6+,36758&785(6)251$9,*$7,21:$7&+

2)),&(56$1'0$67(5 &+,()0$7(
9(56,21

WARSASH SCHOOL OF MARITIME SCIENCE

AND ENGINEERING 201/
CONTENTS
1 Load Lines 1
1.1 Generic Load Line Marks 1
1.2 Lumber Load Line Marks 4
1.3 Passenger Vessel Load Line Marks (MCM) 4
1.4 Assignment (MCM) 6
1.5 Conditions of Assignment (MCM) 9
1.6 Certification (MCM) 13
1.7 Through-life Endorsement (MCM) 14
2 Material Stress 15
2.1 Direct Stress 15
2.2 Shear Stress 15
2.3 Stress Concentration Points 15
3 Material failure Mechanisms 16
3.1 Introduction (MCM) 16
3.2 Tensile Failure (MCM) 16
3.3 Compressive Failure (MCM) 17
3.4 Metal Fatigue (MCM) 18
3.5 Brittle Ductile Transition (MCM) 18
4 Non-Destructive Examination 20
4.1 Introduction (MCM) 20
4.2 Visual Inspection (MCM) 20
4.3 Dye Penetrant (MCM) 20
4.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MCM) 20
4.5 Ultrasonic (MCM) 20
5 Global Loads 21
5.1 Hogging and Sagging Due To Waves 21
5.2 Hogging and Sagging Due To Cargo Distribution 22
5.3 Combined or Dual Hogging and Sagging 22
5.4 Hydrostatic Pressure 25
5.5 Racking 25
5.6 Torsion 26
5.7 The Proportional Effects of Waves 26
6 Local Loads 27
6.1 Panting 27
6.2 Pounding 28
6.3 Grounding and Dry Docking 28
6.4 Vibration 28
7 Structural Arrangements 29
7.1 Introduction 29
7.2 Transverse Framing System 30
7.3 Longitudinal Framing System 30
7.4 Combination Framing System 31
7.5 Plating 32
7.6 Transverse Frames 34
7.7 Solid, Plate and Bracket Floors 34
7.8 The Keel Girder 35
7.9 Basic Structural Arrangement 36
7.10 Bow Structures 36
7.11 Stern Structures 36
7.12 Bulkheads - Plate and Corrugated 37
7.13 Bulkheads - Watertight (MCM) 37
7.14 Bulkheads - Fire Class (MCM) 38
7.15 General Cargo Ships 40
7.16 Single Hull Tankers 41
7.17 Double Hull Tankers 41
7.18 Container Ships 41
7.19 Bulk Carriers 41
8 Ice Class Protection (MCM) 42
9 Corrosion 44
9.1 Introduction (MCM) 44
9.2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion (MCM) 44
9.3 Concentration Cell Corrosion (MCM) 45
9.4 Rust Corrosion (MCM) 46
9.5 Stress Corrosion (MCM) 46
9.6 Fretting Corrosion (MCM) 46
9.7 Cavitation Corrosion (and Erosion) (MCM) 46
10 Dry-docking and Maintenance 47
10.1 Introdution (MCM) 47
10.2 Hull Maintenance (MCM) 48
10.3 Rudder Maintenance (MCM) 48
10.4 Propeller Maintenance (MCM) 48
10.5 Misc. Maintenance, Repair, Modification & Overhaul Tasks (MCM) 48
10.6 Tank Inspection (MCM) 49
10.7 Undocking (MCM) 50
10.8 Planned Maintenance Systems (MCM) 50

Some topics are required for Master/ Chief Mate level examinations, but not
for Officer of the Watch level examinations. Students studying for Officer of
the Watch level examinations need not study topics marked ‘(MCM)’. Students
studying for Master/ Chief Mate level examinations should study all topics
covered in this book.
1 LOAD LINES

Note: Information in this section is based on the Statutory Instruments 1998

No. 2241 The Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998, Amended 2000
(The Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998).

1.1 GENERIC LOAD LINE MARKS

Ships carry cargo in order to make money. As a general rule, carrying more
cargo results in making more money, so there is an economic argument to
load as much cargo on a ship as is possible. However, as cargo is added to the
ship, she sinks lower into the water, increasing her draught and reducing her
freeboard. This reduction in freeboard reduces the ability of the vessel to
survive waves, and also reduces the stability of the vessel. All ships (with
some exclusions detailed later) are therefore marked on the side of the hull
with “Load Lines”, which show the minimum allowable freeboard for the
vessel. The minimum freeboard is measured from the waterline of the vessel
to the “freeboard deck”, which is the “the uppermost complete deck exposed
to weather and sea, which has permanent means of closing all openings open
to the weather, and below which all openings in the sides of the ship are
fitted with permanent means of watertight closing”. This minimum freeboard
is determined from a set of rules, and takes into account, amongst other
factors, the size, block coefficient, hull sheer and type of cargo carried. A
photo of these marks in shown in Figure 1, and a drawing of these marks is
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1 - Photograph of a Load Line Mark

© Solent University (2019) Page 1

 TF

L R
S

W
WNA

Figure 2 - Diagram of a Load Line Mark

As these are an international symbol, there are strict rules about the size of
the marks. They must conform to the dimensions shown in Figure 3. To
ensure that the marks are permanent, they are painted onto strips of metal
welded to the hull, so that they can be found even if painted over.

300mm

230mm
540mm
230mm
TF
Statutory
Freeboard
F

L R
S

300mm W
450mm WNA
All lines are 25mm thick – measurements are from the top of each line.

