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 RESEARCH PROJECT IN
TESOL/TEFL
For Mater’s Degree Students (Curriculum & Instruction of TESOL/TEFL)

Compiled By

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah
Associate Professor of Curriculum & English
Language Instruction - Applied Linguistics

SEPTEMBER 10, 2024

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
Assiut University

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

Copyright © 2024, by Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah, Assiut University

All Rights Reserved by the Author

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted in any

form – or by any means – without prior written permission of the author
(copyright owner).

Dr Mahmoud M.S. Abdallah (PhD in Education, University of Exeter, England, UK)

Associate Professor of Education: Curriculum, English Language Instruction &
Applied Linguistics (TESOL/TEFL/ELT)
Faculty of Education,
Assiut University
Assiut, 71515
Egypt

Contact Info: Mobile: (+2) 01011953743 Office: (002) 0882423843

E-mail: [email protected]
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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

PREFACE
Research is the cornerstone of academic inquiry, shaping the trajectory of
educational progress and influencing teaching methodologies. This textbook,
Research Project in TESOL/TEFL, has been specifically designed for master’s
degree students majoring in Curriculum and Instruction of TESOL/TEFL. It aims to
provide a clear, comprehensive, and practical guide for conducting
educational research within the field of English language instruction.

The need for this textbook arose from the growing demand for well-structured
research training for TESOL/TEFL graduate students. As educators, we are
tasked with not only disseminating knowledge but also with generating new
insights and evidence-based practices that enhance the teaching and
learning experience. This textbook is crafted to walk students through the
multifaceted process of designing, conducting, and presenting research in
TESOL/TEFL. By demystifying the complexities of research methodology and
offering practical examples, it seeks to empower students to embark on their
research journey with confidence and clarity.

This book is structured to provide both theoretical knowledge and hands-on

applications. It begins by introducing the foundational principles of research in
Chapter One, ensuring that students understand the importance and
relevance of research in improving language teaching practices and
informing educational policy. From there, the textbook delves into the
identification of research problems, guiding students to formulate clear
research questions and objectives in Chapter Two.

A significant portion of the textbook is dedicated to equipping students with

the tools they need to navigate the vast landscape of existing literature.
Chapter Three provides a robust framework for conducting a literature review,
helping students to synthesize existing research and position their work within
the broader academic discourse.

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In Chapter Four, the focus shifts to research design and methodology, where
students are introduced to various research approaches, including qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods. Detailed discussions on selecting the
appropriate research design, data collection tools, and analytical methods
are provided to support students in making informed decisions as they progress
through their projects.

Chapters Five and Six emphasize the importance of presenting research

findings in a coherent, rigorous, and engaging manner. Practical guidance is
provided on how to write up results, critically analyse data, and draw
meaningful conclusions that contribute to the field of TESOL/TEFL.

Throughout the textbook, students are encouraged to reflect on their roles as

both consumers and producers of research. They are prompted to critically
engage with existing knowledge while also contributing their own insights
through action research and innovative practices.

In conclusion, Research Project in TESOL/TEFL is not just a textbook but a

roadmap for aspiring researchers. It equips them with the necessary skills to
conduct high-quality research, grounded in both theory and practice, and
aims to foster a culture of inquiry, reflection, and continuous improvement in
the field of English language education. As educators and researchers, it is our
hope that this book will serve as an invaluable resource for master’s students
as they embark on their academic journey, guiding them to make meaningful
contributions to the ever-evolving landscape of TESOL/TEFL research.

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah (10 September 2024)

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

Contents
PREFACE .................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................... 7
Introduction to Research in English Language Teaching/Learning ................... 7
1.1 Why Research Matters in TESOL/TEFL ............................................................ 7
1.2 Navigating Different Research Approaches ............................................... 8
1.3 Research Terminology: Speaking the Language of Research ............... 11
1.4 The Research Process: A Journey of Inquiry ............................................. 12
1.5 Embracing Research as a TESOL/TEFL Professional ................................... 13
1.6 Selecting a Research Topic in TESOL/TEFL: A Guide for Educational
Researchers......................................................................................................... 14
1.7 Writing a Research Project in Education (TESOL/TEFL).............................. 17
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................ 20
Identifying Research Problem and Formulating Questions & Objectives ........ 20
2.1 Identifying a Research Problem.................................................................. 21
2.2 Writing Research Questions & Objectives .................................................. 24
2.3 Aligning Research Problem, Questions, and Objectives .......................... 27
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................... 28
Theoretical Background & Literature Review ..................................................... 28
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Importance of Theoretical Background & Literature Review .................. 28
3.3 Goals & Purposes .......................................................................................... 30
3.4 Writing a Theoretical Background .............................................................. 30
3.5 How to Write a Literature Review ............................................................... 31
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................... 34
Research Methodology & Design ........................................................................ 34
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 34
4.2 Selecting the Right Methodology & Research Design ............................. 34
4.3 Research Design: Planning Your Study ....................................................... 36
4.4 Structure of the Research Methodology Chapter .................................... 38
4.5 Components & Procedures ......................................................................... 39
4.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................... 44
Research Results & Discussion ............................................................................... 44

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 44
5.2 General Tips & Guidelines............................................................................ 45
5.3 Specific Tips & Procedures........................................................................... 45
5.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER SIX............................................................................................................ 50
Academic Writing .................................................................................................. 50
6.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 50
6.2 Development of Ideas and Paragraphs .................................................... 53
A-Paragraph development by examples.................................................................. 53
B-Paragraph development by comparison............................................................... 59
C-Paragraph development by contrast .................................................................... 61
D-Paragraph development by narration and specific details ...................................... 62
6.3 Good Presentation of Ideas ........................................................................ 63
A-Write neatly.................................................................................................. 63
B-Write clearly ................................................................................................. 63
C-Plan your paragraphs ................................................................................. 64
D-Avoid long and unnecessary words ......................................................... 65
E-Be coherent and consistent ....................................................................... 66
F-Consider ‘register’ (suitable language & tone) ........................................ 67
G-Watch your grammar ................................................................................ 69
H-Watch your punctuation ............................................................................ 70
6.4 Editing and Revising Paragraphs and Essays ............................................. 73
6.5 Academic Document Types ....................................................................... 74
6.6 Features of Academic Writing .................................................................... 75
6.7 The Process of Academic Writing: Writing an Academic Essay .............. 80
6.8 Real Samples................................................................................................. 84
CHAPTER SEVEN Effective Reading Skills and Strategies .................................... 93
7.1 Overview of Reading Skills ........................................................................... 93
7.2 Active Reading Techniques ........................................................................ 94
7.3 Reading for Comprehension ....................................................................... 95
7.4 Online Reading ............................................................................................. 96
7.5 Critical Reading .......................................................................................... 100
7.6 SEARCH Framework for Locating Data Online ........................................ 102
7.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 102
CHAPTER EIGHT..................................................................................................... 104

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Citations and Referencing Styles........................................................................ 104

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 104
8.2 Why are Citations and Referencing Important? ..................................... 104
8.3 Referencing Styles: A Diverse Landscape................................................ 105
8.4 APA Style: A Closer Look ............................................................................ 106
8.5 Common Referencing Mistakes to Avoid ................................................ 108
8.6 Seeking Help and Support: You Don't Have to Navigate Alone ........... 108
8.7 Conclusion: Embracing Accuracy and Seeking Support ...................... 109
References............................................................................................................ 110

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Research in English Language
Teaching/Learning
Welcome to the exciting world of research in TESOL/TEFL! This chapter
introduces the importance of research in the field and provides you with a
foundational understanding of key concepts and terminologies that will guide
you throughout this course.

1.1 Why Research Matters in TESOL/TEFL

In the field of TESOL/TEFL, we constantly strive to improve our teaching
practices to facilitate effective language learning for our students. Research is
a critical tool that allows us to achieve this goal. But what exactly is research?

• In its simplest form, research is a systematic investigation designed to

discover new knowledge or to confirm or refute existing knowledge.
• It is a cyclical process of asking questions, collecting and analysing
data, and drawing conclusions based on the evidence gathered.

Research in TESOL/TEFL is particularly important for several reasons:

1-Understanding Language Learning: Through research, we gain valuable

insights into the complexities of second language acquisition (SLA). Research
helps us to answer questions about how people learn languages, what factors
influence their success, and what challenges they face. This knowledge is
crucial for developing effective teaching methodologies and creating
supportive learning environments that cater to diverse learners' needs.

2-Improving Teaching Practices: Research provides evidence-based practices

that can significantly enhance the quality of our teaching. By studying different
teaching methods, materials, and assessment techniques, we can identify
what works best for whom, and under what circumstances. This leads to more

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

effective teaching strategies and improved learning outcomes for our

students.

3-Informing Educational Policies: Research plays a vital role in shaping

language education policies at various levels. Large-scale studies can provide
policymakers with the evidence they need to make informed decisions about
curriculum design, language assessment, teacher training, and resource
allocation.

1.2 Navigating Different Research Approaches

There are various research approaches used in TESOL/TEFL, each with its
strengths and limitations. Understanding the different approaches will help you
select the most appropriate methods for your research questions.

1-Qualitative Research

Qualitative research aims to explore the richness and complexity of human

experiences and perspectives. Instead of focusing on numerical data,
qualitative research gathers data through in-depth interviews, observations,
and analysis of texts and documents. It helps us understand the 'why' and 'how'
behind certain phenomena rather than just the 'what'.

Qualitative research is particularly valuable in TESOL/TEFL for:

• Exploring learners' and teachers' lived experiences, beliefs, and attitudes

towards language learning and teaching.
• Investigating classroom dynamics, interaction patterns, and the
influence of social and cultural factors on language learning.
• Analysing language use in authentic settings to gain a deeper
understanding of communication strategies and challenges.

Examples of Qualitative Research Methods in TESOL/TEFL:

Ethnography: Originating in anthropology, ethnography involves immersing

oneself in a particular cultural group or setting to understand their practices,

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

beliefs, and values related to language and communication. Ethnographic

studies often involve extended observations, interviews with key informants,
and the collection of artifacts (e.g., student work, and classroom materials).

Case Studies: Case studies provide a detailed, in-depth analysis of a single

individual, group, or situation. For example, a case study might focus on the
language development of a single learner over time or the implementation
of a new teaching methodology in a specific classroom.

Discourse Analysis: Discourse analysis focuses on how language is used in real-

world contexts to create meaning. Researchers examine spoken or written
language (e.g., classroom interactions, textbooks, online forums) to identify
patterns, structures, and underlying social or cultural norms.

2-Quantitative Research

Quantitative research, in contrast to qualitative research, involves collecting

and analysing numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and trends. It
is useful for testing hypotheses, making predictions, and generalising findings
to larger populations.

Examples of Quantitative Research Methods in TESOL/TEFL:

Experimental Research: Experimental research aims to establish cause-and-

effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables while controlling for
others. For example, a researcher might investigate the effectiveness of a new
vocabulary teaching method by comparing the performance of two groups
of learners – one group receiving the new method and the other a traditional
method.

Quasi-experimental Research: Quasi-experimental research is similar to

experimental research but involves less control over variables, often due to
real-world constraints. For instance, a researcher might study the impact of a
new language learning software programme on students' proficiency scores,

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

but they may not be able to randomly assign students to different groups due
to existing class schedules or school policies.

Survey Research: Survey research uses questionnaires or structured interviews

to gather data from a large sample of individuals. Researchers analyse this
data to understand trends, opinions, and attitudes. In TESOL/TEFL, surveys are
commonly used to investigate learners' motivations, learning strategies, or
perceptions of their language learning experiences.

3-Mixed Methods Research

As research questions become more complex, there's a growing trend towards

using mixed methods, combining both qualitative and quantitative
approaches. This allows for a more holistic and comprehensive understanding
of the phenomena under investigation.

For example, a researcher studying the impact of a new teacher training

programme on classroom practices might collect both quantitative data (e.g.,
pre- and post-programme observations of teaching behaviours) and
qualitative data (e.g., interviews with teachers about their experiences and
perceived changes).

4. Action Research

Action research is a highly practical approach in which teachers become

researchers in their own classrooms. It involves identifying a specific problem or
area for improvement, developing and implementing an intervention strategy,
collecting data to monitor the effects, and reflecting on the findings to refine
their practices.

Action research is cyclical and iterative, meaning that the findings from one
cycle inform the next, leading to ongoing professional development and
improvement.

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

1.3 Research Terminology: Speaking the Language of Research

As you embark on your journey into research, it is essential to familiarise yourself
with some key terminologies:

Variables: A variable is anything that can vary or change within a study.

Independent variables are those that the researcher manipulates or changes
to observe their effect. Dependent variables are the outcomes or effects that
are measured.

For example, in a study investigating the impact of using authentic materials

on students' speaking fluency, the independent variable would be the type of
materials (authentic vs. textbook-based), while the dependent variable would
be speaking fluency.

Hypotheses: In quantitative research, hypotheses are testable statements that

predict a relationship between variables. The null hypothesis states that there
is no significant difference or relationship between variables, while the
alternative hypothesis proposes that a difference or relationship does exist.

Researchers use statistical analyses to determine whether there is enough

evidence to reject the null hypothesis and support the alternative hypothesis.

Data: Data refers to the information that researchers collect during their study.
Qualitative data are non-numerical and are often in the form of text, audio, or
video recordings. Quantitative data, on the other hand, consists of numbers
that can be statistically analysed.

Reliability and Validity:

Reliability refers to the consistency of research findings. A reliable research

instrument or method will yield similar results if the study were to be repeated
under similar conditions.

Validity pertains to the accuracy of the findings. A valid research instrument

measures what it is intended to measure. For example, a valid speaking test

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

will accurately assess a learner's speaking ability, rather than their reading or
writing skills.

Generalisability: Generalisability refers to the extent to which research findings

can be applied beyond the specific context or participants of the study. It is
important to consider factors like sample size, participant characteristics, and
the research setting when evaluating the generalisability of research findings.

1.4 The Research Process: A Journey of Inquiry

The research process is not a linear path but rather an iterative and cyclical
one, involving several interconnected stages.

1. Identifying a Research Problem: The first step is to identify a problem or area

of interest that you want to investigate. This could stem from your own teaching
experiences, gaps in the existing literature, or current issues within the field of
TESOL/TEFL.

2. Reviewing Existing Literature: Before you begin your own research, it is

crucial to conduct a thorough review of existing literature on your chosen
topic. This involves searching for, critically evaluating, and synthesising relevant
research articles, books, and other scholarly sources. This step helps you to
understand what is already known, identify gaps and inconsistencies, and
refine your research questions.

3. Formulating Research Questions: Once you have a good understanding of

the existing research, you need to formulate clear, focused, and researchable
questions that will guide your study. These questions should be specific enough
to be answerable within the scope of your research.

4. Choosing a Research Design: The research design refers to the overall plan
or structure of your study. It outlines how you will collect, analyse, and interpret
your data. The choice of design depends on the nature of your research
questions, the type of data you need to collect, and the resources available
to you.

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

5. Collecting Data: Data collection is the process of gathering information to

answer your research questions. The methods you choose will depend on your
research design and the type of data you need. Common data collection
methods in TESOL/TEFL research include observations, interviews,
questionnaires, tests, and document analysis.

6. Analysing Data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyse
it to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. The methods used for data
analysis vary depending on whether you are working with qualitative or
quantitative data.

Qualitative data analysis often involves coding and categorising data to

identify themes, patterns, and emerging insights.

Quantitative data analysis uses statistical techniques to summarise and

interpret numerical data.

7. Interpreting Findings: Data analysis provides you with results, but research
goes beyond simply presenting numbers or descriptions. Interpretation involves
making sense of those findings in relation to your research questions, the
existing literature, and the broader context of your study. This is where you
draw connections, discuss implications, and offer explanations for what you
have found.

8. Writing the Research Report: The final stage of the research process involves
communicating your findings in a clear, concise, and engaging manner.
Research reports typically follow a structured format, including an introduction,
literature review, methodology section, results section, discussion, and
conclusion.

1.5 Embracing Research as a TESOL/TEFL Professional

Research is not just for academics working in universities; it is an essential tool
for all TESOL/TEFL professionals who are committed to ongoing learning,

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

reflection, and improvement. By understanding the principles of research, you

can:

1. Become a more informed consumer of research: You will be able to

critically evaluate research articles, identify potential biases, and determine
the relevance of findings to your own teaching context.
2. Engage in action research in your classroom: You can apply research
methods to address specific challenges or explore areas for improvement
in your own teaching.
3. Contribute to the growing body of knowledge in TESOL/TEFL: As you gain
experience and confidence, you might even consider presenting your
research findings at conferences or publishing in academic journals.

