k or constant temperature is given by

bulkstrain
K= bulkstress
−dp
K=
dv
v
Change in pressure w.r.t relative change in volume.

1
=X=compressibility
K

dp

In most textbooks k is taken as the negative value of

( dvv )

EXAMPLE 2:
7 2
A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 0.4cm at 6 . 8×10 dynes/cm and a
3

8 2
volume of 0 . 396 cm at1 .36×10 dynes/cm . What is its bulk modulus?
3

Solution
−dp (13 . 6−6 .8 )×107
K= =−
( )
dv ( 0. 396−0 . 4 )
v 0.4

¿ 6 . 8×10 9 N /cm 2

EXAMPLE 3:
10
The bulky modulus of water is 2 .2×10 dynes percm . Find the change in volume when
2

6 2
100 cm 3 of water is subjected to increase in pressure by7 . 7×10 dynes/cm .
Solution
 dp 7 . 7×10 6
K=− =2 .2×1010=
( v)
dv dv
100
recall ,
bulkstrain
k=
bulkstress

dv =( 7 . 7×106 ×100
2 . 2×10 10 )3
cm =0 . 035 cm
3

EXERCISE
3
1. A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of vcm at a pressure of
6 . 8×10 7 N /cm2 and a volume of 0 . 396 cm3 at1 .36×108 N /cm2 .
11 2
Find the value of V given that the bulk modulus of the liquid is3 .2×10 N /cm .

7. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY.

μ
v=
The kinematic viscosity of a liquid denoted by v is defined as ρ where μ is coefficient
of viscosity and is density ρ of the fluid.
SURFACE AND BODY FORCES

The motion of fluids depend on the forces acting on it. Thus, in the discussion of
the dynamics of any continuous medium we have to consider the forces acting on
the medium besides the motion of the individual particles constituting the
medium.
E.g. consider an element moving in a fluid.
The motion depends upon the forces acting on it. This forces may be due to the
presence of the surrounding fluids or on the external of the element. The
surrounding fluids exert of fluid through its surface of contact with elements
called the surface forces. E.g. friction, pressure etc.

The external forces would be acting throughout the element and are therefore
called body or body forces. The body forces may also be due to internal forces
due to self-gravitational molecular forces etc.
 The surface forces are measured as force per unit area while the volume forces are
measured per unit mass of the volume of the fluid surface.
Surface forces are more important than body forces.

If dG represents body forces acting the dV, then the body forces per unit volume.
dG
F= lin
dv→ 0 dV
Consider the surface forces, let us take a point T in a fluid, a surface element dS
which is wholly immersed in the fluid. Then on both sides of this body element
there is a fluid which is exerting a force on it. The fluid on each side will try to
push the element to the other side. When the surface element is in equilibrium.
Then the fluid on both sides would be exerting equal and opposite forces.

Consider a fluid element in contact with a rigid body which is at rest. Let ds be
the surface which separates the fluids element and rigid body.

Since the surface element is in equilibrium then Newton’s Third rule implies that
the rigid body will also exert some force pushing it towards the fluid.
Thus, the fluids or (all the boundary) exerts force on every surface whether it is
wholly immersed in the fluid or in contact with some other material. Since the
fluid on each side of the surface element will be exerting a force on it through
every part of the outward normal side of the element. There would be forces
which will be equivalent to a single resultant force dF and dc.

Then the surface traction;

dF
Tv= lim
ds →0 dS

Considered at the point P at surface element of the fluid. ds →0

In such a way that p is on the surface. V indicates the normal of the surface or
which the surface traction is acting.

In most of the fluids the coupledc →0 asds →0 . Recently some analysis has
dc
been made where dc and ds i.e. ds tends to a finite non-zero valuesds →0 .
Such fluids are called fluids with couple stress or polar fluids.

CONSERVATION LAWS
In any discussion of fluid dynamics we consider basic axioms called the conservative laws which
hold universally. This are:
i) Conservation of mass – Equation of continuity.
ii) Conservation of momentum – Equation of motion.
iii) Conservation of moment of momentum.
iv) Conservation of energy.
1. Conservation of Mass (Equation of continuity.
The principle of conservation of mass says that the mass of the fluid element remains the same as
the mass moves in the fluid.
The equation of continuity for incompressible fluids.

2. DERIVATION OF EQUATION OF CONSERVATION

MOMENTUM (EQUATION OF MOTION)

In the motion of any particle we take that the rate of change of momentum of the particle
is equal to the impressed force. Let us consider an arbitrary volume V bounded by a
smooth surface S.

du dv dw
+ + =0
dx dy dz
→ →
v =v (u , v , w ) .
∂ ρ udv=− ∇ ( ρuv )dv+ ρF dv+ ∇ .T dv
∫
∂t v
∫ ∫ x ∫ x
v v v

[ ]
∫ ∂∂ t ( ρu)+∇( ρ uv)−ρF x−∇ .T x dv=0
v
∂ ( ρu)+∇( ρ uv)=ρF +∇ T
x x
∂t
∂u ∂ ρ
ρ +u +∇( ρ uv)=∇ T x + ρF x
∂ t ∂t
∂u ∂ρ
{ }
ρ +u +∇ ( ρv ) + ρ⃗v ( ∇ u)=∇ T x +ρF x
∂t ∂t
∂u
ρ +ρv ( ∇ u)=∇ T x +ρF x ..............along..x−axis
∂t
∂v
ρ + ρ⃗v ( ∇ v )=∇ T y +ρF y ...............along ... y−axis
∂t
∂w
ρ + ρ⃗v ( ∇ w )=∇ T z +ρF z ............along.... z−axis
∂t .
Combining the three equation we have the three dimensional equation of conservation of
momentum.
∂v
ρ +ρ ⃗v (∇ ⃗v )=∇ T⃗ + ρ F
∂t . Equation of conservation of momentum.
2
If ∇ T =−∇ p+v ∇ ⃗v . Where ∇ p =pressure gradient.

∂⃗v
ρ + ρ⃗v ( ∇ ⃗v )=−∇ p+V ∇ 2 ⃗v +ρ ⃗F
∂t
recall
μ
=v
ρ

3. THE 1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Suppose Q is the total thermal energy per unit mass, E is the internal energy per unit mass, ρ is
the density and P the pressure.
It states that;
Dq = dE + dW………………………………………………………………………1(a)
I.e. the increase in a systems energy equals the heat transferred to the system plus the work done
on the system.
Where dw = work done x distance
Pressure = force/area.
Therefore dW = pressure x area~ x distance
= pressure x volume
Therefore

dQ=dE+pdv…………………………………………………………1(b)
1
dQ=dE+ pd( ).........................................................................................1(c )
ρ .for unit mass.