Figure 3 - Dimensions of a Load Line Mark

© Solent University (2019) Page 2

 The “TF”, “F”, “T”, “S”, “W” and “WNA” markings refer to “zones”. All of
the world’s seas are broken down into a series of zones, based on the
prevailing weather conditions and water density. These zones are named
after the seasons, to indicate the overall weather conditions - the main zones
do not change during the year! Not all zones are always marked on the Load
Line. The lowest zone that the ship is sailing in, or through, controls which
line the vessel can load down to. For example, in a winter zone, she can only
load so that the top of the W line is on the waterline, but in a tropical zone,
she could load additional cargo so that the top of the T line is on the
waterline. The tropical and winter lines are always equal to 1/48th of the
draught at the summer mark from the summer mark.
The zones are as follows;
Designation Meaning
TF Tropical Freshwater
F Freshwater
Tropical – always 1/48th of the summer draught above the
T
summer mark
S Summer
Winter – always 1/48th of the summer draught below the summer
W
mark
Winter North Atlantic (located 50mm below the winter mark in
WNA
the case of a ship of 100 metres or less in length)

The letters by the circular mark (LR in Figure 3, AB in Figure 1), are the
signature letters of what is known as the “assigning authority”. This is the
organisation which analyses the design of the ship, and determines what the
minimum safe freeboard is. The black bar above the circular mark represents
the point at which the freeboard is measured from.
Vessels which are exempt from the Load Line include, Ships of war, Ships
solely engaged in fishing, Pleasure vessels and Ships which do not go to sea.
Also exempt are ships under 80 tons register which are;

Engaged in coastal trade which does not involve the carriage of cargo,
such as; tugs and salvage ships, hopper barges or dredgers, ships used by
lighthouse authorities, fisheries protection, scientific research, and
military firing range control vessels

Passenger vessels with passenger certificates specifying regions where the
vessel may sail.

Ships carrying not less than 12 passengers within certain limits from shore.
Under certain circumstances, the Secretary of State may allow vessels to
sail with exemptions, detailed in Paragraph Five of the act. Some
passenger vessels may also be allocated “combination” Loadlines. These
are used when there may be spaces which are alternatively used as
passenger or cargo spaces. These are marked as “C” on the Loadline
marks, and are always below the summer Loadline.

© Solent University (2019) Page 3

1.2 LUMBER LOAD LINE MARKS
Vessels which are designed to carry timber deck cargos may have special Load
Lines, known as Lumber Load Lines, marked onto the hull. If the vessel has a
securely packaged timber deck cargo, then that cargo is assumed to be part of
the vessel, and therefore contributes to the freeboard. This is because
timber is buoyant. The vessel must have the bow protected by a forecastle
(which must be 1.80 metres high for a vessel of 75 metres or less in length, or
2.30 metres high for a vessel over 125 metres in length, with linear
interpolation used in between) of at least 7% of the LBP, and a raised quarter
deck if the vessel is less than 100 metres in length.
Lumber Load Lines are very similar to normal Load Lines, except that the
freeboard of the vessel is less because of the reasons outline in the previous
paragraph, and the winter mark is closer to the summer mark. Each of the
zones is prefixed with an “L”.
The zones are as follows:
Designation Meaning
LTF Timber Tropical Freshwater
LF Timber Freshwater
Timber Tropical – always 1/48th of the summer draught above
LT
the summer mark
LS Timber Summer
Timber Winter– always 1/36th of the summer draught below
LW
the summer mark
Timber Winter North Atlantic (only used on vessels less than
LWNA
100 metres, and located 50mm below the winter mark)

1.3 PASSENGER VESSEL LOAD LINE MARKS (MCM)

The draught of Passenger (pax) vessels, Ro-Ro (roll on / roll off) vessels, and
Ro-Ro-pax vessels changes very little during operation; therefore to a certain
extent load lines are often irrelevant to operators. However, there are
numerous regulations specifically covering intact and bilged stability of pax,
Ro-Ro and Ro-Ro-pax vessels because of associated high inherit risk to life;
these regulations are entwined, and have a huge influence on vessel design
and maximum and minimum operational parameters. So, load line regulations
are significant to the operation of pax vessels, but not directly to operators.
Passenger ships will generally be marked with ‘subdivision load lines’, often
theses are below the ordinary load lines, essentially making the ordinary load
lines surpluses during normal service. There may be several ‘Subdivision load
lines’, each one accounting for a different ship configuration given difference
in area of operation.

© Solent University (2019) Page 4

 Passenger ship draughts varies little with loading, but the implication of
collisions, grounding etc. vary significantly with area of operation, season,
and the number of passengers carried and their distribution on-board. Area of
operation etc. heavily influence a passenger ship’s arrangement of watertight
subdivision; but rather than the most onerous conditions being used to
determine a passenger ship’s arrangement of watertight subdivision, the
‘normal’ operational condition is used, and the loading condition is restricted
for more onerous conditions to improve safety of lives at sea.
A typical cruise ship will cross the North Atlantic Ocean between seasons,
alternately operating in the Mediterranean Sea and the Caribbean Sea. A
typical cruise ships is designed primarily for operating in the Mediterranean
Sea and the Caribbean Sea, a typical cruise ship’s principle ‘subdivision load
line’ will reflect this. During the North Atlantic crossing passenger numbers
are generally significantly reduced, freeboard is increased, and watertight
integrity is increased by closing all watertight doors and hatches; thereby
reducing the severity of any incident during the crossing. A typical cruise
ship’s secondary ‘subdivision load line’ will reflect this. Once in the sheltered
region of the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea then normal business
can proceed.
A typical liner is designed to circle the world, and this is reflected in its
watertight subdivision arrangement and general hull form shape. A typical
liner is likely to have only one ‘subdivision load line’, all other load lines are
likely to be surpluses.
A typical Ro-Ro/ Ro-Ro-pax vessel draught is also relatively constant, despite
often being full of Lorries and cars, the actual mass is relatively low per unit
of vehicle deck volume. A Ro-Ro or Ro-Ro-pax vessel may have two principle
subdivision load lines, one for the spring, summer and autumn, and one for
the winter season.
The following has be taken directly from the Maritime and Coastguard Agency
(MCA) published instructions for the guidance of surveyors, document MSIS
003, Part 2, Revision 1.02; an relates to the general effect of The Merchant
Shipping Load Lines Act 1995 Part IV and the regulations made thereunder.
Passenger ships to which subdivision load lines have been assigned will
ordinarily be marked with the load lines required under the Load Line
Regulations as well as with the subdivision load line or lines. Where the
lowest of the ordinary load lines is higher on the ship's side than the
uppermost subdivision load line the latter should form part of the same
marking, the vertical line of the grid being extended downwards as
necessary to reach the lowest subdivision load line. The subdivision load
line or lines should appear on the after side of the vertical line.
Where the deepest subdivision load line coincides or nearly coincides with
the Fresh Water line, the subdivision marking or markings may be indicated
on the forward side of the grid by adding C; C.1; C.1, C.2, etc.; or C.A, C.B,
etc. as the case may be according to the Class of passenger certificate
applicable to the ship.