As you progress through this course, we encourage you to embrace research

not just as a requirement for a degree, but as an integral part of your
professional identity as a TESOL/TEFL educator. By approaching research with
curiosity, critical thinking, and a commitment to improving language teaching
and learning, you will make a valuable contribution to the field.

1.6 Selecting a Research Topic in TESOL/TEFL: A Guide for

Educational Researchers
The selection of an appropriate research topic is a critical step in the research
process for educational researchers in the field of Teaching English to Speakers
of Other Languages (TESOL) or Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL).
This decision shapes the entire trajectory of the research project and can
significantly impact its ultimate value and contribution to the field. This guide
outlines key considerations and criteria for selecting a research topic in
TESOL/TEFL.

Criteria for Topic Selection

1. Relevance to the Field

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

The chosen topic should address current issues, trends, or gaps in TESOL/TEFL
research. It should contribute to the existing body of knowledge and have
potential implications for teaching practices, curriculum development, or
language policy.

2. Originality

While building upon existing research is important, the topic should offer a
novel perspective, approach, or application. This could involve:

- Exploring an under-researched area

- Applying new methodologies to existing problems
- Investigating emerging technologies or pedagogical approaches in
language teaching

3. Feasibility

Consider the practical aspects of conducting the research:

- Access to necessary resources and participants

- Time constraints
- Ethical considerations
- Methodological viability

4. Personal Interest and Expertise

The researcher's genuine interest in the topic and relevant background

knowledge can sustain motivation throughout the research process and
enhance the quality of the work.

5. Potential Impact

Evaluate the potential significance of the research outcomes:

- Practical applications for language teachers

- Influence on educational policies

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

- Contribution to theoretical frameworks in second language acquisition

6. Alignment with Current Educational Contexts

The topic should reflect contemporary educational landscapes, considering

factors such as:

- Technological advancements in language learning

- Changing demographics of language learners
- Evolving global communication needs

7. Interdisciplinary Potential

Consider topics that intersect with other fields (e.g., psychology, sociology,
technology) to broaden the scope and applicability of the research.

Process of Topic Selection

1. Literature Review: Conduct a comprehensive review of current literature

to identify gaps and trends in TESOL/TEFL research.
2. Consultation: Engage with advisors, colleagues, and practitioners in the
field to refine ideas and gain diverse perspectives.
3. Reflection on Personal Experience: Draw upon personal teaching
experiences or observed challenges in language education settings.
4. Consideration of Funding Opportunities: Align the research topic with
potential funding sources or institutional priorities, if applicable.
5. Pilot Study: Consider conducting a small-scale pilot study to test the
viability and interest of the proposed topic.

Conclusion

Selecting an appropriate research topic in TESOL/TEFL requires careful

consideration of multiple factors. By evaluating potential topics against the
criteria outlined above and following a structured selection process,
researchers can identify topics that are not only academically rigorous but also
practically relevant and impactful in the field of language education.

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1.7 Writing a Research Project in Education (TESOL/TEFL)

A research project in education, particularly in TESOL/TEFL, is a systematic
investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge
about language teaching and learning. It typically involves:

• Identifying a specific problem or question in the field of language

education
• Collecting and analysing data using appropriate research
methodologies
• Interpreting findings to draw conclusions and make recommendations.

Research projects and theses, while both are forms of academic inquiry, they
differ significantly in their scope, depth, and purpose within the realm of
TESOL/TEFL studies. A research project typically represents a more focused and
time-bound investigation, often addressing a specific problem or question in
language education, and is commonly undertaken at the undergraduate or
master's level. In contrast, a thesis, particularly at the doctoral level, embodies
a far more comprehensive and original contribution to the field, demanding
years of intensive study and supervision. The distinctions extend beyond mere
length; a thesis requires a substantial original contribution to knowledge, often
challenging or extending existing theoretical frameworks, whereas a research
project may apply established theories to new contexts or explore practical
issues in TESOL/TEFL. Furthermore, the rigorous methodology and extensive
literature review characteristic of a thesis far surpasses the requirements of most
research projects. This difference in depth is reflected in the expected
outcomes: while a research project aims to provide valuable insights or solve
specific problems in language teaching, a thesis is expected to significantly
advance the theoretical or methodological landscape of TESOL/TEFL.
Ultimately, the choice between a research project and a thesis depends on
the academic level, career goals, and the nature of the contribution one aims
to make to the field of English language teaching and learning.

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Dr Mahmoud Abdallah – Research Project in TESOL/TEFL

Planning a research project in TESOL/TEFL is a critical process that demands

meticulous attention to detail and a strategic approach to ensure the study's
success and relevance. The journey begins with the crucial task of identifying
a pertinent research topic, which necessitates a thorough examination of
current trends and gaps in language education research, coupled with a
reflection on personal interests and experiences. This initial step should not be
rushed, as it lays the foundation for the entire project.

Once a topic is selected, conducting a preliminary literature review becomes

imperative, as it not only familiarizes the researcher with existing knowledge
but also helps in refining the research questions and hypotheses. These
questions must be carefully formulated to be clear, focused, and answerable
within the project's scope and timeline. The development of a comprehensive
research proposal follows, outlining the problem statement, methodology, and
timeline, which serves as a roadmap for the entire project. Ethical
considerations cannot be overlooked, requiring researchers to obtain
necessary permissions and ensure participant confidentiality.

Creating a realistic timeline and identifying required resources are equally vital
steps, as they prevent delays and resource shortages that could derail the
project. The data collection and analysis phases require careful planning,
including the design of appropriate instruments and the selection of analysis
methods. Establishing a writing schedule and planning for the dissemination of
findings are often underestimated aspects of project planning, yet they are
crucial for ensuring timely completion and maximizing the impact of the
research. By approaching each of these planning steps with diligence and
foresight, TESOL/TEFL researchers can significantly enhance the quality and
impact of their studies, contributing meaningfully to the field of language
education.

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1.8 Conclusion

In conclusion, Chapter One has laid a solid foundation for understanding the
pivotal role of research in TESOL/TEFL. We began by exploring the importance
of research in enhancing teaching practices, informing educational policies,
and deepening our understanding of language learning processes. The
chapter then navigated through various research approaches, including
qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods, and action research, each offering
unique insights and methodologies suited to different research questions.

We also delved into essential research terminologies, ensuring that readers are
well-equipped to engage with the language of research. The chapter
emphasised the cyclical and iterative nature of the research process,
highlighting key stages from identifying a research problem to interpreting
findings and writing the research report.

By embracing research as an integral part of their professional identity,

TESOL/TEFL educators can become more informed consumers and producers
of knowledge, ultimately contributing to the continuous improvement of
language education. As we move forward, this foundational understanding
will serve as a roadmap, guiding readers through the complexities and
rewarding journey of educational research.

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CHAPTER TWO
Identifying Research Problem and Formulating
Questions & Objectives
In any educational research, the process of identifying a research problem
and formulating clear research questions and objectives is crucial to setting
the foundation for a rigorous and meaningful inquiry. The ability to pinpoint a
relevant, researchable problem reflects a deep understanding of the field, as
well as an awareness of the current gaps in knowledge that require
exploration. This chapter aims to guide master's students through the
systematic process of identifying a research problem that is both significant
and manageable within the scope of their academic pursuit. Furthermore, it
delves into the art of crafting research questions and objectives that are
aligned with the identified problem, ensuring that the research is focused,
coherent, and capable of contributing valuable insights to the educational
community. Through practical examples and theoretical frameworks, this
chapter provides students with the tools needed to navigate the complexities
of early-stage research design and set a solid trajectory for their studies.

Therefore, this chapter focuses on two crucial early stages of the research
process: identifying a research problem and formulating clear research
questions and objectives. These stages are crucial for setting the direction of
your inquiry and providing a framework for subsequent decisions regarding
methodology and data analysis. In the field of Teaching English to Speakers of
Other Languages (TESOL) or Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL),
the ability to identify significant research problems and formulate clear
research questions and objectives is crucial for conducting meaningful and
impactful studies. This guide aims to provide educational researchers with a
structured approach to this critical phase of the research process.

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2.1 Identifying a Research Problem

A research problem is a gap in current knowledge or understanding that your
study aims to address. It is not merely a lack of information but a situation where
existing knowledge is insufficient or inconclusive to address a particular issue.
Identifying a research problem requires careful consideration of your interests,
a thorough review of existing literature, and an awareness of practical and
theoretical considerations.

1-Start with Your Interests: Begin by considering your academic interests and
any specific areas within your field that you find particularly intriguing or
problematic. This could be a topic you've encountered in your coursework, an
issue you've observed in your professional practice, or a question that has
emerged from your personal reflections.

2-Explore Existing Literature: Once you have a broad area of interest, immerse
yourself in the relevant literature. Read widely and critically, paying attention
to the key findings, debates, and theoretical frameworks that have shaped the
current understanding of your chosen topic. As you engage with the literature,
consider these guiding questions:

• What are the key issues and debates surrounding this topic?
• What are the dominant theories and perspectives used to understand
this issue?
• What research methods have been employed, and what are their
strengths and limitations?
• What are the most significant findings and conclusions, and are there
any inconsistencies or contradictions?

3-Identify Gaps and Inconsistencies: The process of reviewing existing literature

should reveal areas where knowledge is lacking, where existing research is
inconclusive or contradictory, or where new perspectives are needed. These
gaps and inconsistencies form the basis of your research problem.

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4-Assess Feasibility and Significance: Not all research problems are equally
feasible or significant. Consider the practicalities of your research project. Do
you have the necessary resources, time, and access to data to conduct this
research effectively? Additionally, consider the potential significance of your
research. Will addressing this problem contribute meaningfully to the field, and
does it align with your research interests and goals?

Practical tips and applications:

Identifying and formulating a research problem in education, particularly in

TESOL/TEFL, requires careful consideration and a structured approach. Here
are some practical tips to guide you through the process:

1. Start with Broad Reading

- Tip: Read widely in your area of interest to identify existing gaps in

knowledge. In TESOL/TEFL, this could include topics such as language
acquisition, teaching methodologies, assessment practices, or curriculum
development.

- Application: Explore recent journal articles, books, and conference papers.

Focus on sections discussing limitations or future research directions to find
potential research problems.

2. Narrow Down to a Specific Context

- Tip: Once you have a general area, narrow your focus to a specific context
that interests you. This might be a particular age group (e.g., secondary school
students), a language skill (e.g., speaking or listening), or a pedagogical
approach (e.g., task-based learning).

- Application: For example, in TESOL, you might focus on how authentic

materials impact listening comprehension among high school students in non-
English-speaking countries.

3. Identify Gaps or Challenges in Practice

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- Tip: Speak with practitioners, educators, and stakeholders to understand

real-world challenges. Practical problems often reveal gaps between
theoretical understanding and classroom realities.

- Application: You may find that many TESOL teachers struggle to implement
technology in low-resource settings, suggesting a gap in understanding how
to integrate digital tools effectively in such environments.

4. Review Past Research

- Tip: Analyse previous studies to identify unresolved issues or limitations. Many

research problems are found in the "limitations" or "future directions" sections of
academic papers.

- Application: If past studies on the flipped classroom model in TESOL have

focused primarily on higher education, consider exploring its impact in
secondary education or in under-researched geographical areas.

5. Ensure Practical and Theoretical Relevance

- Tip: Your research problem should not only address a practical issue but also
contribute to the theoretical knowledge base of the field. Make sure it
advances both theory and practice.

- Application: A problem like “How can dynamic assessment foster autonomy

in EFL learners?” touches both practical classroom issues and theoretical
debates on learner autonomy and assessment.

6. Use the "So What?" Test

- Tip: After identifying a potential research problem, ask yourself: "So what?"
Ensure the problem is significant enough to warrant investigation. It should
have implications for improving practice or informing policy.

- Application: Investigating the effect of storytelling in TESOL is interesting, but

asking “So what?” might reveal that the problem could lead to better
strategies for enhancing cultural literacy in language learners.

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7. Align with Your Resources and Capabilities

- Tip: Ensure that the research problem is manageable within your resources
(time, access to data, participants, etc.) and your methodological expertise.

- Application: If you have limited access to large groups of learners, focus on

a case study or small-scale research problem, such as the influence of peer
feedback on oral proficiency in a specific group of students.

8. Frame the Problem as a Question

- Tip: Once you've identified a research problem, formulate it into a question

that reflects the focus of your study. The question should be clear, concise, and
researchable.

- Application: Instead of “EFL learners struggle with pronunciation,” frame it

as, “How does the use of phonetic software impact pronunciation accuracy
in EFL learners?”

9. Seek Feedback Early

- Tip: Share your initial research problem ideas with peers, supervisors, or
colleagues to get constructive feedback. Early input can help refine your
problem and ensure it is feasible and relevant.

- Application: Discussing your proposed research on how TESOL student

teachers develop cultural competence with peers might reveal alternative
angles or more refined questions you hadn’t considered.

By following these practical steps, you will be able to identify a meaningful and
researchable problem that can contribute to both theoretical understanding
and educational practice in TESOL/TEFL.

2.2 Writing Research Questions & Objectives

Once you have identified a clear research problem, you need to articulate
specific research questions and objectives that will guide your investigation.

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Research questions are the central questions that your study seeks to answer.
They should be:

1. Clear and Concise: Formulated in a way that is easily understandable and

avoids ambiguity.

2. Focused and Specific: Addressing a particular aspect of your research

problem rather than being overly broad.

3. Researchable: Framed in a way that allows for data collection and analysis
to provide answers.

4. Interconnected: Relating to each other in a logical and coherent manner,

forming the core of your research project.

5. Original: Offering a new perspective or building upon existing knowledge in

a meaningful way.

For example, if your research problem is the lack of understanding regarding

how English language learners perceive the effectiveness of online learning
platforms, your research questions might include:

• How do English language learners perceive the effectiveness of online

learning platforms for language acquisition?
• What factors influence English language learners' perceptions of online
learning platforms?
• To what extent do these perceptions align with actual learning
outcomes in online environments?

Types of Research Questions

Descriptive: What are the characteristics of...? Example: "What are the features
of effective online English language teaching for adult learners?"

Comparative: What are the differences between...? Example: "How do task-

based and content-based instruction methods differ in their impact on English
language proficiency among secondary school students?"

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Relationship-based: What is the relationship between...? Example: "What is the

relationship between L1 literacy skills and L2 writing proficiency in adult ESL
learners?"

Causal: What effect does X have on Y? Example: "What effect does the use of
authentic materials have on the development of intercultural communicative
competence in EFL learners?"

Evaluative: How effective is...? Example: "How effective are mobile language
learning applications in improving vocabulary acquisition among beginner-
level English learners

Research objectives outline the specific goals that you aim to achieve through
your research. They should be:

1. Action-Oriented: Using verbs that indicate specific actions, such as

"explore," "investigate," "analyse", "compare," or "evaluate."
2. Measurable: Defined in a way that allows for the assessment of whether
the objectives have been achieved.
3. Attainable: Realistic and achievable within the constraints of your
research project.
4. Relevant: Directly addressing the research problem and contributing to
the overall goals of the study.
5. Time-Bound: Specifying a timeframe within which the objectives are
expected to be met.

Using the previous example, your research objectives might be:

• To explore the perceptions of English language learners regarding the

effectiveness of online learning platforms.
• To identify the key factors that shape English language learners'
perceptions of online learning platforms.
• To compare the perceptions of effectiveness with actual learning
outcomes in online language learning environments.

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2.3 Aligning Research Problem, Questions, and Objectives

The research problem, questions, and objectives are interconnected and
should form a coherent whole. The research problem provides the overarching
context for the study, the research questions articulate the specific inquiries,
and the research objectives outline the steps that will be taken to address
those inquiries. This alignment ensures that your research project is focused,
purposeful, and contributes meaningfully to the field of study.

Thus, identifying research problems and formulating clear research questions

and objectives are foundational steps in conducting meaningful research in
TESOL/TEFL. By following a systematic approach to problem identification and
adhering to the principles of effective question and objective formulation,
researchers can ensure that their studies are well-directed, significant, and
contribute valuable insights to the field of language education.

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CHAPTER THREE
Theoretical Background & Literature Review
3.1 Introduction
A comprehensive and well-executed literature review is not merely a
descriptive summary of previous works, but rather a critical examination that
establishes the context, significance, and originality of your research. It requires
a deep engagement with existing scholarship to demonstrate a nuanced
understanding of the field and to effectively position your own research within
this landscape. A strong theoretical background and a well-executed
literature review are interconnected components of a robust research
foundation. They are not separate entities, but rather, should be interwoven to
create a coherent and persuasive narrative. This chapter provides a detailed
roadmap for constructing a robust theoretical foundation and literature
review, crucial for any high-quality research, particularly in education and
TESOL/TESOL MA studies.

3.2 Importance of Theoretical Background & Literature Review

A literature review is not simply a perfunctory task or a descriptive summary of
prior works, but rather a strategic and analytical process that establishes the
foundation and justifies the need for the research being undertaken. A
comprehensive literature review not only demonstrates a researcher's
command of the field but also illuminates the path for their own investigation.

A primary function of the literature review is to situate your research within the
existing body of knowledge. This involves identifying the key concepts, theories,
and methods that are relevant to your research topic and demonstrating an
understanding of how these elements have been explored in previous studies.
By analysing and synthesizing this prior work, researchers can articulate the
current state of knowledge, identify areas of agreement or disagreement, and
pinpoint gaps, inconsistencies, or limitations that their own research seeks to

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address. This process of positioning your research within the existing literature is
essential for establishing the context and significance of your study, as well as
for demonstrating its originality and potential contribution to the field.

Beyond demonstrating a command of the field, the literature review has a vital
role in shaping the direction of your research. By critically evaluating previous
studies, researchers can identify areas where further investigation is needed,
refine their research questions, and develop testable hypotheses. The literature
review helps to illuminate the methodological landscape of your research
area by showcasing the strengths and weaknesses of different research
designs and analytical approaches. For instance, a review might reveal that a
particular research method, while widely used, has inherent limitations that
your study seeks to overcome by employing a more robust or innovative
approach. This careful analysis of prior research methods provides a strong
justification for the methodological choices made in your own study.

A high-quality literature review is not merely descriptive but critically engaging.

Researchers must go beyond summarizing findings to critically evaluate the
quality and relevance of prior studies. This involves carefully considering the
theoretical frameworks employed, scrutinizing the methodologies used, and
assessing the validity and reliability of the findings. Identifying potential biases,
limitations, or conflicting results in previous studies can help researchers
strengthen their own research design and ensure the robustness of their
findings. For example, a literature review might reveal that previous studies on
a particular topic have relied on small, homogeneous samples, potentially
limiting the generalizability of their findings. Recognizing this limitation,
researchers can design their own study to include a larger, more diverse
sample, thus enhancing the validity and generalizability of their results.

A well-structured literature review guides the reader through the landscape of

existing knowledge, leading to a clear articulation of the research gap or
problem that the study aims to address. The sources offer helpful strategies for
organizing the literature review, including a thematic approach, where studies

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are grouped around key concepts, theories, or research questions. This

thematic organization enables researchers to draw meaningful connections
between studies, highlight areas of consensus or debate, and provide a
coherent narrative that leads to the rationale for their own research.

3.3 Goals & Purposes

A literature review serves multiple vital purposes. First and foremost, it
showcases your familiarity with the existing research on your chosen topic,
demonstrating that you are well-versed in the key concepts, theories, methods,
and findings relevant to your study. This is not achieved through a mere listing
of sources but through a synthesis of knowledge, where you identify
connections, contradictions, and potential gaps in the existing literature.

Second, a literature review establishes the context and significance of your

research. By analyzing previous studies, you can identify the key questions that
have been addressed, the methodologies employed, and the conclusions
drawn. This allows you to position your own research within this broader
conversation, highlighting how your study builds upon, extends, or challenges
existing knowledge.

Third, a literature review plays a crucial role in shaping your research question
and justifying your methodological choices. By identifying gaps in the literature,
highlighting areas of debate or controversy, and analysing the strengths and
weaknesses of previous research designs, you can articulate the need for your
specific study and provide a rationale for your chosen approach.

3.4 Writing a Theoretical Background

Define Your Territory: Clearly articulate the theoretical framework underpinning
your research. This involves identifying the key concepts, theories, and models
directly relevant to your study. This framework serves as the compass guiding
your research questions, methodology, and data analysis.

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Illustrative Example: If your research explores the impact of teacher feedback

on EFL learners' writing, your theoretical framework might encompass
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, focusing on the zone of proximal development,
and Hattie's Visible Learning principles, emphasizing the importance of
effective feedback strategies.

3.5 How to Write a Literature Review

1-Synthesizing Existing Knowledge: A literature review critically analyses and
synthesizes existing research on your topic, demonstrating a nuanced
understanding of the field.

2-Structure and Rigour: Ensure your literature review is well-structured, logically

progressing from broad overviews to specific studies directly relevant to your
research. Adopt a critical lens, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of
different studies, comparing and contrasting varying perspectives, and
pinpointing any gaps or controversies in the literature. This not only showcases
your grasp of the subject but also highlights the significance and originality of
your research.

3-Prioritize Primary Sources: While secondary sources provide context, prioritize

the analysis of landmark primary studies, recent publications, and influential
papers within your field.

4-Stay Abreast of Current Research: Utilize keywords related to your research

area to search databases like Google Scholar for the latest publications,
ensuring your literature review reflects the most up-to-date knowledge.

Practical Strategies for a Compelling Literature Review

1-Thematic Organization: Organize your literature review thematically,

clustering studies around key themes or concepts directly related to your
research question. This enhances clarity and allows for a more focused
analysis.

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For example, if your research examines the use of technology in promoting EFL
learners' speaking skills, potential themes could include: Technology and
Second Language Acquisition, Computer-Mediated Communication and
Oral Fluency Development, and Teacher and Learner Perceptions of
Technology-Enhanced Speaking Activities.

2-Critical Evaluation: Avoid merely summarizing sources. Instead, delve into

their strengths and weaknesses, juxtapose different viewpoints, and identify
any research gaps or limitations.

For instance, when discussing the effectiveness of a particular language

learning app, critically evaluate its pedagogical underpinnings, research
evidence, and potential limitations in terms of learner diversity and context.

3-Synthesis and Connection: Draw meaningful connections between different

studies, highlighting the interplay between various theories and concepts.
Clearly articulate how the reviewed literature leads to and substantiates your
research questions.

For example, you might connect the increasing prevalence of mobile-assisted

language learning to the growing body of research on its effectiveness in
fostering vocabulary acquisition, ultimately leading to your research question
on the impact of a specific app on EFL learners' lexical development.

4-Identify Research Gaps: Analyse the literature to pinpoint gaps, limitations, or

unanswered questions that your research aims to address. This underscores the
need and originality of your study.

Aligning Theory and Practice

1-Connecting the Dots: Establish a transparent link between your theoretical

framework and the chosen research methodology. Explain how the
methodology will allow you to effectively investigate your research questions
through the lens of your theoretical framework.

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For instance, if your theoretical framework emphasizes the social and

collaborative nature of language learning, and your research explores the
effectiveness of pair and group work in EFL classrooms, explain how your
chosen methodology, perhaps classroom observation or interviews, will allow
you to gather data on student interaction patterns, language production, and
learning outcomes.

Writing Style: Clarity and Coherence

1-Clarity is King: Present your theoretical background and literature review in

a clear, concise, and well-organized manner. Utilize appropriate headings and
subheadings to guide the reader, and maintain a logical flow of ideas.

2-Consider using the "inverted triangle" approach, starting with broader

concepts and progressively narrowing your focus to specific studies and
findings, ultimately culminating in a clear articulation of your research
questions or hypotheses.

3-Effective Signposting: Guide your reader through your chapter using clear
signposting. Phrases like "This chapter will explore...", "The literature suggests...",
"However, other studies contend...", and "The following section will analyse..."
enhance the flow and coherence of your writing.

4-Referencing: Maintaining Academic Integrity

5-Accuracy is Paramount: Consistently and meticulously reference all sources

using a recognized style guide, such as APA, ensuring academic integrity and
providing appropriate credit to the authors.

By following these guidelines, you can construct a robust and insightful

literature review chapter, setting the stage for a compelling and impactful
research project. Remember, your theoretical background and literature
review are not merely boxes to be ticked but rather essential components that
ground your research in existing knowledge and pave the way for original
contributions to your field.

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CHAPTER FOUR
Research Methodology & Design
4.1 Introduction
This chapter addresses the crucial aspects of research methodology and
design, guiding TESOL/TEFL researchers in making informed decisions to
execute rigorous and impactful studies. Chapter 3 of an educational
academic thesis is where you describe the research methodology and
procedures you used to conduct your study. The purpose of this chapter is to
explain how you designed and implemented your research, what data
collection and analysis methods you employed, and how you ensured the
validity and reliability of your results.

4.2 Selecting the Right Methodology & Research Design

Research methodology refers to the theoretical framework and philosophical
assumptions that underpin your study, influencing how you approach the
research problem, the types of questions you ask, and the methods you use to
collect and analyse data. It encompasses the overall plan and structure of
your research, outlining the steps involved in addressing your research
questions or hypotheses.

The choice of methodology is paramount, as it determines the nature and

scope of your research and the type of knowledge you aim to generate.
Common methodologies in TESOL/TEFL research include:

Quantitative Research: This approach emphasizes objective measurements

and statistical analysis of numerical data to test hypotheses and establish
generalizable patterns. Experiments, surveys, and statistical analysis of large-
scale datasets are common methods employed in quantitative research.

Example: A researcher might conduct an experiment to investigate the

effectiveness of a new vocabulary teaching method compared to a
traditional method, measuring vocabulary growth in both groups using
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standardized tests and statistically analysing the results to determine if the new
method leads to significant improvements.

Qualitative Research: This approach explores complex social phenomena

through in-depth data collection and analysis of textual or visual data,
focusing on understanding experiences, perspectives, and meanings.
Common methods include interviews, focus groups, observations, case
studies, and analysis of documents or discourse.

Example: A researcher might conduct interviews with English language

learners to explore their experiences and challenges in developing writing skills,
analysing the interview transcripts to identify recurring themes and patterns
related to their learning processes, strategies, and perceptions.

Mixed Methods Research: This approach combines both quantitative and

qualitative methods to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the
research problem. For instance, a study might use a survey to collect
quantitative data on language learning strategies used by a large sample of
students, followed by qualitative interviews with a smaller group of students to
explore their experiences with these strategies in more depth.

Key Considerations When Selecting a Methodology

Research Questions: The nature of your research questions should guide your
choice of methodology. If your questions explore the effectiveness of an
intervention or seek to establish relationships between variables, a quantitative
approach might be appropriate. If your questions aim to understand
experiences, perspectives, or the processes underlying a phenomenon, a
qualitative approach might be more suitable.

Research Goals: Consider the type of knowledge you aim to generate. If your
goal is to produce generalizable findings that can be applied to a wider
population, a quantitative approach might be preferable. If your goal is to

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gain a rich, nuanced understanding of a particular context or group, a

qualitative approach may be more fitting.

Resources and Time Constraints: The resources available to you, including time,
funding, and access to participants, can also influence your methodological
choices. Quantitative studies often require larger sample sizes and
standardized data collection instruments, which can be more resource-
intensive. Qualitative studies, while often less resource-intensive in terms of
sample size, demand significant time for data collection, transcription, and
analysis.

Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations are paramount in any research

study, and the chosen methodology should minimize any potential harm to
participants. Ensure that your research plan adheres to ethical guidelines and
principles of informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity, particularly
when collecting data from human subjects.

4.3 Research Design: Planning Your Study

Once you have selected a methodology, you need to develop a detailed
research design. A well-structured research design ensures that your study is:

Feasible: Given your resources and time constraints.

Ethical: Protects the rights and well-being of participants.

Rigorous: Yields valid and reliable data to answer your research questions.

Essential Elements of a Robust Research Design

Research Questions or Hypotheses: Clearly state the specific research

questions or hypotheses your study aims to address.

Participants: Define your target population and describe the sampling method
used to select participants. Provide a rationale for your sampling choices,
addressing issues such as sample size, representativeness, and generalizability.
Example: If you are investigating the effectiveness of a new pronunciation

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activity for EFL learners, you need to specify the age, proficiency level, and
linguistic background of your target population. You also need to describe
how you will select participants for your study. Will you use random sampling,
purposive sampling, or a combination of methods? Each sampling method has
implications for the generalizability of your findings.

Data Collection Instruments: Describe the tools and techniques used to collect
data, such as questionnaires, interviews, observations, or tests. Justify your
selection of instruments, highlighting their strengths and limitations for your
specific research context. Detail how you will ensure the validity and reliability
of your data. Example: If you are using questionnaires, describe the types of
questions used (e.g., multiple-choice, Likert-scale, open-ended) and how you
will ensure their clarity, relevance, and cultural appropriateness. If you are
conducting interviews, outline the interview protocol, including the key
questions and probes you will use to elicit rich, detailed responses from your
participants.

Data Analysis Procedures: Describe the methods used to analyse your data.
Quantitative data analysis might involve statistical techniques such as t-tests,
ANOVA, or regression analysis. Qualitative data analysis might involve
techniques such as thematic analysis, discourse analysis, or grounded theory.
Explain how your chosen analytical approach aligns with your research
questions and the type of data collected.

Ethical Considerations: Address ethical considerations related to your research

design and data collection procedures. Describe how you will obtain informed
consent from participants, ensure confidentiality and anonymity, and minimize
any potential risks or harm.

Timeline: Create a realistic timeline for completing the different stages of your
research

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4.4 Structure of the Research Methodology Chapter

The structure of this chapter may vary depending on your discipline, research
questions, and chosen methodology, but it typically includes the following
sections:

- Introduction: This section provides an overview of the chapter and its main
objectives. It also briefly summarizes the research problem, questions, and
hypotheses that guide your study.

- Research Design: This section describes the overall approach and rationale
of your research. It explains what type of research you conducted (e.g.,
qualitative, quantitative, mixed-methods, etc.), why you chose this design, and
how it aligns with your research questions and hypotheses.

- Research Context: This section provides the background and setting of your
study. It describes where, when, and how you conducted your research, who
were your participants or sample, and what ethical issues or challenges you
faced or addressed.

- Data Collection Methods: This section details the specific methods and tools
you used to collect your data. It explains what data sources you used (e.g.,
surveys, interviews, observations, documents, etc.), how you selected them,
how you accessed them, how you prepared them for analysis, and how you
ensured their quality and credibility.

- Data Analysis Methods: This section describes the techniques and

procedures you used to analyse your data. It explains what analytical methods
you applied (e.g., descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, thematic analysis,
content analysis, etc.), how you performed them, what software or tools you
used, and how you interpreted and presented your findings.

- Summary: This section concludes the chapter by highlighting the main points
and implications of your research methodology and procedures. It also

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discusses the limitations and delimitations of your study, as well as the ethical
considerations and potential biases that may affect your results.

4.5 Components & Procedures

Chapter 3 of an academic thesis, often titled "Research Methodology &
Procedures," is a critical section where you outline the research methods you
employed to address your research questions or objectives. This chapter
provides a comprehensive overview of the approach you adopted to collect
data, analyse it, and draw conclusions. Here are some detailed and useful tips
to help you write Chapter 3 effectively:

1. Start with an Introduction:

Begin the chapter with a brief introduction that highlights the purpose of the
research methodology chapter. Explain why the chosen research methods are
appropriate for answering the research questions or achieving the research
objectives.

2. Provide a Research Design Overview:

Describe the overall research design you employed. Discuss whether your
study is quantitative, qualitative, or a combination of both (mixed methods).
Justify your choice based on the nature of the research questions and the data
required to answer them effectively.

3. Describe the Research Approach:

Explain whether your research follows an inductive or deductive approach.

Inductive research involves deriving general conclusions from specific
observations, while deductive research starts with a hypothesis and tests it
against empirical evidence. Clarify why you chose a particular approach and
how it aligns with your research objectives.

4. Explain the Sampling Technique:

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Detail the sampling technique used to select participants or data sources.

Provide a rationale for your sampling method (e.g., probability sampling,
purposive sampling, convenience sampling) and explain how it supports the
generalizability and validity of your findings. Discuss any limitations or potential
biases associated with your chosen sampling technique.

5. Describe Data Collection Procedures:

Explain how you collected data for your study. If using surveys, interviews,
observations, or experiments, provide a step-by-step description of the
procedures followed. Include information about the data collection tools used
(questionnaires, interview guides, etc.) and any modifications made to existing
instruments. Address issues of reliability and validity and discuss measures taken
to ensure data quality.