© Solent University (2019) Page 5

 The loading of a passenger ship will usually be governed by the subdivision
load line or lines and the Owners may wish to dispense with the ordinary
load lines on the grounds that they would never be applicable. Provided the
uppermost subdivision load line is as low as, or lower than, the lowest load
line computed under the Regulations the line through the centre of the ring
may be marked on a level with the uppermost subdivision load line and the
ordinary load lines omitted. The fresh water line, however, would be
marked at the appropriate distance above the uppermost subdivision load
line with a vertical line joining the forward end of the fresh water load
line (F) to the forward end of the subdivision load line 'C.1'. In such cases
the subdivision load line (or the uppermost subdivision load line if there is
more than one) would be inserted in the load line certificate as the 'T', ‘S'
and 'W' line and the certificate endorsed as follows:
"When more than 12 passengers are carried the ship must comply
with the conditions stated on the Passenger/Passenger and Safety
Certificate."
Where no request is received from the Owner to dispense with the ordinary
load lines and where the uppermost subdivision load line is not as low on
the ship's side as the lowest load line computed under the Regulations all
the lines (ordinary load lines and subdivision load lines) should be marked
on the ship's side.
Where a ship is issued with a load line exemption certificate the markings,
in general, will be the same as those required by Regulation 15(1). Where,
however, the ship is assigned special freeboards which are less than those
permitted by Regulation 7 the markings should comply with the
requirements of Regulation 22(4).

1.4 ASSIGNMENT (MCM)

The intentions of the Load Line Act are to ensure that a vessel is strong
enough for a proposed loading condition, to ensure that she has sufficient
stability for probable loading conditions, to ensure that the crew are
sufficiently protected when working on deck in bad weather, and to ensure
that the vessel has sufficient reserve buoyancy. The current Load Line
Regulations, SI 2241 (1998) as amended by SI 1335 (2000), stem from the 1966
International convention.
In order to understand the Load Line requirements, some basic definitions are
required. Within the regulations, watertight means “capable of preventing
the passage of water in any direction”, whilst weathertight for fittings means
“water will not penetrate and enter the hull in the worst sea and weather
conditions”. In the case of a bulkhead door weathertight means
“permanently attached, made of steel or equivalent material which, together
with its frame, is of equivalent strength to the un-pierced bulkhead”. It must
be closed by permanently attached gaskets and clamping devices.
Weathertight bulkhead doors must be capable of being operated from either
side of the bulkhead and should normally open outwards.

© Solent University (2019) Page 6

 The freeboard deck is the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and
sea which has permanent means of closing all openings in its weather portions
and below which all side openings have permanent watertight closing
appliances. In effect, this is the deck which forms the top of the watertight
compartments.
The superstructure itself is defined as “decked structure on the freeboard
deck extending from side to side or such that its side plating is not inboard of
the shell by more than 4% of the ship's breadth”. An enclosed superstructure
is one where “the end bulkheads are of efficient construction and access
openings have sills and weathertight doors. All other openings in the sides
and ends (such as ports) must be fitted with weathertight closing
arrangements”. A superstructure deck is a deck forming the top of part of the
superstructure.
Narrower deck structures which open onto lower decks are known as trunks,
which are defined as “a structure having at least 60% of the ship’s breadth at
the position in which it is situated and which has the same strength as a
superstructure which opens directly into the space below the freeboard deck”
In order for a vessel to operate, she must be “assigned” a freeboard. What
this means is that the design (and the built ship herself) are examined, and
based on the shape and fittings, given, or “assigned”, a minimum freeboard
that is considered safe. It is this freeboard which is marked on the hull as the
Summer Load Line or “Plimsoll mark”.
To do this, cargo ships are classed into two main types. “Type A” vessels are
those which are designed to carry liquid cargo in bulk, whilst “Type B” vessels
are designed to carry any other type of cargo vessel. Given the type of cargo
carried, normally Type A vessels will have watertight decks, whilst Type B
vessels will only have weathertight decks. In addition, due to the free surface
effects of liquid cargos, Type A vessels normally have greater sub-division
than Type B vessels.
Tabular Freeboard
Within the Load Line act, there is a table of data which shows, either for a
Type A or Type B vessel, a minimum freeboard for the length of the vessel.
Type A vessels have smaller minimum freeboards than Type B vessels. The
freeboard listed in the table is known as the “tabular freeboard”. An
example extract from the tables is shown below;
Type A vessel Type B vessel
Length (m) Freeboard (mm) Length (mm) Freeboard (mm)
140 1803 140 2109
143 1853 143 2171

© Solent University (2019) Page 7

 If a Type B vessel meets the following requirements, then it is (in theory at
least), safer than a normal Type B vessel;

Over 100 metres in length

Adequate protection for the crew working on deck (e.g raised catwalks).