6. Present Data Analysis Techniques:

Discuss the analytical techniques employed to process and interpret the

collected data. If using quantitative methods, specify the statistical tests,
software, and procedures utilized. For qualitative research, describe the
process of coding, categorizing, and analysing textual or visual data. Justify
your choices by explaining how they align with your research questions and
data characteristics.

7. Address Ethical Considerations:

Describe any ethical considerations or potential risks associated with your

research. If human subjects were involved, explain how informed consent was
obtained and how confidentiality and privacy were ensured. If using
secondary data, discuss the sources' credibility and any copyright issues.
Demonstrate that your research complies with ethical standards and review
board guidelines.

8. Discuss Data Limitations:

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Acknowledge any limitations of your data collection or analysis methods.

Address potential biases, sample size constraints, and any other factors that
might affect the generalizability or validity of your findings. Demonstrate your
awareness of these limitations and their potential impact on the study's
outcomes.

9. Provide a Summary:

Conclude the chapter by summarizing the key elements discussed,

emphasizing the strengths of your chosen research methodology, and how it
aligns with your research goals. Briefly mention how the methodology chapter
sets the stage for the subsequent analysis and interpretation of the data.

10. Maintain Clarity and Coherence:

Throughout the chapter, ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and well-
structured. Use headings and subheadings to organize the content and guide
the reader. Clearly explain technical terms and provide definitions or examples
where necessary. Use appropriate citations to support your choices of research
methods and techniques.

Remember that these tips are general guidelines, and the specific
requirements of your academic institution or discipline may vary. Always
consult your supervisor or department guidelines for any specific instructions or
preferences for writing Chapter 3 of your thesis.

Methodology Chapter is the core of any thesis. you discuss how you performed
the study in great detail. It should be written like a recipe so that anyone could
adopt your techniques and replicate your investigation.

It outlines specific methods chosen by a researcher to investigate a problem.

Besides, you need to explain the chosen methods and justify them, describe
the research setting, and give a detailed explanation of how you applied
those methods in your study.

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Research Design and Methodology consists of three parts: (1) Purpose of the
study and research design, (2) Methods, and (3) Statistical Data analysis
procedure.

Part one, Purpose of the study and Research Design, relates the purpose of the
study and describes the research design and the variables used in this study.

Part two, Methods, describes the participants, the data-gathering materials

and the research procedure used in the study. You need to explain what
techniques were used for data collection and provide an analysis of the results
to answer your research question.

Part three, statistical data analysis procedures, reports the procedure for
scoring and the statistical analysis used to interpret the hypothesis.

Example of outline for chapter 3

Introduction, stating the purpose of the part, introducing the methods, and
outlining the section’s organization.

Research questions, hypothesis, and variables.

Research design – describe the investigation approach and justify specific

chosen methods, citing relevant literature.

Study setting – describe the role of the researcher in gathering data.

Study participants and data sources – explain criteria and strategies used
when selecting participants and describe systems used for collecting and
storing information.

Procedures and instruments – demonstrate methods and state each step for
performing the study in detail.

Data analysis – discuss statistical tools and methods applied to analyse

information and measures to increase validity.

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Summary of the key points: eventually, If you make a mistake in explaining your
research methods, it can make your findings invalid.

4.6 Conclusion
This chapter has provided a comprehensive overview of research
methodology and design, equipping TESOL/TEFL researchers with the
knowledge and tools to conduct rigorous and meaningful studies. By carefully
considering your research questions, selecting an appropriate methodology,
and developing a detailed research design, you can ensure that your study
effectively addresses the research problem and contributes valuable insights
to the field. Remember that research is an iterative process, and your research
design should be flexible enough to adapt to unexpected challenges or new
discoveries that arise during the research journey.

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CHAPTER FIVE
Research Results & Discussion
5.1 Introduction
This chapter guides you through the crucial stages of presenting and
interpreting your research findings, enabling you to communicate your
research effectively to the TESOL/TEFL community. The chapter emphasises the
importance of a clear, concise, and compelling presentation of results,
whether derived from quantitative or qualitative analyses. It explores the
significance of grounding your discussion in the research literature, critically
evaluating your findings, and highlighting their implications for theory,
research, and practice.

The analysis and presentation of research data are not merely technical
exercises but integral aspects of the research process that demand rigour,
transparency, and intellectual honesty. Researchers have an ethical
responsibility to ensure that their data analysis is thorough and accurate,
avoiding selective or misleading interpretations. The chapter provides
practical guidance on how to organise and present your findings in a way that
is accessible, engaging, and informative for your target audience. It
underscores the importance of using visual aids, such as tables and figures,
effectively to present complex data in a clear and concise manner.

Furthermore, this chapter emphasises that the discussion section is not merely
a summary of findings but a space for critical analysis, interpretation, and
synthesis. You should engage with the existing research literature, comparing
and contrasting your findings with previous studies and highlighting the unique
contributions your research makes to the field. It's important to acknowledge
the limitations of your study and address any unexpected findings, offering
plausible explanations and suggesting avenues for future research. The
chapter concludes by reiterating the importance of drawing meaningful
conclusions that stem directly from your findings, highlighting their practical

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implications for TESOL/TEFL practitioners and outlining potential avenues for

further investigation.

5.2 General Tips & Guidelines

1. Start with a clear introduction that summarizes the main findings and
contributions of your research. Explain how your research questions and
hypotheses were addressed and answered by your data analysis.
2. Organize your results and discussion into logical sections that correspond
to your research objectives or sub-questions. Use headings and
subheadings to guide the reader through your chapter.
3. Present your results using appropriate tables, figures, charts, graphs, or
other visual aids. Make sure to label and caption them properly and refer
to them in the text. Explain what each result means and how it relates to
your research question or hypothesis.
4. Discuss the implications and significance of your results in relation to the
existing literature and theory. Compare and contrast your findings with
those of other studies and explain any similarities or differences. Highlight
any new insights or contributions that your research provides to the field
of study.
5. Address any limitations or challenges that may affect the validity or
reliability of your results. Acknowledge any potential sources of bias,
error, or uncertainty in your data collection or analysis. Explain how you
dealt with them or how they could be overcome in future research.
6. End with a concise conclusion that summarizes the main points of your
chapter and links them to the next chapter. Provide a clear answer to
your main research question and state the main implications and
recommendations of your research.

5.3 Specific Tips & Procedures

Writing Chapter 4, the Research Results & Discussion, in an educational
academic thesis requires a systematic and comprehensive approach. This
chapter plays a crucial role in presenting and interpreting the findings of your

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research. Here are some detailed and useful tips to help you write an effective
Chapter 4 in your thesis:

1. Structure your chapter:

- Start with an introduction: Begin the chapter by providing a brief

overview of the research objectives and restate the research questions
or hypotheses.
- Present the results: Present your research findings in a logical and
organized manner. Use clear headings and subheadings to guide the
reader through the different sections of the chapter.
- Analyse and interpret the results: After presenting the results, provide an
analysis and interpretation of the data. Explain the significance of the
findings and relate them to your research questions or hypotheses.
- Compare your results with previous research: Discuss how your results
align or differ from previous studies in the field. Identify any
inconsistencies or contradictions and explain potential reasons for these
variations.
- Discuss limitations: Acknowledge the limitations of your research and
explain how they may have affected the results. This demonstrates a
critical understanding of your study's scope and helps establish the need
for further research.
- Summarize the key findings: End the chapter by summarizing the main
findings of your study. Connect these findings back to your research
questions or hypotheses and provide a sense of closure.

2. Use appropriate visuals: Incorporate tables, charts, graphs, or figures to

enhance the presentation of your results. Visual representations can make
complex data more accessible and facilitate a better understanding for your
readers. Ensure that all visuals are clearly labelled, referenced in the text, and
properly explained.

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3. Provide detailed explanations: When discussing your findings, offer detailed

explanations for each result. Avoid merely presenting the data without
analysis. Describe the patterns, trends, or relationships that emerge from your
research and provide relevant supporting evidence or examples.

4. Support your claims with evidence: Use specific examples or quotations from
your data to support the claims you make during the discussion. Referencing
the data directly helps strengthen the credibility of your arguments and allows
readers to evaluate the validity of your interpretations.

5. Be objective and balanced: Present your findings objectively, even if they

contradict your initial expectations or hypotheses. Acknowledge any
unexpected or negative results and offer possible explanations for them. It is
essential to maintain a balanced and unbiased perspective throughout the
chapter.

6. Relate your findings to existing theories or literature: Situate your findings

within the existing body of knowledge. Discuss how your results align or diverge
from previous theories or studies. Identify any gaps in the literature that your
research addresses and highlight the contributions of your study to the field.

7. Address alternative explanations: Consider alternative interpretations or

explanations for your results. Discuss any potential confounding variables or
limitations that might affect the validity of your findings. By acknowledging and
addressing alternative explanations, you demonstrate a thorough analysis of
your research.

8. Be concise and focused: While it's crucial to provide sufficient detail, avoid
unnecessary repetition or excessive data presentation. Keep your discussion
focused on the research questions or hypotheses and stay within the scope of
your study. Use clear and concise language to convey your ideas effectively.

9. Use citations and references: Support your analysis and interpretation with
relevant citations and references to the existing literature. Cite the sources you

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used to inform your research design and methodology, as well as studies that
support or challenge your findings. Follow the appropriate citation style (e.g.,
APA, MLA) as required by your institution.

10. Seek feedback and revisions: After completing your initial draft, seek
feedback from your advisor, committee members, or other experts in your field.
Incorporate their suggestions and revise your chapter accordingly. Iterative
revisions and feedback will enhance the clarity and coherence of your
research results and discussion.

Remember, Chapter 4 is a critical section of your educational academic thesis,

as it presents and interprets the findings of your research. By following these
tips, you can effectively communicate the results of your study and contribute
to the existing knowledge in your field.

5.4 Conclusion
Chapter 4 of an educational academic thesis is typically where the researcher
presents the results of their study and discusses their implications. This is a critical
chapter, as it is where the researcher demonstrates the value of their work and
provides evidence to support their conclusions.

Here are some final tips on how to write a strong Chapter 4:

• Start by re-stating the purpose of your study and the research questions
you were trying to answer. This will help to orient the reader and provide
context for the results that you are about to present.
• Present your results in a clear and concise way. Use tables, figures, and
other visuals to help illustrate your findings. Be sure to label all of your
tables and figures clearly and provide a brief explanation of what they
show.
• Discuss the implications of your results. How do your findings contribute
to the existing body of knowledge? What are the practical implications
of your research?

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• Compare your results to the findings of other studies. This will help to
contextualize your findings and demonstrate the extent to which they
are consistent with or diverge from previous research.
• Consider the limitations of your study. What factors could have
influenced your results? What are some areas for future research?
• Write in a clear and concise style. Avoid using jargon or technical
language that your reader may not understand.
• Proofread your work carefully before submitting it. Make sure that there
are no errors in grammar or spelling.
• Here are some additional tips that are specific to educational research:
• Use educational theories and frameworks to frame your discussion. This
will help to demonstrate the relevance of your findings to the field of
education.
• Consider the implications of your findings for educational practice. How
can your findings be used to improve teaching and learning?
• References: Cite all of the sources that you used in your research. This will
help to demonstrate the rigor of your work and provide your reader with
a starting point for further research.
By following these tips, you can write a Chapter 4 that is clear, concise, and
informative. This will help you to make a strong case for the value of your
research and contribute to the field of educational research.

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CHAPTER SIX
Academic Writing
6.1 Introduction
Generally, writing is a language skill, an everyday practice, a form of literacy,
a communicative activity, and sometimes a means through which learners
can be assessed, especially within the Egyptian context. As a method of
communication, for example, writing can be used to establish and maintain
contact with others, transmit information, express thoughts, feelings, and
reactions, entertain, and persuade. As a personal or private activity, it can be
a powerful tool for learning and remembering. It can be used to explore and
refine ideas, organise thoughts, and record information. At school, learners are
usually asked to use writing to display what they know, and thus, writing
becomes the medium through which pupil learning is measured (Browne, 1999:
p2).

Therefore, people write for different reasons and in a wide range of contexts.
They normally write in order to:

❖ Get their message across;

❖ Convey important information and facts to others;
❖ Communicate their own intentions and purposes;
❖ Help and support others;
❖ Prove that they have mastered something;
❖ Put ideas on paper so that they are not lost;
❖ Plan for doing something by creating a schedule or timetable;
❖ Guide and direct others;
❖ Succeed in life and pass tests;
❖ Modify and re-draft something;
❖ Make money and earn living;
❖ Express themselves;
❖ Socialise and participate in different events;

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❖ Organise ideas and say what one cannot communicate orally;

❖ Share ideas and experiences with others;
❖ State reflections and jot down personal diaries;
❖ Teach/Train others and provide them with feedback;
❖ Learn and internalise some linguistic aspects (e.g., vocabulary and
grammar); and
❖ Simplify something.

According to Harmer (2007), composing or writing in a foreign language is

always a demanding process where language learners need to employ many
skills and strategies. As a productive skill, writing draws on other language skills
such as listening and reading. That is why language teachers usually delay it
until their students have done a great deal of listening and reading in the
target language.

In its simplest form, writing may take the form of notation: copying in
conventional graphic form something already written, or reproducing in
written form something that has been read or heard. This act hardly involves
anything more than the ability to use the writing system of the language.
Writing in the language becomes more complicated when it involves writing
meaningful segments of language which might be used in specific
circumstances by native speakers. This is the type of writing involved in things
like grammatical exercises, the construction of simple dialogues, and dictation.
In its most highly developed form, writing refers to the conveying of information
or the expression of original ideas in the target language. These distinctions
among the types of writing activities reflect the major areas of learning
involved in the writing process. Students must learn the graphic system and be
able to spell according to the conventions of language. They must learn to
control the structure according the canons of good writing. They must learn to
select from among possible combinations of words and phrases those which
will convey the meaning they have in mind (Rivers, 1981).

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Furthermore, it is important to be aware of the differences between spoken

and written language. When people speak, they normally seem more relaxed
and less formal. They are likely to express themselves in a simple language
which is full of hesitations, pauses, repetitions, etc. In this regard, Holliday (1985)
and Nunan (1991) state some of the features that distinguish spoken from
written texts:

❖ Spoken language sounds simpler than written language; Transcriptions

of spoken language look less structured because they represent
‘unedited’ language. The lexical density of written texts (i.e. the number
of lexical or content words per clause) makes writing seem more
complex;
❖ Spoken forms are in a sense more basic than the written forms; in writing,
we have normally altered the normal state of events;
❖ Compared with speech, writing is often de-contextualised; in
communicating a message, writers are usually distant in time and place
from the person(s) with whom they wish to communicate. Because of
this lack of direct contact with the reader, they are unable to make use
of feedback from others to adjust their message;
❖ People usually exert more effort during writing as they do their best to
clarify their message. This absence of the physical and paralinguistic
features that the speaker uses to support his/her utterance adds burdens
to the writer.

‘Academic writing’ always refers to this serious, scholarly type of writing

that is intended for academic purposes. Simply put, academic writing is
writing done by scholars for other scholars—and that includes you. As a
college student, you are engaged in activities that scholars have been
engaged in for centuries: you will read about, think about, argue about, and
write about great ideas. Of course, being a scholar requires that you read,

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think, argue, and write in certain ways. You will need to make and support
your claims according to the expectations of the academic community.

6.2 Development of Ideas and Paragraphs

In composition, development refers to the process of adding informative

and illustrative details to support the main idea in a paragraph or essay.
Depending on the writing genre and type of composition, I think that there
are many ways through which body paragraphs can develop the theme or
main idea (i.e. topic sentence): (1) developing the theme through examples;
(2) developing the theme through description; (3) developing the theme
through contrast; (4) developing the idea through comparison; and (5)
developing the essay through narration.

I think that the main idea here is that the topic sentence alone is not
sufficient to provide a complete argument. The reader might need to see
more details which would definitely explore the topic more to clarify it. This
elaboration might take the form of examples, description, contrast, etc.

A-Paragraph development by examples

Sometimes a paragraph is developed by examples. The example paragraph

is a kind of list paragraph, in which example sentences closely support the
topic sentence. According to Rosa & Eschholz (2012), illustration is the use
of examples to make ideas more concrete and to make generalizations more
specific and detailed. Examples enable writers not just to tell but to show
what they mean.