Adequate water freeing arrangements

Steel hatch covers in exposed locations

Enhanced damage survivability

If this is the case, it may be possible to reduce the freeboard towards Type A
levels, in which case the vessel is known as a Type B-60 vessel. If it meets
these Type B-60 requirements but also meets even more stringent damage
survivability requirements, then it is known as a Type B-100 vessel. A Type B-
60 vessel is allowed to reduce the tabular freeboard by 60% of the difference
between a Type B and Type A vessel of the same length. A Type B-100 vessel
is allowed to reduce the tabular freeboard by 100% of the difference between
a Type B and Type A vessel of the same length. Therefore a Type B-100 vessel
would have the same freeboard as a Type A vessel.
The freeboard from the tables is known as the tabular freeboard. For a Type
B vessel with wooden or tarpaulin hatch covers, or under 100m in length, an
additional increase is made to the tabular freeboard to increase it for safety.
This value has been determined as a safe value from historical data from
previous safe vessels and from various theoretical studies.
Block Coefficient Correction
The tabular freeboard values are based on a standard type of hull, with a
block coefficient of 0.68, and a length to depth ratio of 15. If the actual
block coefficient is different to the standard vessel, then the actual vessel
may have different sea-keeping characteristics, and will also have a different
cargo carrying capability. To take this into consideration, if the block
coefficients differ, then a correction to the freeboard is made. If the actual
block coefficient is greater than the standard, then the freeboard is increased
by formula. This is now known as the Basic freeboard.
Length and Depth Correction
Once the basic freeboard is found, corrections must be made for the length to
depth ratio. As the length to depth ratio increases, the sinkage resulting from
flooding a compartment tends to increase. For that reason, greater initial
freeboard is required. Therefore if the length to depth ratio of the actual
vessel is greater than 15, the basic freeboard has to be increased by formula.
If the length to depth ratio of the actual vessel is less than 15, and the vessel
has an enclosed superstructure running at least 60% of the length of the
vessel, then the basic freeboard can be decreased by formula. If for some
reason the deck line is not marked at the freeboard deck, e.g. because of a
radius on the sheer strake, another correction, known as the correction for
the position of deck line, is made.

© Solent University (2019) Page 8

 Superstructure Correction
The standard vessel has no superstructure. Enclosed superstructure can have
a beneficial effect in increasing reserve buoyancy, and so a reduction in
freeboard is applied based on the extent of the superstructure. This
reduction is complicated, and is found from tables based on vessel length and
superstructure length.
Sheer and Bow Height Correction
The standard vessel has a certain sheer profile along the length of the hull.
Increasing sheer will increase bow height, and hence influence the seakeeping
of the vessel. Increasing the sheer profile above the standard vessel results in
an allowable reduction in freeboard, whilst reducing the sheer profile below
the standard vessel results in an increase in freeboard. If the final bow height
is less than a specified minimum value, then an additional correction is
required to bring the bow height to a safe value.
This freeboard, resulting from the corrections to the basic freeboard, is
known as the “assigned freeboard”. It is this assigned freeboard that is then
used to mark the summer Load Line on the vessel. The tropical and winter
Load Line marks can then be found from calculation using the summer draught
of the vessel.

1.5 CONDITIONS OF ASSIGNMENT (MCM)

In order for the vessel to be “assigned” or given a freeboard, she must also
meet structural requirements. The Load Line regulations are not just
concerned with freeboard and reserve buoyancy. They also set standards for
the structure and arrangement of the vessel. Before any vessel is issued with
a load line certificate it must be shown to comply with the “conditions of
assignment” which relate mainly to;

Structural strength of the ship.

Preservation of reserve buoyancy

Physical means of preventing entry of water into the hull.

Safety of the crew on the weather deck.

Means of shedding water shipped in heavy seas from the weather deck.

Stability in the normal loaded condition (intact stability).

Degree of subdivision and stability after suffering prescribed damage.

These conditions of assignment must be complied with at all times. A "Record

of Particulars Relating to Conditions of Assignment" is completed by the
surveyor at the initial Load Line survey and a copy retained on board. You
need to be aware of these. The regulations require that “The owner and
master shall ensure that after the Load Line Certificate issuing process has
been completed, no material alteration is made to the ship, its structure and
equipment, without the approval of the Assigning Authority

© Solent University (2019) Page 9

 As previously discussed, for a vessel to be assigned a freeboard, she must
meet certain “conditions of assignment”, which relate to the structural design
of the vessel. What this effectively means is that the designer and builder
need to prove that the vessel is strong enough. The fastest, easiest and
quickest way of doing this is to build and maintain the vessel to the rules of a
classification society. These are a set of rules which the Authorities agree are
sufficient to ensure that the ship is as safe as reasonably practicable. The
structural rules are summarised as follows:
Superstructure End Bulkheads
To ensure that the superstructure is strong enough to cope with heavy seas,
the enclosed superstructure bulkheads must be “efficiently” constructed.
The sills of access openings must be of a specified height (380 mm).
Hatchways and Machinery Space Openings
Hatches and machinery space openings are either known as “position 1” or
“position 2” hatches. The type depends on the position of the hatch within
the vessel. Position 1 hatches are in the front 25% of the vessel, whilst
position 2 hatches are in the aft 75% of the vessel.
Where hatchways are closed by portable covers and tarpaulins the coamings
must be 600 mm high in position 1 and 450 mm high in position 2. The
thickness of wooden covers, strength of portable beams, number of tarpaulins
required and details of cleating and securing are all specified.
Where hatchways are closed by gasketed steel or equivalent covers, coaming
heights may be reduced, providing they are substantial. The strength of steel
covers is defined in terms of the stress and deflection under specified loads.
Factory act requirements also apply, and so coamings may actually be higher
and stronger than required by the Load Line regulations.
Machinery space openings in positions 1 and 2 must be efficiently framed and
enclosed by a casing. Doorways must have sills of a specified height and steel
weathertight doors. Any other openings must be fitted with permanently
attached steel covers and the ventilators must have adequate coamings.
Miscellaneous openings in freeboard and superstructure decks
Manholes and flush scuttles must have substantial covers. Openings other
than these must, if on the freeboard deck, be protected by an enclosed
superstructure or equivalent. Where such an opening gives access below that
deck then such opening must be protected by a deckhouse with weathertight
doors and sills.
Ventilators
Ventilators leading to spaces within enclosed superstructures or below the
freeboard deck must be of substantial construction with sills of specified
height according to their position. Unless the coaming exceeds a certain
height or leads to a battery room, all ventilators in position 1 and 2 must be
provided with an efficient weathertight closing appliance. In vessels less than
100 m length they must be permanently attached to the ventilator to which
they belong.
© Solent University (2019) Page 10
 Air pipes
Air pipes to tanks must be of substantial construction with the openings a
specified distance above the deck and fitted with a permanently attached
weathertight closing appliance.
Cargo ports and similar openings
Such openings must be kept to a minimum, of efficient construction, fitted
with watertight doors and in general will not be allowed with a sill below the
uppermost Load Line.
Scuppers, inlets and discharges
Discharges through the shell from spaces below the freeboard deck (or from
enclosed superstructures or deck houses with weathertight doors) must have
means of preventing water passing inboard. Scuppers from non-enclosed
spaces should be led directly overboard. Scuppers originating at any level and
penetrating the shell near the waterline must either have a non-return valve
at the shell or be of substantial thickness. In the machinery space controls for
ship side valves must be readily accessible and if the space is unattended
alarms must be provided to warn of the ingress of water.
Freeing ports
Approved means of freeing water off decks must be provided, the freeing port
area being calculated by formula.
Protection of crew
Deckhouse accommodation must be of efficient construction and the
perimeter of all decks must be provided with railings or bulwarks of specified
height. Gangways and access spaces must have adequate handrails, ladders
and safety fittings.
In addition to these general conditions, there are additional conditions for
Type A vessels only.
Machinery space casings (Type A vessel only)
The casing protecting the machinery space opening in position 1 or 2 shall be
protected by an enclosed poop or equivalent. The casing may however be
exposed if there is no direct access from the freeboard deck or if the only
access is via a space with steel weathertight doors at each end.