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Examine the following paragraphs:

• Example 1:
Effective Writing: A Must in Universities

The ability to write well organised, concise paragraphs is essential to a

student’s success in almost all university courses. In preparing scientific
reports of laboratory experiments, a student must present his findings in a
logical order and clear language in order to receive a favourable evaluation
of his work. To write successful answers to essay questions on history or
anthropology examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and
opinions according to some accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And
certainly when a student writes a book report for English, or a critique for
political studies, or a term paper for sociology, style and organisation are often
as important as content. Clearly skill in expository writing is crucial to
successful achievement in most university subjects.

The key words or ideas in the first two sentences of the paragraph are in
bold.

• Example 2 (a paragraph written by a student):

My Morbid Imagination

My family is convinced that I inherited my imagination from Edgar Allan

Poe. For example, when I was in kindergarten, I dreamed that my sister killed
people with a television antenna and disposed of their bodies in the woods
across the street from my house. For three weeks after that dream I stayed with
my grandparents until they finally convinced me that my sister was harmless.
Not long afterward, my grandfather died, and that sparked new fears. I was so
terrified that his ghost would visit me that I put two brooms across the
doorway of my bedroom at night. Fortunately, my little trick worked. He never

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came back. More recently, I was terribly frightened after staying up late one
night to watch The Ring. I lay awake until dawn clutching my cell phone, ready
to dial 911 the moment that spooky little girl stepped out of my TV. Just
thinking about it now gives me goose bumps.

Example 3 (a model essay developed by examples):

The Successful Interview

To be successful in a job interview (or for that matter in almost any interview
situation), you should demonstrate certain personal and professional qualities.
You need to create a good image in the limited time available, usually from 30
to 45 minutes. Furthermore, you must make a positive impression which the
interviewer will remember while he interviews other applicants. At all times,
you should present your most attractive qualities during an interview.

You should, for example, take care to appear well-groomed and modestly
dressed, avoiding the extremes of too elaborate or too casual attire. On the
positive side, clothes may be a good leveller, putting you on a par with other
applicants and requiring the interviewer to consider more important
qualifications. On the other hand, clothes which are too informal may convey
the impression that you are not serious about the job or that you may be casual
about your work as well as your dress. Clothes which are too elaborate, too
colourful, or too expensive suggest that you do not understand what behaviour
is appropriate for the job or that you are snobbish or frivolous. The right
clothes worn at the right time, however, gain the respect of the interviewer and
his confidence in your judgement. It may not be true that 'clothes make the
man,' but the first and often lasting impression of you is determined by the
clothes you wear.

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Besides care for personal appearance, you should pay close attention to your
manner of speaking. Since speech is a reflection of personality, you should
reflect confidence by speaking in a clear voice, loud enough to be heard without
being aggressive or overpowering. Your speech should not call attention to
itself, but it should reveal the individuality and ability of the speaker. Obviously,
you must speak without grammatical or dialect differences for which you
might be criticised or which might cause embarrassment to the employer.
Although there are cultural differences with respect to the formality of the job
interview, your speech must show you to be a friendly and pleasant person.

Speaking without a subject worth talking about will not impress anyone. You
should be prepared to talk knowledgeably about the requirement of the
position for which you are applying in relation to your own professional
experiences and interests. Knowing something about the position enables you
ask intelligent questions about the work and the requirements for the job. The
interviewer can decide from the questions asked whether you are genuinely
interested or knowledgeable. You can comment on your own training,
experience, and other qualifications in relation to the specific tasks of the
position. The interviewer can determine whether your background and
potential seem to fit the position. The position for which you are applying is not
only the safest topic for discussion, it is essential that you demonstrate your
understanding of the requirements and your abilities in meeting these
requirements.

Finally, to be really impressive, you must convey a sense of self-confidence and

enthusiasm for work. As already indicated, you demonstrate self-confidence by
your manner of speech and dress. You further show it by being prepared for the
interview with information and questions about the position. In addition, the
way you enter the room, sit, look at the interviewer, and fill out application

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forms and other papers may express self-confidence. The eagerness with which
you discuss the job rather than the salary may reveal your enthusiasm for
work. You may express it also through your questions and comments about
working conditions and facilities. And, of course, your previous experiences and
success will tell the interviewer about your enthusiasm for work. Both of these
qualities – self-confidence and enthusiasm for work – are valued highly by all
interviewers.

The appropriately dressed job applicant indicates his sound judgement. His
manner of speaking suggests his friendliness and competence. His curiosity and
information about the position he is seeking demonstrate his sincerity and
potential in the job. He exhibits self-confidence through his knowledge, and he
shows his enthusiasm for work. If you display these characteristics, with just a
little luck, you will certainly succeed in the typical personnel interview.

Outline & Analysis

The Successful Interview

Important personal and professional qualities

A good image in a short time TP

A lasting impression

Attractive qualities

Well-groomed and modestly dressed

Not too elaborate EP1

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Not too casual

Right clothes gain respect

Manner of speaking

Clear and loud enough

Without grammatical or dialect differences EP2

Friendly and pleasant

Know something about the job

Requirements for the position EP3

Experience and knowledge

Self-confidence and enthusiasm

Be prepared for the interview EP4

Show your interest in the job

Dress

Speech

Sincerity RP

Self-confidence

(Succeeding in the interview)

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Abbreviations: TS (Topic Sentence); TP (Topic Paragraph); EP (Example

Paragraph); and RP (Restatement Paragraph).

B-Paragraph development by comparison

A comparison paragraph, as its name indicates, compares similar aspects or
qualities of two subjects. Two different procedures are followed while
writing down comparison paragraphs:

1. An example related to one subject (A) alternates with an example

related to another subject (B);
2. All examples of subject A are listed together, followed by all examples
of subject B.
In addition to the topic sentence (TP), the example sentence (E), and the
restatement sentence (RS), additional sentence types may be used in writing
comparison paragraphs:

1. A topic introducer (TI) might be used, followed by TS that states

more specifically the basis of comparison;
2. Transition sentences (Tr) may be used to change from one point of
view to another; from one set of ideas to another; or from one subject
to another

• Example 1: (1st procedure: alternating examples of A & B)

From Paragraph to Essay

Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are
quite similar structurally. For example, the paragraph is introduced by
either a topic sentence or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence. In
the essay, the first paragraph provides introductory material and
establishes the topic focus. Next, the sentences in the body of a paragraph

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develop the topic sentence. Similarly, the body of an essay consist of a

number of paragraphs that expand and support the ideas presented in the
introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator – whether a restatement,
conclusion, or observation – ends the paragraph. The essay, too, has a device
which brings the ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying
completion: the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these
generalisations may be observed in modern creative writing, most well
written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in structure.

Now discuss this: Does this paragraph include the necessary parts
discussed – topic sentence, developers, and terminator? Identify
them!

• Example 2: (2nd procedure: listing all examples of A followed by

those of B)

The Objective Test and the Essay Exam

In college and university courses, the objective test and the essay exam are two
contrasting methods of evaluation commonly used to measure a student’s
grasp of subject matter. The objective test usually consists of a large number
of unrelated questions that require the student to demonstrate mastery of
details. It often leads to rote memorisation of isolated facts during the pre-test
period of study. Since the questions on the objective test are presented in true-
false or multiple choice form, the student may be encouraged to guess answers
for which he has no accurate knowledge. The essay exam, on the other hand,
usually consists of a few broadly stated questions that require the student to
organise his response in essay form. Such questions force the student to give
proof of his ability to handle general concepts. This type of exam also relies on
factual information, but there is far greater necessity for the student to

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demonstrate analytical and compositional skills. Mere guessing at answers is

reduced to a minimum. Although the objective test and the essay exam have
similar goals – the assessment of a student’s academic achievement – the
techniques (and very often the results) of the two types of examination differ
significantly.

C-Paragraph development by contrast

Unlike the comparison paragraph, which compares similar aspects of two

subjects, the contrast paragraph compares dissimilar aspects of two
subjects. Like the comparison paragraph, however, the two procedures
may be followed in writing the contrast paragraph. The first method
alternates examples of subject A with examples of subject B; the contrasts
may be in the same sentence, or they may be in consecutive sentences. The
other method presents all subject A examples together, then all subject B
examples together.

In writing comparison paragraphs, transitional words such as similarly,

also, too, both are used. For contrast paragraphs, however, other
transitional words and phrases are employed: unlike, on the other hand, in
contrast, etc.

• Example
Where to Study

One major decision which faces the American student ready to begin higher
education is the choice of attending a large university or a small college. The
large university provides a wide range of specialised departments, as well as
numerous courses within such departments. The small college, however,
generally provides a limited number of courses and specialisations but offers a

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better student-faculty ratio, thus permitting individualised attention to

students. Because of its large, cosmopolitan student body (often exceeding
20,000) the university exposes its students to many different cultural, social,
and extra-curricular programmes. On the other hand, the smaller, more
homogeneous student body of the small college affords greater opportunities
for direct involvement and individual participation in such activities. Finally,
the university closely approximates the real world; it provides a relaxed,
impersonal, and sometimes anonymous existence. In contrast, the intimate
atmosphere of the small college allows the student four years of structured
living in which s/he contemplates and prepares for the real world. In making
his choice among educational institutions, the student must, therefore,
consider many factors.

D-Paragraph development by narration and specific details

Sometimes, a paragraph is developed by narration; this means telling more

- in the form of a story – to clarify and support the topic sentence. Past events
and specific details sometimes elaborate on a specific idea to strengthen it.
For example, a story might emphasise the idea that someone is careless or
strange, like in the example below:

My friend Jones is not a very practical person. Driving along a main way
one dark night, he suddenly had a flat tyre. Even worse, he discovered that he
did not have a spare wheel in his car trunk! Jones waved to passing cars and
lorries, but none of them stopped. Half an hour later, he was almost in despair.
At last, he waved to a car just like his own. To his surprise, the car actually
stopped and a well-dressed young woman got out. Jones was terribly
disappointed: How could a person like this possibly help him? The lady,
however, offered him her own spare wheel, but Jones had to explain that he had

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never changed a wheel in his life! She set to work at once and fitted the wheel
in a few minutes while Jones looked on in admiration.

6.3 Good Presentation of Ideas

Having decided on what to say (or write), say it neatly (precisely or

adequately), clearly, simply, coherently, and consistently. Presentation is
very important as it makes reading faster and easier. It shows concern for
the reader and it always pays to take the trouble.

A-Write neatly

Try to be as much legible as you can! Neatness is particularly important

when filling in forms or writing job application letters. The way you write
such documents will make a better impression on a prospective employer
than a messy one. Also, neatness of presentation matters a great deal in
examinations. Neatness is not a substitute of knowledge, but a messy
presentation can lower the marks which the answers (e.g. written essays)
receive.

B-Write clearly

Clarity is very important; so, keep sentences short and try your best to avoid
complicated constructions with unnecessary subordinate clauses. It is far
better to cut long sentences into short ones by the use of punctuation. The
following example taken from a Government publication illustrates the case
of a very long sentence which could be written better:

"In turn, India is exporting increased quantities of non-traditional goods

like engineering products, machinery, components, equipment,
electronic goods, etc for which there is a growing demand among the
non-aligned countries, and which India offers not only at a competitive

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price, but on comparatively easier financial terms and with facilities of

after-sale service."

It would be much better to write it this way:

"India is exporting increased quantities of non-traditional goods like engineering

products, machinery, components, equipment, electronic goods, etc. There is a
growing demand for such goods among the non-aligned countries. India offers
competitive prices, comparatively easier financial terms and facilities for after-sale
service."

Thus, one long sentence has been cut into THREE, and made simpler and
clearer.

C-Plan your paragraphs

Paragraphs are key aids to clarity:

• Paragraphs break the text into units, and this makes reading and
understanding easier;
• There should be only one theme (topic) per paragraph. Therefore,
paragraphs help the organisation of one’s thoughts;
• Each paragraph has to contain a topic sentence; that is a sentence
stating the theme of the paragraph. This sums up for the reader what
the writer is trying to say;
• Each paragraph should end on a transition which introduces the next
paragraph. This helps the reader to follow the reasoning structure.

Paragraphs can have many sentences, so long as the unity of the theme is
preserved. There should be only one theme per paragraph. If the paragraph
is a long one, it may be desirable to put the topic sentence at the beginning.

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However, there is no hard or fast rule; the topic sentence can go wherever it
fits.

D-Avoid long and unnecessary words

It is a golden piece of advice to avoid long and unnecessary words. Long

words interrupt the flow of thought and the reader may not understand
them. Here are a few examples of long words, each followed by a short word
which would be better to use: abbreviated/short; necessitate/need;
prevaricate/quibble; desiccate/dry-up; circumscribe/limit; multi-
faceted/many-sided; and tendermindedness/tenderness.

However, in some cases, the long word is better because it describes the
meaning more accurately. Moreover, there are occasions when long words
are called for, because they either add to the meaning or improve the rhythm
of the sentence. For example: "The moon-landing was a significantly
memorable achievement" is stronger than: "The moon-landing was a
great feat to remember".

Unnecessary words are those words which add nothing to the meaning of
the sentence. Sometimes, we – as English learners – add some empty or
unnecessary words that would add nothing to the meaning of the sentence.
Some of us, for example, would prefer to start writing, especially when
introducing a topic, with specific phrases or starters, such as: 'As a matter of
fact……', 'There is no doubt that …….', 'Generally speaking ……', and 'Needless
to say…..'. Those starters can be removed or replaced by shorter ones (or just
a single word) to convey the same meaning. Sometimes, we repeat ourselves
by writing many synonyms (Don’t panic! All of us – as Arabic speakers – did
this!). For example, we might write down a sentence like this: The Maths test
was so hard, difficult, complicated and tricky! Perhaps, just one of the
above adjectives is sufficient to do the job.
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E-Be coherent and consistent

To be coherent is to make sense, and to be easy to follow and understand.

More specifically, it means:

• Putting the words of each sentence in the right place;

• Putting the sentences in the right order; and
• Avoiding ambiguity.
In other words, the basic unit for the written expression of thought is the
sentence. To be complete and meaningful, the sentence must have at least
one verb and one subject; the subject, however, can be implied.

Naturally, as the sentences become more complicated, the order of words

becomes more important. For example: "I am wearing the dress my mother
made for my birthday" does not mean the same thing as "I am wearing for my
birthday the dress my mother made"! The difference in meaning comes from
the place of 'for my birthday'. Keep together the words which belong
together; failure to do so may yield some very odd results:

"He took out his gun, blew his nose, wiped it clean, put it in his pocket and
wondered whether it would go off"!

The sentence was not meant to be funny; its author simply forgot to keep
together the words which belonged together. It was the gun he wiped clean,
not his nose; the sentence ought to run like this: "He blew his nose: took out
his gun, wiped it clean, put it in his pocket and wondered whether it
would go off."

With sentences, as with words, it is very important to keep to the logical

order. It is equally important to use short, simple sentences with one
thought per sentence.

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Avoid ambiguity: Ambiguity is not lack of coherence, but obscurity. Faulty

construction can lead to misunderstanding or to nonsense. See this: "I will
eat at my home which is in London on Sunday". As if home was not in
London during the week. Had the words which belonged together been
kept together, there would have been no ambiguity! So, see this modified
one: "On Sunday, I will eat at my home which is in London" or "I will eat
on Sunday at my home which is in London".

Nothing is more irritating than to find the same word spelt in different ways.
If one spells 'Muslim' with a 'u' and an 'i', one must not switch to 'Moselm'
with an 'o' and an 'e'. The same applies to Koran/Quran, and to English
words like cheque/check, through/thru, and rhyme/rime.

F-Consider ‘register’ (suitable language & tone)

Writing well involves presenting your material in a tone appropriate

to your audience and to the task in hand. You would use different styles
of language for a business letter, a newspaper report, a letter to a friend
or a short story. It is important to develop a suitable tone, or register,
for your written work.

A university essay is a formal document and requires a formal

register. Students often struggle to find a balance between formal,
intellectual language and open, accessible English. Many reputable
scholars struggle with this too, which is why some academic books are
so hard to understand. However, even the most complicated ideas can
be articulated clearly. Your marker will be delighted to see complex
thought presented in plain English. They will also notice if you dress up

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weak thinking in flowery language. Pay attention to the register of your

writing and remember who will read your work.

Pay attention to the way academic writers, for example, use language.
If it seems too dense and formal then do not copy their style. However,
if you find a book that is lucid, interesting and readable, try to work out
what makes it so clear.