© Solent University (2019) Page 11

 Gangway and access (Type A vessel only)
Between poop and detached bridge there must be either a permanent
gangway at superstructure level at least 1 m wide fitted with approved
railings, or wires or an under-deck passage. This must be immediately below
the freeboard deck, not nearer the shell than B/5 unless two are fitted, oil
and gas tight with approved lighting, ventilation, gas detection and access to
the freeboard deck. Where crew may be required to go forward of the bridge
in adverse weather a gangway or an under-deck passage is required. There
should be a walkway at least one metre wide, on the centre line, fitted with
guard rails or wires and shelters at 45 metre intervals where the walkway
length exceeds 70 m.
Hatch covers (Type A vessel only)
All hatch covers in exposed positions must be of efficient steel construction
and watertight when closed.
Freeing arrangements (Type A vessel only)
All decks should have rails instead of bulwarks for at least half their length.
The upper edge of the sheer strake shall be as low as practicable. If water
may build up on deck then a breakwater must be fitted. There are additional
conditions for Type B vessels only:
Gangway and access (Type B vessel only)
The ship must have a gangway, walkway or under-deck passage as for a Type
A or access between poop and detached bridge may be by a gangway as for
Type A except that it needn't be at superstructure level. In practice this
mean access is across the hatch covers on the centreline. Forward of the
bridge the access may be as above or by two walkways 1 metre wide alongside
the hatch coamings and fenced on the outboard side with rails or wires.
Breakwaters must be fitted where appropriate.
There are further additional conditions for vessels carrying timber.
Additional conditions for vessels carrying timber
These vessels must have;

A foc'sle at least 7% of ship's length.

If < 100 m length a poop or similar structure aft.

Adequate longitudinal subdivision of double bottom in the midships half
length.

Bulwarks or guard rails of especially strong construction 1 metre high.

© Solent University (2019) Page 12

1.6 CERTIFICATION (MCM)
Once the vessel has been constructed, and can be proved to meet the
conditions of assignment, the certification process can start. An application is
made to an assigning authority to inspect the vessel and start the certification
process. The MCA, Lloyd's Register of Shipping and the British committees of
the American Bureau of Shipping, Bureau Veritas, Det Norske Veritas and
Germanischer Lloyd are examples of assigning authorities.
Application is made to the authority, including plans and documents relating
to the design and construction as may be required. The assigning authority
then;

Appoints a surveyor who surveys the ship to ascertain any information
necessary for the freeboard computation;

Checks that the vessel complies with all the Conditions of Assignment;

Obtains any information necessary for stability and stress data to be
prepared.
The Load Line Regulations list the particular data required. The surveyor then
submits his report and "The record of particulars relating to the conditions of
assignment". When satisfied that the vessel complies with the conditions of
assignment, and where necessary, having obtained MCA approval of the
stability data the assigning authority gives the ship owner directions on the
particulars and positions of the Load Lines to be marked and two copies of the
surveyor's report. Lines are permanently marked on the hull, by welded strip.
When the marks have been approved the certificate will be issued.
The load line certificate may be issued for a period not exceeding 5 years.
Where application for a new certificate has been made and the ship is duly
surveyed but it is not reasonably practicable to issue the certificate an
extension up to 5 months may be granted. The MCA may cancel a load line
certificate if;

The vessel ceases to comply with the conditions of assignment.

The structural strength is lowered to the extent that the ship is unsafe.

The information on which freeboards were assigned was incorrect.

If the certificate is not endorsed to show compliance with periodical
inspections.

© Solent University (2019) Page 13

1.7 THROUGH-LIFE ENDORSEMENT (MCM)
A United Kingdom ship is subject to initial, periodical and annual Load Line
surveys to ensure compliance with the conditions of assignment.
An initial survey in undertaken before the ship is put into service, and
includes:

Complete inspection of its structure and equipment;

Checks that the arrangements, materials and scantlings comply fully with
the requirements of the Regulations.

A periodical (renewal) survey is undertaken at intervals not exceeding five

years, and ensures that the structure, equipment, arrangements, materials
and scantlings comply fully with the requirements of the Regulations.
An annual survey is undertaken within three months either way of each annual
anniversary date of the load line certificate, to ensure that no alterations
have been made to the hull or superstructures which would affect the basis on
which the position of the load line had been assigned and that the fittings and
appliances for the protection of openings, the guard rails, the freeing ports
and the means of access to crew's quarters are maintained in an effective
condition.
After a satisfactory annual survey the surveyor shall endorse the International
Load Line Certificate (1966) or, as the case may be, the United Kingdom Load
Line Certificate, accordingly.

© Solent University (2019) Page 14

2 MATERIAL STRESS
The effects of the sea, cargo and propulsion impart a range of forces on to
the structure of a ship, in a range of directions, magnitudes and timeframes.
Each of these forces creates stress (either compressive, tensile, or shear) in
the ship’s structure. Stress is defined as the force per unit area.

2.1 DIRECT STRESS

Direct stress is caused when either a compressive or tensile force is applied to
an object, as shown below;

       

        
   

2.2 SHEAR STRESS

Shear stress is caused when misaligned forces are applied to an object, as
shown below;

   
  
   

2.3 STRESS CONCENTRATION POINTS

The stress can be increased by stress concentration points (also known as
stress raisers or discontinuities). If a piece of structure has any form of hole in
it (or a change in shape) then the stress around the hole will be greater than
the stress in the structure away from the hole. The actual increase in stress
depends on how round the opening in the structure is. Note that on all ships,
you very rarely see sharp angles, corners, or square holes in the structure.

© Solent University (2019) Page 15

3 MATERIAL FAILURE MECHANISMS
3.1 INTRODUCTION (MCM)
All materials have a stress level at which they will fail, so the structures are
designed to keep the stress within acceptable levels – typically up to about
33% of the tensile failure stress for the main structural components. As stress
is defined load per unit of area, then the two factors that affect the stress in
a piece of material are the load applied, and the size of the material.
Therefore stress can be reduced by either reducing the load (not very easy on
a ship) or increasing the size of the component. However, larger components
are more expensive, and result in a heavier ship. A heavier ship can carry less
cargo and requires more fuel. This makes the vessel less economic. Ship
structures are therefore a trade-off between acceptable stress levels and
displacement whilst keeping the risk of structural failure as low as is
reasonable possible.

3.2 TENSILE FAILURE (MCM)

Tensile Failure occurs when the tensile stress within a material is greater than
the material can support. The maximum load a material can withstand under
tension is tested with tensile tests. In a tensile test, a sample of the material
is loaded in tension, with the load gradually increased. As the load is
increased, the extension of the material is measured. From the extension and
load, the stress can be determined.
Tensile Failure – Ferrous metals
The graph of stress and strain (a measure of the extension of a piece of
structure) for a ferrous material shows distinct features – an example of this is
shown in Figure 4. The curve shows two specific regions, a linear section,
known as the elastic region, and a non-linear section, known as the plastic
region. In the “elastic region” the stress is proportional to strain. If the load
is removed in the elastic region, the material returns to the original
dimensions and no damage is usually done. In the “plastic region” of loading,
removing the load will not cause the material to go back to the original
dimensions. The material has been permanently deformed (known as
permanent set). Between the two regions there is a noticeable “hook” in the
graph, as the material goes from an elastic condition to a plastic condition.
These graphs show two points of use – the yield stress and the ultimate tensile
stress. By knowing the yield and ultimate points, the structure can be
designed to be safe from structural failure in normal conditions.

© Solent University (2019) Page 16

 Figure 4 - Force Extension Graph for a Ferrous Metal

Tensile Failure – Non-Ferrous Metals

Non-ferrous materials show a slightly different type of material failure in
tension. For non-ferrous metals it is not as easy to determine a specific yield
point. Instead of yield, the load is found that would give a 0.2% stretch. This
is known as the 0.2% proof stress, and is taken to be the maximum allowable
load. To find this, a line is drawn on the stress strain curve, parallel to the
initial slope of the curve, from the point of 0.2% strain. The 0.2% proof stress
is taken at the intersection of this line and the curve.

3.3 COMPRESSIVE FAILURE (MCM)

In a similar way to tensile failure, a material can fail in compression. The
pure compressive failure stress is much harder to test, as it is generally occurs
at much higher than tensile failure. In compression, buckling of the material
is much more likely than pure compressive material failure.
Buckling Failure
Buckling occurs when the compressive load is very slightly off-centre. This
causes a slight bending moment within the material. The bending moment
loads one side of the material in compression, and one side in tension, which
can exceed the maximum safe tensile stress. This part fails, causing a
reduction in area and an increase in stress, rapidly causing more failure.

© Solent University (2019) Page 17

3.4 METAL FATIGUE (MCM)
Metal fatigue is a large cause of structural failure, and is dangerous in that it
causes materials to fail at significantly lower loads than would normally be
expected. Metal fatigue is the result of repeated cyclic loading of structural
components. This causes “slip” within the grains of the material, causing
microscopic cracks between the grain boundaries. Further loading causes the
microscopic cracks to propagate through the material, becoming significantly
larger cracks. These cracks then work through the material as the cyclic
loading loads and unloads the failure point. Once the crack grows to a certain
size, the crack acts as a microscopic stress concentration point, increasing
local stress significantly and making the whole process of material failure
much faster.
A reduction in the intact cross section area then increases the background
stress levels, causing further, faster failure. Often items which have failed in
fatigue are characterised by ribbed “beach” or “conchoidal” markings. These
are caused by the surfaces polishing cyclically.
The fatigue of materials can be predicted using standard tests. A test sample
is attached to a motor, with a mass suspended from the test piece. The motor
is run, with the revolutions to failure recorded. This allows the fatigue limit of
a piece of material to be determined. The number of cycles to failure for a
given stress is plotted on a curve, known as an S-N curve.

3.5 BRITTLE DUCTILE TRANSITION (MCM)

Low carbon steels are relatively ductile at room temperature. Certain steels
(those having a body centre cubic structure at low temperatures) behave
differently at low temperatures, typical of the North Atlantic in winter, and
can become extremely brittle. This is because certain types of steel undergo
changes in the structure of their crystals at low temperatures. Under certain
circumstances, the ultimate tensile stress coincides with the yield stress, and
the structure is then effectively seriously weakened. If the structure is then
broken by any other failure method, then the brittle crack in the metal occurs
in a particular crystalline plane, which releases a significant amount of
energy, and propagates the crack very quickly through the structure.
This was first realised to be a problem in ship building during the second
world war, when all welded ships were first constructed. A number of
American “Liberty Ships” and tankers suffered from this problem, with 30% of
over 2700 ships built suffering from fractures (Wright, 2005). The problem
was severe enough that 19 ships literally broke in two whilst at sea. These
135m LBP, 7000t deadweight vessels were built extremely quickly – on
average only 230 days to build at the start of the war, and 44 days by the end.
352 of the vessels were built in 30 days or less (Davies, 2004). This may
explain some of the workmanship problems in the steel!
Modern steels should not suffer in the same way, however poor welding
operations may result in certain areas of the structure behaving in this
manner.