Avoid being too personal: Your name appears on the front of your
essay, therefore your marker already knows that everything in the
essay is your opinion. Do not keep saying ‘in my opinion’ or ‘it seems
to me that’ etc. Have the courage of your convictions and state what you
think. If you can back up your views with evidence from sources, there
is no need to apologise or hesitate. You do not need to fear the first
person, but don’t overdo it. Present your work as a piece of cohesive
thought rather than as collection of your own responses. Avoid using
phrases such as, ‘I want to look at’ – just get on with it.

Avoid being too clever: Some of the worst grammatical errors are
caused by trying to write long, complex sentences. A short sentence is
the most powerful way to make a cogent point. However, one short
declarative after another quickly rings wooden. Similarly, do not use
words that you think you understand. If in doubt, look them up instead
of leaving them out.

Avoid slang: This does not just cover words and phrases. It also applies
to informal expressions and sentence constructions. Do not say,
‘Cicourel’s analysis of juvenile delinquency blew me away. You know
what I mean?’ You can express the same idea by saying, ‘Cicourel’s
analysis is vivid and engaging,’ or, ‘Cicourel’s observational research

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demands a strong response from the reader.’ Avoid using ‘you’ or ‘us’
for the reader of the text. ‘One’ sounds formal in everyday speech, but it
is very useful in this setting.

Tenses: Use the past tense for anything that happened in the past. If you
use the present tense to refer to an author’s argument (‘Bruce says x, y.
Brewer argues that …’) then stick with that consistently. The present
tense may be the most appropriate for certain generalizations (‘Social
stratification exists in every known society.’), but make sure that they
really do apply to the present day.

G-Watch your grammar

If you want to express interesting ideas, then a sound grasp of grammar is

essential. Your understanding of grammar may be more developed than you
realise. If you have studied a foreign language, you may have a very
sophisticated knowledge of how it works. Most speakers use grammar well
without knowing all the terms for the techniques they are using. This is fine
when it works, but it can help to stop and think about what you are doing.
Markers tend to use technical, grammatical terms when pointing out
problems in your work, which is not much use to you if you do not know
what they are talking about.

This section will point out a few common problems, and offer definitions of
some terms that may crop up in your markers’ comments. If you have serious
problems with the English grammar used in academic writing, you have to
work hard to solve them. If your markers consistently complain about your
syntax, sentence structure, tenses, pronouns and the like, you probably need
some help from specialised sources on syntax and grammar.

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Syntax is the order of elements. English is an ‘SVO’ language, which means

the normal order of elements is subject-verb-object. ‘The man bit the dog,’ is
clear in its meaning, if weird. Problems can develop, however, when a writer
starts to pile various modifying elements (subordinate clauses, temporal
phrases, etc.) at the beginning of a sentence. Then it is possible to lose track
of the subject, the verb, and the object (complement).

H-Watch your punctuation

Punctuation is very important; without it, words would follow each other in
an endless stream and the meaning would be lost. The role of punctuation is
to make meaning clear. I remember a funny famous example (perhaps it was
a joke about what male students wrote, and what female students in the
same classroom wrote) that shows the importance of punctuation:

A woman without her man is nothing! (without punctuation). If left as it is,

the sentence would bear two contrasted interpretations:

1. A woman: without her, man is nothing.

2. A woman, without her man, is nothing.

A full-stop (.) is needed to end the sentence, when a complete meaning has
been reached. However, three full-stops (…) placed one after the other mean
that words have been left out in a quotation; ‘Let me tell you … I hope you
agree.’ Or to indicate that the sentence has been left unfinished deliberately,
‘I could go on and on…’

The colon is used to introduce the words which follow it. 'My shopping list
reads: 12 eggs, 1 lb butter, 2 lbs sugar…' To introduce direct speech or a
quotation. Then he said: 'After all …'

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The semi-colon is very useful, especially because it is less final than a full-
stop. It can be used between sentences which are complete in themselves, to
indicate that there is a connection between their meaning: 'I disliked her at
first sight; she looked sloppy in her jeans and her kinky hair dyed green
was unkempt'. A full-stop after 'sight' would cut off the trend of thought
while the insertion of ‘because’ would weaken the meaning.

Because the semi-colon is less than a full-stop, but more than a comma, it
is useful to break up long sentences which already have commas in them.
Here is an example taken from Samuel Johnson:

'The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had it been early had
been kind; but it has been delayed until I am indifferent, and cannot impart it; till I
am known and do not want it'.

If Samuel Johnson had used full-stops instead of semi-colons, he would have

destroyed the dignity of this passage my making it jerky. Instead, by using
semi-colons, he adds weight to each of his reasons.

The comma is a useful stop, especially when reading out loud; it gives you
time to breathe. There are as many different ways of using commas as there
are styles of writing. However, here are 9 different cases when commas must
be used:

• Before and after speech: ‘I must ask you to repeat these words,’ said
the priest, ‘before I can pronounce you man and wife.’
• When listing things, qualities, ideas or clauses: ‘Fear, love, hate,
hunger and death are man’s lot’. ‘His dedication to office, his endless
energy, his honesty and his generosity will long be remembered.’
• To separate words of the same part of speech: Look at these
examples:

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1. ‘He advanced slowly, steadily, silently.’ (adverbs)

2. ‘He is tall, dark, fat yet handsome.’ (adjectives)
3. ‘He lied, stole, killed and fled.’ (verbs)
4. ‘in walked the sailor, the soldier, the pilot…’ (nouns)
• To separate from the rest of the sentence qualifying words not
essential to its meaning: ‘Napoleon, the French Emperor, was defeated
at Waterloo.’
• To separate from the rest of the sentence a non-defining clause: ‘The
battle of Waterloo, which you have read about, is one of the most
important events in history.’
• Between words repeated for emphasis: ‘It was much, much too hot.’
• Instead of ‘or’ and ‘and’: For example: ‘Give me apples, pears and
prunes.’ (I want all three) – ‘Give me apples, pears or prunes.’ (I want
only one of them)
• Usually after and around ‘however’: ‘However, you must forgive
him.’ – ‘Let us look at the facts, however, lest we do him an injustice.’

Moreover, there are many other punctuation marks can be used for
different purposes. These include:

• Question marks (?)

• Inverted commas (which are commonly used to single out words or
letters, or to indicate that the words between them are a quotation,
part of speech, title of a book, etc.)
• Brackets (which are sometimes used to introduce words which do not
affect the meaning of the text; or to set out numbers or letters of the
alphabet used to enumerate lists; e.g. (i), (ii), (a), (b), (c), etc.)

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• Hyphens (which are mainly used to make compound words ‘vice-

president’, ‘son-in-law’, and ‘know-how’; to unite two or more words
in order to make them into an adjective: ‘never-to-be-forgotten
event’; after certain Latin prefixes: ‘anti-English’, ‘ex-Prime Minster’,
etc.
• Dashes (which are used to: (1) summarise a list already given; and (2)
emphasise the end of a sentence.
• Exclamation marks (!)

6.4 Editing and Revising Paragraphs and Essays

It should be clear that getting your thoughts down on paper is not the final
stage of writing a good paragraph or essay. There remains the rewriting of
the first draft so as to shape your ideas into a carefully styled composition.
Nowadays, computers and other electronic devices and software have made
the editing and redrafting process even easier and more manageable.
Ordinarily, editing involves changes at three points: between sentences,
within sentences, and in individual words.

At the word level, spelling and capitalisation are checked, but more
creatively, words are often changed. A different word may be substituted for
the original word because it is easier to understand, is more colourful, gives
a more precise meaning, or provides variety.

At the sentence level, phrases may be put in a different order, structures of

modification revises, different verb structures selected, or the length of
phrases or whole sentences may be altered.

Finally, for smoothness and balance, changes are made between sentences
or paragraphs. Such changes, designed to clarify relationships between

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ideas, are often accomplished by punctuating more adequately, by

introducing more effective transitional devices, or by restating or removing
awkward phrases and sentences. Editing then – the self-conscious appraisal
and revision of your own work – usually makes the difference between a
merely acceptable and a truly superior piece of writing.

6.5 Academic Document Types

There are many types of academic documents, which do not look like such
informal and/or personal documents like newspaper, magazines, and
personal diaries. These include:

• Books, in many types and varieties.

• Book reports.
• Conference papers.
• Dissertation; usually between 6,000 and 20,000 words in length.
• Essay; usually short, between 1,500 and 6,000 words in length.
• Explication; usually a short factual note explaining some obscure part
of a particular work; e.g. its terminology, dialect, allusions or coded
references.
• Research Article.
• Research Paper; longer essay involving library research, 3000 to
6000 words in length.
• Technical report.
• Thesis; completed over a number of years, often in excess of 20,000
words in length.
• Translation.

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6.6 Features of Academic Writing

Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point
or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without
digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As
well as this it is in the standard written form of the language. There are eight
main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic
writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and
responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately.

a) Complexity

Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written

language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied
vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases.
Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical
complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.

b) Formality

Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay

you should avoid colloquial words and expressions. In general this means
in an essay that you should avoid:

1. colloquial words and expressions: "stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of".
2. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"
3. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"
4. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays -
but use them in reports.
5. asking questions.

c) Precision

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In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely. In academic

writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures.
Do not use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".

d) Objectivity

Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore

has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the
main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the
arguments you want to make, rather than you. For that reason, academic
writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and
adverbs). This is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic
writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or
"believe". They want to know what you have studied and learned and how
this has led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs should
be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is
important to make this clear.

-Compare these two paragraphs:

The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its
cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the
areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing.
Researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and
testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b) on
the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of
language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete
language skills.

We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have
talked about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us
to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how
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language works. I think that language is something we use for communicating,

not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test
it.

Which is the most objective?

-In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".

A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is
therefore unnecessary to make this explicit.

Don't write: "In my opinion, this a very interesting study."

Write: "This is a very interesting study."

Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.

Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."

Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."

e) Explicitness

Academic writing is explicit in several ways:

1. It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text.

As a writer of academic English, it is your responsibility to make it clear to
your reader how various parts of the text are related. These connections can
be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.

For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is
going to change, make it clear.

The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types
such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not

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have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the largest
aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the
design had run into serious difficulties.

If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another
sentence, make it explicit.

While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the

period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the significance
of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because the current account
deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought
to be by contemporaries.

If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.

Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist
system, especially those which he knew from the history of Europe to
have preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the
relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the
feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from
the lord's control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and
in the classical Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems
where the ties of local community are all important.

If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.

He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the

husband and father of his own family. In addition, he has a definite
place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with, and
he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.

If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.

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This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy,
between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the
previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin, refused for most of his
period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his
diocese.

2. It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text.

If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it.

Do THIS in academic writing

McGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable
than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-
Ireland state.

NOT

Although Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still
seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.

NOT

Researchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the
Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland
state.

e) Accuracy

In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do

not confuse, for example, "phonetics" and "phonology" or "grammar" with
"syntax".

Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly", "gathering" or

"conference".

Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".

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6.7 The Process of Academic Writing: Writing an Academic Essay

Writing down an academic article/essay is a common practice which you, as

a university student, always do at the undergraduate stage. As an English
major, you are always required to produce your answers to essay questions
in most English and literature courses (e.g. Novel, Drama, and Poetry) in the
form of coherent academic essays that reflect your understanding.
Regardless of the accuracy of any information/ideas you include in this
essay, the way you plan, write, organize, and signpost what you are writing
is extremely important. After all, the course instructor would expect you to
produce an academic piece of writing.

Some students do not get high scores in these courses, not mainly because
they are not well-informed in the subject or do not have much knowledge,
but simply because they are not able to compose an academic essay! An
academic essay, as the table below indicates, should be characterized by:

1. being centred around one main topic that should involve some minor
topics;
2. having: (1) an introduction (in which the learner/writer should
introduce the topic at hand). This includes setting the scene and
stating the main topic/thesis/claims that the writer wants to defend;
(2) a body, which is composed of some paragraphs (usually three or
more), that usually develop an idea with some details, examples,
illustrations, etc. This involves arguing about something, and
supporting the main argument logically and coherently; (3) a
conclusion that usually summarises the main argument and gives a

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final note to the reader. This might include mentioning briefly the
main ideas;
3. going through a provisional and developmental process of: mapping,
brainstorming, planning, drafting, re-drafting, revising, editing, and
writing a final draft;
4. requiring many skills, such as: (1) Composition & linguistic skills:
These include things like: how to utilize vocabulary and grammatical
competence to produce accurate words, phrases, sentences, and
paragraphs; the ability to properly express oneself; the ability to
develop an idea using supporting examples and details; the ability to
create shifts and transitions between ideas/points; the ability to
summarize a section by, for example, removing unnecessary details;
the ability to use punctuation marks accurately and functionally; the
ability to move certain sentences back and forward as required; (2)
Research skills: These skills involve: how to choose and search for a
topic; how to identify the appropriate resources and references
needed for getting information about the topic (e.g. books, articles,
websites, and research papers); (3) Organizational skills: These
relate to organizing ideas, taking notes, suggesting a time frame, and
employing time and resources efficiently; (4) Reading skills: These
include things like reviewing academic and relevant resources and
skimming and/or scanning some texts (both online and offline); (5)
Computer and electronic skills: These include the skills of employing
computer and the Internet for composing the essay (e.g. using
keyboard for composing the essay, copying and pasting texts, editing
and saving the document, and sharing the document online with
others).

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The following procedure is useful when writing an extended essay or

assignment: Available: http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm

Task Skills Needed Product

1. Read the question or thinking academically Subject.

brief and understand
what you are required
to do. Think about the
subject, the purpose
and the audience.

2. Think about what you Brainstorming Diagrams or notes.

know about the
subject. Write it down in
some way.

3. Go to the library and library/research skills Reading list.

find relevant books or
articles.

4. Find the books on your reading skills: skimming List of materials

reading list - if you have and scanning studied.
one - and study them.

5. Make notes on these reading in detail Notes.

books and articles.
selecting & note-taking
Record full details of the paraphrasing/summarising
materials you use.

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Task Skills Needed Product

6. Organise your piece of Planning Plan.

work.
Organisation

7. Type or write your first writing from notes First draft.

draft.
synthesis

writing paragraphs

typing/word-processing

8. Discuss your first draft speaking skills List of

informally with friends, revisions/changes.
listening skills
other members of your
class and your lecturer discussion skills

if possible.

9. Revise your first draft, use of dictionaries & Second draft.

bearing in mind any reference books
comments that were
writing introduction &
made in your conclusion
discussions.
quoting/writing a list of
references
Go back to 2. if necessary

Produce your second draft.

10. Proofread your draft. checking for spelling Writing with

mistakes changes marked.

checking punctuation and

grammar

checking vocabulary use

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Task Skills Needed Product

checking style

checking organisation,
references etc.

checking for plagiarism

11. Produce a final typed typing/word-processing Final piece of

version.
writing title/contents page work.

12. Check everything. final check Hand in.

6.8 Real Samples

Sample 1:

Excerpt from my PhD study:

Abdallah, M. M. S. (2011). Web-based new literacies and EFL curriculum design in teacher
education: A design study for expanding EFL student teachers’ language-related literacy
practices in an Egyptian pre-service teacher education programme. PhD Thesis. Graduate
School of Education, College of Social Sciences and International Studies, University of
Exeter, England, UK.

Globally speaking, current advances in modern technologies have created a

need for reconceptualising old notions of literacy centred on the ability to
read, write, and comprehend printed texts, especially within language
learning contexts (Buckingham, 2007; Pahl & Rowsell, 2005). The Internet or the
Web, in particular, calls for new forms of reading, writing, and communication
(Leu et al, 2005: p2) in this information age which, as Jewitt (2006: p13) notes,

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marks a shift from page to screen. More specifically, the development of Web
2.0, a new generation of the Web that has been enabling new functions and
possibilities for learning such as social networking, easy publishing online, and
collaborative construction of knowledge (Alexander, 2006; Parker & Chao,
2007), imposes a new reality for language learning and practice.

Today, literate individuals should know how to gather, analyse, and use
information resources to solve problems and accomplish certain goals (Kasper,
2000). This has become crucial within English language learning (ELL) contexts
where learners are required to use English for a variety of communicative and
functional purposes. As language learners are increasingly involved in
electronic environments, they need new strategies because the ability to
communicate through information resources necessitates new literacy skills
(Karchmer, 2001). As a result, education and language learning demand a
major restructuring based on these new literacies and curricula (Kellner, 2002)
to understand the new competencies required by the Web (especially Web
2.0 technologies) along with a wide range of functional, cultural, critical, and
technological aspects deemed vital for language learning.