© Solent University (2019) Page 18

 Failure in the brittle ductile mechanism can usually be seen by “chevron”
marks on the fracture surface, which point towards the point of initial failure.
Following tests on recently recovered hull samples, it is alleged that the steel
on the Titanic may have been of a composition where brittle ductile fracture
could have occurred in sea water of a higher temperature than during the
accident. It is possible that individual plates on the Titanic failed in brittle
ductile fracture. Chemical testing revealed a low manganese content, and
higher levels of sulphur, phosphorus, and oxygen than would be permitted
today in mild steel. Other tested fragments of the hull have shown variations
in results. The ductile-brittle transition temperature of the steel was found
to be as high as 32°C, compared with -15°C for a reference sample of modern
steel, with an impact stress of 1/3 normal steel (Felkins, Leighly, & Jankovic,
1998). The water temperature was -2°C on the night the ship collided with
the iceberg.

© Solent University (2019) Page 19

4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION (MCM)

Knowing how materials fail can help in predicting the failure of components,
or understanding when a dangerous situation may occur. Tensile testing etc.
may be used – but these all result in the destruction of the test piece and are
not suitable for large components. As a result, non-destructive techniques
have been developed for surveyors to examine parts of the structure in the
ship.

4.2 VISUAL INSPECTION (MCM)

This involves a simple check of the component for signs of damage. It will
only show defects which break the surface, and requires light and/or
microscopes to be effective.

4.3 DYE PENETRANT (MCM)

Dye penetrant tests use coloured dyes to highlight surface defects. The
surfaces must be completely clean of oil, rust, residues etc. A special dye is
sprayed or brushed over the surface, and capillary action draws the dye down
into defects. Excess dye is removed and a chalk powder is then applied. This
reverses the capillary action and the dye shows up in the surface defects.
Some dyes are designed to glow under UV light to make the defect clearer.

4.4 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MCM)

Magnetic particle inspection methods show defects on the surface or close to
the surface of ferrous, magnetic materials. Defects in the material distort
the magnetic field around the material if the component is magnetised. Fine
powered metal is applied to the material, which aligns itself to the magnetic
field and highlights distortions in the magnetic field.

4.5 ULTRASONIC (MCM)

Ultrasonic methods show internal defects in materials, and can be thought of
as “solid radar”. The signal bounces off internal defects. Radiography is
similar.

© Solent University (2019) Page 20

5 GLOBAL LOADS
Global loads are loads which have an influence on the entire ship, and are
generally caused by wave action and cargo loading.

5.1 HOGGING AND SAGGING DUE TO WAVES

Ships are constantly subjected to two forces, gravity and buoyancy. Gravity
(acting down) affects the entire vessel and acts along the whole length of the
vessel, whilst buoyancy (acting up) only acts on the underwater sections of
the vessel.
In waves, the distribution of buoyancy changes as the waves move along the
vessel, especially in head seas and following seas. This is most apparent when
the wave length is the same or similar to the ship length. When the peaks are
at the bow and stern, and the trough at amidships, the buoyancy force is
shifted to the ends of the vessel. The bow and stern are forced upwards by
buoyancy, and the amidships is pulled downwards by gravity, this is known as
“sagging”.
When the troughs are at the bow and stern, and the peak at amidships, the
buoyancy force is shifted to the centre of the vessel. The amidships is forced
upwards by buoyancy, and the bow and stern are pulled downwards by
gravity, this is known as “hogging”.
Hogging and sagging due to waves create tension and compression in the keel
and deck.

© Solent University (2019) Page 21

5.2 HOGGING AND SAGGING DUE TO CARGO DISTRIBUTION
Even in still water, the vessel can be made to hog and sag by the distribution
of cargo. It is possible to break a ship in half by careless loading of the
components.
If all of the cargo is loaded in the middle of the vessel, then the vessel will
sag, whilst if all of the cargo is loaded in the ends of the vessel, then the
vessel will hog.

5.3 COMBINED OR DUAL HOGGING AND SAGGING

When the hogging or sagging due to the cargo distribution (still water) and
waves is added together, then significant stresses may be generated. Cargo
loading must be carefully planned to make sure limits are not exceeded.

© Solent University (2019) Page 22

 The vertical imbalance of the upwards acting buoyancy and downwards acting
mass forces which are created by hogging and sagging create “shear forces”
acting vertically in the vessel.

The distortion in the vessel when hogging and sagging (known as the bending
moment) creates compression and tension in the keel or deck.

© Solent University (2019) Page 23

 Ships have “still water” or “harbour” limits for shear force and bending
moment. These are calculated and set by the naval architects and
classification societies. These include a big safety margin for the effects of
waves, so in theory if these values are not exceeded the vessel should keep
within the limits of stress caused by hogging and sagging. Most ships are
equipped with software which will calculate the shear force and bending
moment for a given cargo and fuel distribution etc. The values vary along the
length of the vessel, so they are normally shown as a graph of shear force and
bending moment against ship length, as shown below.

The stress generated by hogging and sagging are absorbed by the major
longitudinal items of structure in the vessel, such as the keel girder, bottom
girders and deck girders. The actual stress distribution varies with the depth
of the hull. At a point called the neutral axis (this occurs at the centre of
area of the cross section), there is no tension or compression. The stress is
proportional to the vertical distance away from the neutral axis.

© Solent University (2019) Page 24

5.4 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Water pressure, or hydrostatic pressure, increases in a linear relationship with
depth. This pressure of water tries to crush the ship, and so structure is
required to resist the forces. In order for the vessel to float, the overall
hydrostatic pressure exerts a force on the ship equal to the mass of the ship
itself. This pressure can cause distortion in the hull.