As far as language teacher education is concerned, new literacies have

become of great concern in educational institutions (Kellner, 2002; Leu et al.,
2004). Internationally, there is a growing trend towards equipping prospective
teachers in general and language teachers in particular with competencies
to cope with new developments and innovations that necessitate expanding
the concept of literacy itself to encompass current changes. This necessitates
always reviewing and updating teacher education programmes themselves
to be able to develop strategies that help prospective teachers to understand
the new forms of literacy and be prepared to use technology for their
professional growth and teach in ways that connect to students' lives (Kellner,
2002).

At the onset of their undergraduate preparation programme, EFL student

teachers experience a transitional stage that involves some psychological

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tensions caused by new academic requirements (Roberts, 1998: p72). This

applies to the Egyptian context, especially AUCOE, where EFL student teachers
spend some time struggling with new academic demands such as
independent study, using the library, and coming to grips with the English
language as both the content and means of instruction (Undergraduate Study,
2008). They should master the required knowledge base that involves some
general educational competencies, lifelong learning skills, and specific
academic skills related to English and literacy (Freeman, 1983; Johnston &
Goettsch, 2000; Richards, 1998; Shulman, 1987).

The systematic pre-service EFL teacher education programmes provided by

universities are, more than any time before, necessary and important.
However, their components need to be updated to address the new literacy
practices related to both the Web and EFL, which may foster lifelong learning
skills and strategies necessary for student teachers’ continuous professional
development.

Nowadays, teachers in the field face many challenges related to technology

and literacy. They are challenged not only to integrate technology into
traditional aspects of literacy instruction (e.g., book reading), but also to
engage students in emerging new literacies (e.g., online reading and writing)
(Leu et al, 2005), which can be regarded as natural extensions of the traditional
linguistic aspects. Research points to the pressing need for a strategic,
organised instruction dealing with these new literacies along with a
meaningful, effective integration of the Web in the learning context (e.g.,
Asselin & Moayeri, 2008; Coiro & Dobler, 2007).

Teacher education is the means through which new literacies can be

integrated (Cornu, 1997: p321). As far as EFL teacher education is concerned,
Cavanaugh (2005), Kamhi-Stein (2000), and McPherson et al (2007: p24) argue
that EFL teacher education programmes should be updated to encompass
new technological concepts and literacy practices, which have become
essential for surviving in a digital networked environment, and which should

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therefore be part of any pre-service teacher education programme (Leu,

2000c; Loethe, 1997). However, how best to help future teachers to learn about
the Web and other ICTs has constantly been a challenge for teacher
educators (Zhao, 2003), especially when it comes to TEFL or TESOL.
Consequently, a revision of the programme contents, through redesigning its
curricula to address such new aspects, is needed.

The Web and other new technologies should be perceived, not merely as
products, but also as literacy tools (Coiro et al., 2008) and means towards
improving educational practices. Hence, Van Braak (2001) proposes
‘technical innovativeness’ as a key component in influencing how individuals
would enhance their practices based on technology use.

Sample 2:

Excerpt from: How to write a standard research article. By Caroline Coffin

and Rupert Wegerif

What is an Introduction?

Much work has already been published on the structure of the introduction
sections of IMRD research articles. Swales (1990, 1994) in particular presents a
comprehensive account. In this section we make use of his CARS (Create a
Research Space) Model This model illustrates how an introduction is typically
shaped by its purpose of 'creating a research space'. Swales uses an
ecological metaphor to suggest that research articles are all competing for
'space'. Thus introductions have to start by establishing the significance of the
research field ('establishing a territory'); then provide a rationale for their
research in terms of that significance ('establishing a niche'); and finally show
how the paper will occupy and defend the ecological niche that has been
carved out ('occupying the niche').

Computers are becoming an established part of education in schools

throughout the developed world (Plomp and Pelgrum, 1991; Crook, 1994, p 1).

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However, despite the growing expectation that computers will be available in

classrooms, there remains considerable uncertainty and debate over how best
to use them. Underwood and Underwood report that even in well-resourced
schools computers are often underused because, apparently, teachers claim
that they 'don't know what to with them' (1990, p 16). Crook's review of the
evidence on the impact of computers in school education suggests that
computers are often used in a way 'decoupled from the mainstream of
classroom life' (1994, p 29). Crook and others (e.g. Fisher, 1993) argue that the
limited use of computers in classrooms stems partly from the inadequate way
their educational role is often conceptualised. This paper joins the debate
about how best to integrate the use of computers into classroom education.
A socio-cultural approach is adopted, based on the claim that education is
essentially a discursive process (Edwards and Mercer 1997), and from this
approach it is argued that computers can be used most effectively as a
resource for group work and for the support of the teaching and learning of
language skills. These arguments were made by Crook (1994) but this paper
also argues that the educational implications of a socio-cultural analysis go
further: to be used effectively, computers must be integrated into the
curriculum-based culture of schooling.

The first part of the paper develops an educational strategy for the use of more
directive `tutorial' software which can be incorporated by teachers into
curriculum-based classroom activities. This strategy is based upon coaching
'exploratory talk' and then encouraging 'exploratory talk' in group work around
computers within different curriculum subject areas. 'Exploratory talk' is
defined, through the findings of a survey of research on collaborative learning,
as that kind of interaction which best supports group problem-solving and
group learning. The second part of the paper reports on the implementation
and evaluation of an intervention programme which applied the proposed
strategy in primary classroom. The intervention programme was designed to
explore three research questions which arose from the educational strategy:

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• Can the quality of children's interactions when working together at

computers be improved by coaching exploratory talk?

• Can computers be used effectively to support the teaching and learning of

exploratory talk?

• Can computer supported collaborative learning integrate peer learning with

directive teaching?

Sample 3:

Excerpt from: Teaching with Wikis: Toward a Networked Pedagogy. By

Rebecca Wilson Lundin

Abstract

Computers and writing scholarship is increasingly turning towards the

network as a potential pedagogical model, one in which writing is intimately
connected to its social contexts. The use of wikis in first-year composition
classes can support this networked pedagogy. More specifically, due to
unique features such as editability and detailed page histories, wikis can
challenge a number of traditional pedagogical assumptions about the
teaching of writing. This article shows how wikis can challenge assumptions
in four categories of interest to composition studies: new media
composition, collaborative writing, critical interaction, and online authority.
The analysis demonstrates that wikis, while not automatically revolutionary
to composition pedagogy, hold significant potential to help facilitate
pedagogical changes.

© 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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For the past decade, the field of computers and writing has focused on literal
and metaphoric networks as possible pedagogical models. Networks can
socialize the writing process, readily

providing real audiences for student writing and emphasizing the

situatedness of each piece of rhetoric among a constellation of others. By
viewing writing as a networked activity, students focus on the connectivity
and complexity of rhetorical situations rather than understanding writing as
the de-contextualized product of a single, isolated worker. By viewing
teaching as a networked activity, we focus on the collaborative nature of our
professional work and on reciprocal relationships with our students. Given
these apparent benefits, our hopes for composition are increasingly turning
towards the network. Rice (2006) summarized this direction succinctly:
Asking “What should college English be?” Rice answered, simply, “The
network” (p. 133).

Our increasing focus on networks coincides with a growth in the pedagogical

technologies that support such interactions. In growing numbers, rhetoric
and composition teachers are using blogs, listservs, discussion boards, and
web sites. Simultaneously, we are providing critical rationales and
frameworks for the incorporation of these technologies in teaching,
explaining how and why to use networked technology in the composition
classroom (see, for example, Barton, 2005; Lunsford, 2006; Wickliff &
Yancey, 2001). Fundamentally, these pieces ask how, or whether,
networked technologies can help us teach more effectively. A second
approach to the study of technology in the classroom is to focus on the
challenges that new technologies present to established pedagogical
methods (see, for example, DeWitt & Dickson, 2003; Eldred & Toner, 2003;
Moxley & Meehan, 2007). This type of work encourages teachers to

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reexamine and redefine their goals for the classroom, asking and
demonstrating how established teaching practices can be stretched and
strained with the introduction of new technological practices. Though there
is clear overlap between these two approaches to researching classroom
technologies, this article primarily participates in the second. Like Eldred &
Toner (2003), DeWitt & Dickson (2003), and Moxley & Meehan (2007), I
begin with the premise that new technologies challenge, often in productive
ways, long-held assumptions in the field of computers and writing. The
increasing perception of a “networked” pedagogy as a productive possibility
can and should encourage us to re-examine the goals and beliefs under
which we operate, even as we discuss how new technologies may help meet
those goals.

Such re-examination gives us an opportunity to make visible, and

subsequently re-evaluate, the received wisdom of our field concerning the
definition of writing, models of authorship, classroom authority, and more.

Wikis are a particularly productive site for this examination for a number of
reasons. First, as a web-based technology they clearly participate in network
culture. Wikis have steeply increased in popularity since their initial
application as spaces in which computer programmers could collaboratively
develop and share code. Now such web sites as Wikipedia and WikiHow have
put the technology to a variety of literacy uses, developing massive, and
popular, resources of collective information, aggregating copious amounts
of text as well as a variety of multimedia elements. As Purdy (in press)
observed, the online presence of Wikipedia is nearly inescapable (Wikipedia
sites often appear first on Google searches for a wide range of issues) and
serves as a testament to the growing popularity of wikis. Despite this
popularity, academia often lags behind, both in its acceptance of resources

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such as Wikipedia and in its use of wiki software (see, for example, Cohen,
2007; Purdy, in press). Given the drastic break between popular network
culture’s acceptance of these online writing environments and academia’s
resistance to them, analysing the challenges that wikis present to traditional
methods of teaching promises to provide a constructive tension. This is
particularly clear when we examine new modes of composition, which can
broaden significantly in the new media environment provided by wikis, and
when we explore the critical interaction that can occur in wiki
communication between students.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
Effective Reading Skills and Strategies
7.1 Overview of Reading Skills
Reading is an integral skill that goes beyond mere word recognition. It involves
a complex array of sub-skills that enable us to extract meaning from text.
Understanding the types of reading can help develop proficiency in this
valuable skill.

Reading is a multifaceted skill that involves various techniques tailored to

different purposes and content. Skimming is a strategic, rapid reading method
for getting the gist of the material, often used for previewing or reviewing texts.
Scanning, on the other hand, is a targeted reading approach, used to locate
specific information within a text quickly. Intensive reading is a thorough,
detailed reading style, focusing on understanding and analyzing every word
and sentence, typically used for complex texts where comprehension of each
part is crucial. Extensive reading involves reading longer texts for pleasure and
general understanding, which can enhance language acquisition and
fluency.

Types of Reading

Skimming is a rapid reading technique used to get a general overview of the

material. You read the title, subtitles, and the first few sentences of each
paragraph to get the gist of the content. It's like flying over the text at a high
level.

Scanning is a reading technique for finding specific information quickly. For

instance, scanning a text to find a particular name or date. It's a bit like using
a metal detector on a beach to find a lost ring.

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Intensive Reading involves careful reading of a small amount of text, with a

focus on understanding the details. It's often used when studying a complex
subject or learning a foreign language.

Extensive Reading is reading large amounts of text, usually for pleasure. The
goal is to understand the overall meaning rather than focusing on the specific
details.

7.2 Active Reading Techniques

Active reading transforms passive absorption of words into an engaging
dialogue with the text. The SQ3R Method, encompassing Survey, Question,
Read, Recite, and Review, is a systematic approach to understanding and
retaining information. Surveying allows readers to preview the structure and
main points of the text. Questioning turns titles, headings, and subheadings into
queries that guide focused reading. The reading phase involves in-depth
engagement with the text, followed by recitation to reinforce memory and
understanding. Reviewing consolidates the material, ensuring long-term
retention. Annotating and note-taking are instrumental practices that
complement active reading, allowing readers to mark significant points and
summarize concepts in their own words, thus reinforcing learning and
comprehension.

Active reading involves engaging with the text to improve comprehension and
retention. This can be achieved through the SQ3R method and annotating
and note-taking.

SQ3R Method

SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review.

- Survey: Skim the text to get a general idea of the content. Look at headings,
subheadings, and highlighted words.

- Question: Formulate questions based on your survey. These questions will

guide your reading.

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- Read: Read the text carefully with the aim of answering the questions you
formulated.

- Recite: Summarize the text in your own words. This will help cement the
information in your memory.

- Review: Review the material after a few hours or days to reinforce your
memory.

Annotating and Note-Taking

Annotating involves highlighting, underlining, or making notes directly on the

text. This helps to focus your attention and aids in remembering the material.
Note-taking, on the other hand, is the practice of writing down information
from the text in your own words.

7.3 Reading for Comprehension

Reading for comprehension involves understanding the text at a deeper level.
Comprehension is the core of reading, necessitating the identification of main
ideas and supporting details. This involves discerning the central thesis or
argument of the text and the evidence or explanations that bolster it.
Understanding text structures, such as cause and effect, comparison and
contrast, or problem and solution, is vital for interpreting the author's message
and intent. Recognizing these patterns aids in predicting content and
organizing information logically in one's mind.

Identifying Main Ideas and Supporting Details

The main idea is the central point that the author is trying to convey. Supporting
details provide evidence or examples to back up the main idea. Identifying
these components can help you understand the text's message.

Understanding Text Structures

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Texts can be organized in different ways: chronologically, by cause and effect,

comparison and contrast, problem and solution, etc. Recognizing these
structures can enhance your comprehension.

7.4 Online Reading

Although they share some common features and strategies, such as activating
prior knowledge and synthesising information (Eagleton & Dobler, 2007: p36),
print-based reading and Web-based reading are not the same. From a new
literacies perspective, the skills and strategies associated with traditional, print-
based reading are still necessary to read and learn online, but are not sufficient
alone since the nature of online reading comprehension is different (Coiro &
Dobler, 2007).

Online reading is a complicated process that requires knowledge about new

things such as how search engines work and how information is organised
within websites (Coiro, 2005: p30). Thus, those who master the skills and
competencies necessary to read books are not necessarily competent online
readers. Empirically, Coiro (2005: p30) noticed that some students already
skilled at reading books were struggling with finding information online wasting
much time without reaching their target. For example, they were lost on the
Web moving from one webpage to another without locating the information
they needed to complete their assignments, a conclusion also reached by my
pilot study (Abdallah, 2011b).

By the same token, Leu et al (2007) conclude that video recordings for some
adolescent readers while reading online suggest that readers who struggle
with offline materials may not struggle with online materials to the same degree
as long as they have the skills and/or strategies essential for online reading
comprehension. They conclude that isomorphism does not exist between
offline and online reading comprehension because if they were the same,
high-achieving offline readers would always be high-achieving online readers
and vice versa.

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Consequently, it is essential to understand the differences between online

reading and offline or print-based reading which usually revolve around: (1)
environment or medium; (2) nature; (3) types of the cognitive processes
involved; (4) the complex nature of the texts readers interact with; (5) the
additional new skills and/or strategies that online readers need in the Web
environment.

The environment, medium, and ways of navigation of print and hypertext are
completely different. While both environments typically provide supportive
navigational features (e.g., a table of contents), the actual content of
hypertext is hidden beneath multiple layers of information not viewable with
traditional previewing procedures such as rapidly going through the pages of
a printed book (Coiro & Dobler, 2007). Besides, the Web itself provides many
features, such as hyperlinks, which facilitate the navigation process to the
readers.

The construction of meaning as a cognitive process is another source of

difference. Online readers have choices as they navigate through many
websites and media, and therefore, they personally construct their own
meaning and understanding out of this navigation process. Offline readers, on
the other hand, read the texts already constructed for them. Thus, the
construction of meaning during online reading comprehension is much more
complex than it is the case with offline reading comprehension (Leu, et al,
2009).

Reading on the Web therefore adds layers of complexity to an already

complex process (Kern, 2000: p223). This complexity is caused by the fact that
comprehension on the Web requires the orchestrating of a number of
additional cueing systems (e.g. operational, organisational, and multimedia
cues) plus knowledge of informational text structures placing a heavier
cognitive load on learners (Eagleton & Dobler, 2007: p31). This is shown by
studies of how textual differences influence comprehension, which indicate
that both children and adults have more difficulty reading informational texts

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than reading narrative texts (e.g., Biancarosa & Snow, 2004). The difficulty
posed by informational texts becomes more challenging when readers are to
define a specific task, search for information, and select the resources
themselves.

The nature of the text itself is different as online texts are more complicated
than linear, printed texts. Online texts appear in types new to the readers,
which Coiro (2003a/b) identifies as nonlinear, multiple-media, and interactive
texts, to clarify the message transferred. Readers online are provided with
options like clicking a hyperlink to access further details on a particular word or
item. Now that online texts involve new forms and ways of arranging and
structuring textual material introducing new challenges for readers, especially
second and foreign language readers (Anderson, 2003: p4), higher levels of
inferential reasoning and comprehension monitoring strategies are
demanded.

There are many new skills and strategies needed within an online reading
context. Leu et al. (2008: pp322-37) detail some of these skills and strategies as
follows: (1) Online reading is usually initiated by a pre-reading question or query
that guides the reading process, something not necessarily needed within a
print-based reading context; (2) locating information online is another aspect
of online reading comprehension that requires new skills (e.g., using a search
engine, reviewing returned results, and quickly reading a webpage to locate
links to required data). Locating information may create a bottleneck for the
subsequent skills of online reading comprehension in the sense that those who
possess those online skills necessary to locate information can continue to read
and solve their problem, while those who do not possess them cannot; (3)
During critical evaluation, a unique set of skills are required. Whereas critical
evaluation is important when reading offline, it is perhaps more important while
reading the Web where anyone can publish anything. Therefore, it is vital to
identify to what extent the online information is reliable. The unique nature of
the Web, as a source of information that differs from traditional resources, has

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been thoroughly explored, mostly by librarians, who have highlighted the need
for greater critical evaluation of Web-based resources (see Barker, 2004 and
Kirk, 1996, for examples of evaluative schemes).

Reading online is a complicated process that is not simply defined around the
encoding of online texts, or just the purpose, task, and context. Instead, as Leu,
et al (2008: pp332-36) argue, online reading comprehension is also defined by
a process of self-directed text construction that occurs as readers navigate on
their own through an infinite informational space to construct their own versions
of texts encountered online.

With the dominance of the Internet as a teaching/learning medium and the

subsequent result that information gathering has become, perhaps, the most
widely used application of the Web, it is surprising that there is still a lack of a
research-based understanding of the strategies needed to successfully
understand and read information online (Coiro, 2009; Coiro & Dobler, 2007).
Some few studies were conducted to examine online reading (e.g., Coiro,
2007; Coiro & Dobler, 2007; Leu, 2007). New literacies required for dealing with
information and material available online still need further investigation.

Many new reading sub-skills and strategies have emerged to express the new
online processes. In this context, Leu (2002) suggests that developing more
critical reading skills within networked ICT will be an important aspect of the
new literacies to face the challenge ahead. Clarifying the nature of the
challenge we have today, Eagleton and Dobler (2007) suggest that in order to
be Web literate, we should meet the demands of the Web, which are
associated with reading by acquiring new skills and strategies.

Skills of online reading comprehension:

2.2.1 Students should understand the features of online texts represented in the range of
symbols, cueing systems, and multiple-media formats (e.g. icons and animated symbols).

2.2.2 Students should understand the nature of hypertext that entails new screen-based
interactions between word, image and sound.

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2.2.3 Students should look for and work out the overall meaning of an online message that has
been formulated in a complicated digital context.

2.2.4 Students should focus on a particular question/problem/query to guide the online reading
process.

2.2.5 Students should try to activate their prior knowledge and make use of their background
information while dealing with new online texts.

2.2.6 Students should be able to read across an evolving range of online texts through skimming
and scanning websites.

2.2.7 Students should be able to navigate through links and connected pages to construct
meanings that meet goals and/or answer questions.

2.2.8 Students should be able to employ new reasoning and comprehension strategies to deal
with nonlinear, interactive online texts.

2.2.9 Students should be able to read purposefully, selectively and pragmatically within an
online environment to accomplish their objectives (e.g. by selecting relevant information).

2.2.10 Students should be able to make use of cues (e.g. captions, icons, hyperlinks, and
interactive graphics) to identify relevant and important ideas.

7.5 Critical Reading

Critical reading goes a step further than comprehension. It involves assessing
the credibility and value of the text. Critical reading goes beyond mere
comprehension to involve a deeper analysis of the text. It requires evaluating
the strength of arguments and the credibility of evidence presented. This level
of reading challenges readers to assess the validity of the information,
considering the context and the author's purpose. Recognizing bias and
perspective is also crucial; it involves understanding the author's stance and
how it shapes the presentation of facts and opinions. By questioning the
reliability and objectivity of the text, readers develop the ability to think
critically and read discerningly.

Evaluating Arguments and Evidence

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An argument is a claim supported by evidence. Evaluating arguments involves

assessing the logic of the claim and the reliability of the evidence provided.

Recognizing Bias and Perspective

Every author has a perspective that can influence how information is

presented. Recognizing bias involves identifying any partiality or prejudice in
the text. Recognizing perspective involves understanding the author's
viewpoint or stance on the issue.

Critical literacy skills:

2.3.1 Students should understand some important facts about websites that relate to reliability
(e.g. the fact that each website has its own agenda, perspective, and bias).

2.3.2 Students should be able to identify a website’s form (e.g. blog, forum, or advertisement)
and general purpose (e.g. entertainment, educational, or commercial) in order to evaluate the
reliability of online sources.

2.3.3 Students should be able to identify the type of webpage content (e.g. a book, an article, a
brochure, and an archive).

2.3.4 Students should be critical and reflective by going beyond the simple decoding and
comprehension of the online text.

2.3.5 Students should be able to employ critical thinking skills and strategies while
investigating web-based information to discover its accuracy, validity, reliability, and
appropriateness to the task at hand.

2.3.6 Students should make use of their background knowledge to evaluate what they read
online and to question the relevant social, political, and ideological elements.

2.3.7 Students should make critical, informed judgments about online information, which
include: recognising bias, identifying the authors and their purposes, and distinguishing the
commercial content from the academic one.

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2.3.8 Students should be able to use clues on a webpage that help with evaluating it as an
information source (e.g. clues in a URL or web address that help with determining a website
location and type).

2.3.9 Students should be able to ask and answer evaluative questions such as: Is the
information accurate? Is the author an authority on the subject? Is the information current and
timely?

2.3.10 Students should be able to compare and contrast the reliability of the information they
find by investigating multiple sources on the same topic.

7.6 SEARCH Framework for Locating Data Online

Henry (2006: p618) suggests a framework called SEARCH for the essential
search skills needed for reading and locating information on the Web. SEARCH
stands for six steps:

1. Set a purpose for searching;

2. Employ effective search strategies;

3. Analyse search engine results;

4. Read critically and synthesize information;

5. Cite your sources;

6. How successful was your search? (Evaluating your search).

7.7 Conclusion
This chapter aims to equip student teachers with the necessary skills to
navigate diverse reading demands effectively. By mastering these strategies,
they can enhance their understanding, critical thinking, and overall teaching
proficiency in English language education. Through the application of these
techniques, student teachers will be prepared to foster a similar depth of
reading comprehension and analytical skills in their future classrooms.

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In conclusion, effective reading strategies are essential for academic success.

They help you understand, remember, and critically evaluate the information
you read. By mastering these strategies, you can become a more efficient and
effective reader.

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CHAPTER EIGHT
Citations and Referencing Styles
8.1 Introduction
This chapter explores the crucial role of citations and referencing styles within
the domain of educational research, with a specific focus on TESOL/TEFL. It
emphasizes the importance of accurate attribution as an ethical and
academic imperative, examining the potential consequences of neglecting
proper citation practices. Additionally, the chapter will provide an overview
of common referencing styles prevalent in TESOL/TEFL research, highlighting
their key features and offering practical guidance on avoiding common
pitfalls.

8.2 Why are Citations and Referencing Important?

The sources underscore the significance of acknowledging the contributions
of fellow researchers in scholarly writing. This acknowledgement is materialized
through citations, which serve multiple critical functions:

➢ Giving Credit Where Credit is Due: Citations serve as a fundamental

gesture of respect towards the intellectual property of other researchers.
By diligently citing your sources, you acknowledge the originators of
ideas, theories, and research findings that inform your own work.
➢ Building a Foundation of Evidence: Citations play a crucial role in
substantiating the claims and arguments presented in your research. By
providing references to previous studies and authoritative sources, you
offer credible support for your assertions and enhance the
persuasiveness of your arguments.
➢ Guiding Readers Through the Research Landscape: Citations act as
signposts, guiding readers to the specific sources that have shaped your
thinking. This allows them to locate the information you have drawn
upon, enabling them to independently verify your interpretations and
explore the topic in greater depth.
➢ Positioning Your Research Within a Broader Context: Citations enable
you to situate your research within the existing body of knowledge in
your field. By connecting your work to prior research, you demonstrate

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awareness of the ongoing scholarly conversation and highlight the

unique contribution of your own study.
➢ Showcasing Research Breadth and Depth: A well-researched paper is
characterized by a comprehensive and relevant reference list. A
substantial number of citations, thoughtfully selected and integrated,
demonstrates the breadth and depth of your engagement with the
literature in your field.
➢ Upholding Academic Integrity: Perhaps the most critical aspect of
proper citation is the avoidance of plagiarism. Plagiarism, defined as
the act of presenting someone else's work as your own, is a serious
academic offence with potentially severe consequences. Accurate
and consistent citation is essential for maintaining academic integrity.

8.3 Referencing Styles: A Diverse Landscape

A variety of referencing styles exist, each with its own set of rules and
conventions governing the formatting of in-text citations and reference lists.
Some popular styles commonly employed in educational research, including
TESOL/TEFL, include:

APA (American Psychological Association): Originating in the field of

psychology, APA style has gained widespread adoption across education,
social sciences, and other disciplines. Its emphasis on the author and date of
publication makes it a suitable choice for research that prioritizes the recency
and relevance of sources.

MLA (Modern Language Association): MLA style is frequently preferred in

humanities disciplines, such as language, literature, and cultural studies. Its
detailed citation format, often including line numbers for textual analysis,
makes it well-suited for literary scholarship.

Chicago/Turabian: The Chicago Manual of Style offers two distinct formats for
citations and references: notes-bibliography and author-date. The notes-
bibliography system utilizes footnotes or endnotes for citations, while the
author-date format aligns more closely with APA style. Chicago's versatility has
led to its adoption in a wide range of disciplines.

Harvard: The Harvard referencing system, prevalent in many countries outside

the United States, shares similarities with author-date systems like APA. Its

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emphasis on clarity and consistency has made it a popular choice for

international academic publications.

It is essential to consult the specific style guide prescribed by your institution,

department, or target publication. Each style has nuances in formatting,
punctuation, and the inclusion of specific elements. Failure to adhere to these
guidelines can lead to inconsistencies in your work and potentially raise
concerns about attention to detail.

8.4 APA Style: A Closer Look

Given its prominence in education research, the sources highlight APA style as
particularly relevant for TESOL/TEFL scholars. Let's examine some key features
of APA style:

In-Text Citations

APA style utilizes an author-date system for in-text citations, requiring the
inclusion of the author's last name and the year of publication within the body
of your text. This approach serves to immediately attribute ideas and findings
to their original sources.

Parenthetical Citations: When the author's name is not directly mentioned in

your sentence, enclose both the author's last name and the publication year
in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

Example: (Smith, 2020)

Narrative Citations: When incorporating the author's name into your sentence,
place the publication year in parentheses immediately after the author's
name.

Example: Smith (2020) argues that...

Multiple Authors: For sources with three or more authors, APA style implements
a shortened format using "et al." after the first author's name in all in-text
citations, except in cases where it might create ambiguity.

Example: (Jones et al., 2019)

Direct Quotations: When incorporating direct quotations from a source,

include the page number or paragraph number (for sources without page
numbers) along with the author and year.

Example: (Garcia, 2018, p. 45)

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Reference List

A cornerstone of APA style, and indeed of all formal referencing styles, is the
comprehensive list of sources cited within your paper. This list, typically titled
"References," is placed at the end of your document and adheres to specific
formatting rules that ensure consistency and ease of retrieval. The sources
provide several key guidelines for crafting an APA reference list:

Author Information: List authors' last names followed by their initials, separated
by commas.

Example: Garcia, M., & Smith, J.

Publication Date: Include the year of publication in parentheses immediately

after the author's name.

Example: (2018)

Title: Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle, as well as any proper
nouns. Italicize the titles of books and journals.

Example: The impact of technology on language learning

Publication Information:

Books: Include the publisher's name.

Journal Articles: Provide the journal title, volume number (italicized), issue
number (in parentheses), and page range.

Websites: Include the URL of the website, omitting "https://" or "http://."

DOI (Digital Object Identifier): Whenever available, include the DOI for journal
articles, books, and other digital sources. Present DOIs as hyperlinks, omitting
the "DOI:" prefix.

Example: doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2012.688608

Retrieval Dates: For online sources with content that may change over time,
provide the date you accessed the information using "Retrieved Month Day,
Year" format.

Example: Retrieved July 12, 2023, from ...

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8.5 Common Referencing Mistakes to Avoid

Navigating the intricacies of referencing styles can be a daunting task, and
even experienced researchers can fall prey to common errors. The sources
offer guidance on avoiding some of these pitfalls:

➢ Inconsistent Formatting: One of the most frequent referencing mistakes

is inconsistency in applying the chosen style. It is crucial to maintain
uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, and the order of elements
within citations and references.
➢ Missing Information: Each referencing style requires specific elements for
different source types. Always double-check to ensure that all
necessary information (author, date, title, publication details) is included
in each reference entry. Omitting even a seemingly minor detail can
render a reference incomplete and potentially make the source difficult
to locate.
➢ Incorrect Punctuation: Punctuation marks are not mere embellishments
in referencing; they serve crucial roles in conveying meaning and
ensuring clarity. Pay close attention to the placement of commas,
periods, colons, and other punctuation marks, as even slight deviations
from the prescribed format can create confusion.
➢ Plagiarism: While plagiarism is a serious academic transgression, it can
often occur unintentionally, particularly when researchers are unfamiliar
with proper citation practices. Always enclose direct quotations within
quotation marks, and ensure that paraphrased information is
appropriately cited to acknowledge the original source. Remember,
even if you rephrase an idea in your own words, you must attribute it to
the original author.

8.6 Seeking Help and Support: You Don't Have to Navigate Alone
Mastering the art of citations and referencing is an ongoing endeavour. As
new source types emerge and styles evolve, researchers must remain vigilant
in updating their knowledge and seeking guidance when needed. The
sources, along with our conversation history, highlight several valuable
avenues for seeking help and support:

➢ Seek Guidance from Your Supervisor: Your research supervisor is a

valuable resource for addressing specific questions and concerns
related to your research project. They can provide tailored guidance on

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the preferred referencing style, clarify ambiguous formatting rules, and

offer feedback on your reference list.
➢ Utilize Library Resources: Libraries often offer a wealth of resources
dedicated to supporting researchers with citations and referencing.
Explore workshops, online guides, and one-on-one consultations with
librarians who can provide expert assistance on various referencing
styles and citation management tools.
➢ Consult Style Manuals and Reputable Websites: The official style manuals
(e.g., the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association) are considered the definitive guides for their respective
styles. These manuals provide comprehensive explanations of formatting
rules, numerous examples, and helpful tips for handling complex citation
scenarios. Additionally, numerous reputable websites, often maintained
by universities or professional organizations, offer accessible and reliable
information on referencing.
➢ Explore Citation Management Software: Citation management tools,
such as Zotero, Mendeley, and EndNote, have emerged as powerful
allies for researchers seeking to streamline their citation workflow. These
software programs enable you to store, organize, and format references
from a variety of sources. They can automatically generate citations and
bibliographies in your chosen style, significantly reducing the risk of
formatting errors. While not mentioned in the provided sources, these
tools have become increasingly popular among researchers, and I
would encourage you to explore their capabilities.

8.7 Conclusion: Embracing Accuracy and Seeking Support

The meticulous practice of citing sources and adhering to referencing styles is
paramount to maintaining the integrity and credibility of scholarly research. By
accurately attributing ideas and acknowledging the work of others, we
contribute to the collective pursuit of knowledge and ensure that the
contributions of individual researchers are recognized and valued.
Remember, mastering citations and referencing styles is an ongoing process.
As you progress in your academic journey, embrace the importance of
accuracy, remain curious, and never hesitate to seek guidance when
navigating the complex landscape of academic writing.

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