Figure 5 - Hydrostatic Pressure Distortion

The water pressure acts against the hull plating, which itself transmits the
loads to the both the longitudinal girders and the transverse frames.

5.5 RACKING
Transverse loads from waves (or tugs) can cause the vessel to distort
sideways. These are known as racking loads.

Figure 6 - Racking Distortion

These forces are absorbed by the transverse frames which loop around the
inside of the vessel, and also by transverse bulkheads.

© Solent University (2019) Page 25

5.6 TORSION
Torsion loads are twisting loads created along the whole hull length, caused
by quartering seas. This creates stress in the deck edges and bilge turn.
Torsion is a particular problem with container ships, which are often fitted
with additional girders to resist the loads, known as torsion boxes.

5.7 THE PROPORTIONAL EFFECTS OF WAVES

The largest global load on large vessels (approximately 120 metres and over)
are typically caused by the effects of hogging and sagging from the sea, whilst
on smaller vessels the largest load is typically from the hydrostatic pressure.
This is because larger vessels proportionally suffer more from hogging and
sagging in large seas. It can be seen below that larger vessels have more of a
variation in buoyancy distribution than smaller vessels for a constant size of
wave.

© Solent University (2019) Page 26

6 LOCAL LOADS
Local loads are those which act over small a area of the vessel, for example;

Fluid pressure from tank contents

Localised force from cargo resting on the ship structure

Load around the base of cranes

Local loads are generally taken by local structure, for example extra thick
decks, bracing around the base of cranes, and thick tank bulkheads. There
are, however, several local loads that need to be examined in more detail.

6.1 PANTING
As a ship moves through the water, especially in head seas, the water tends to
push in and out in a cyclic fashion around the waterline in the bows of the
vessel. This creates pressure “pulses” around the sides of the bow, and
sometimes, to a lesser extent, around the stern, as shown below. Over time,
these pulses can cause fatigue in the metal, and hence the risk of structural
damage. There are specific structural components in the bow designed to
absorb these loads.

© Solent University (2019) Page 27

6.2 POUNDING
As a ship moves through the water, especially in large head seas, the bow
tends to lift clear of the water. As it drops back into the sea, the vessel
“slams” at the forefoot, known as pounding. This can cause impact damage
around the bow, and can also start vibrations, known as “hull whipping”,
which run along the length of the ship. There are specific structural
components in the bow designed to absorb these loads. To a lesser extent, a
similar effect can occur at the stern.

6.3 GROUNDING AND DRY DOCKING

During dry docking or grounding the stern of the vessel normally grounds first.
This creates a high local load around the stern of the vessel, and some global
loads (discussed later). The stern of the vessel is designed to cope with these
extra loads.

6.4 VIBRATION
Vibration can cause stress within the structure, and can increase the effects
of metal fatigue. Vibration is the periodic motion of the structure and can
occur vertically, horizontally or in torsion. These vibrations occur in three
main forms;

Synchronous – where items of structure resonate with noise from
machinery.

Local - where items of structure vibrate with noise from machinery.

Wave induced – normally as a result of pounding.

© Solent University (2019) Page 28

7 STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The structure of most ships can be broadly broken down into generic
components and arrangements. The main structural components in a ship can
be divided into transverse members (across the beam) and longitudinal (fore
and aft) members.

The exact arrangement depends on the type of vessel and the size of the
vessel. All ships have longitudinal and transverse structural members, but to
varying extents, however the basic layout is very similar in all ships.
As previously stated, in smaller craft, the major load acting on the vessel is
the hydrostatic pressure, whilst in larger ships, the major load acting on the
vessel is the tension and compression generated by hogging and sagging due to
cargo and waves. This is because, when compared to oceanic waves, small
craft (where the length of the craft is significantly less than the length of the
waves) tend to “contour” over the waves, and suffer less hogging and sagging
compared to larger craft which might bridge the wavelength and therefore
suffer more effects from hogging and sagging.

© Solent University (2019) Page 29

7.2 TRANSVERSE FRAMING SYSTEM
The keel is connected to transverse frames, which run around the inside of
the vessel. These are sometimes known as “ribs” in smaller craft. As
previously mentioned, smaller vessels are proportionally more affected by
hydrostatic pressure loading than loads from hogging and sagging. The loads
from hydrostatic pressure are distributed by the transverse structure of the
vessel, therefore smaller craft tend to have a small amount of longitudinal
structure, and lots of transverse structure. This is known as a transverse
framing system, and allows a lot of internal space for cargo.

7.3 LONGITUDINAL FRAMING SYSTEM

In larger vessels, more longitudinal structure is required. This is normally
because, as previously described, hogging and sagging forces due to waves are
greater in large vessels than in small craft. There are more longitudinal
girders running fore and aft in the base of the hull. The transverse frames
further apart, with larger frames, known as web frames, every few frames.
Longitudinal framing systems give excellent longitudinal strength, but take up
more internal volume than transverse systems. This reduces the solid cargo
carrying capacity.

© Solent University (2019) Page 30

7.4 COMBINATION FRAMING SYSTEM
Large vessels need the longitudinal strength of a longitudinal framing system
but the internal volume of a transverse system. To get around this problem,
most vessels use a “combination” framing system. This concentrates the
longitudinal structure along the base of the hull and the underside of the
deck, but still has a transverse system around the hull. This gives a good
compromise between cargo space and structural strength.

The longitudinal structure takes the tension and compression caused by

hogging and sagging, whilst the transverse structure takes the loads caused by
racking and hydrostatic pressure. The transverse frames also support the
shell plating.
Regardless of the framing system used, all vessels will have some longitudinal
structure and some transverse structure, along with hull plating.

© Solent University (2019) Page 31

7.5 PLATING
The job of the shell plating is to resist hydrostatic pressure and keep the
inside of the vessel dry. The plating must be designed to be both strong
enough to resist the loads (which it can do, but it will distort in the process),
and also stiff enough not to deform significantly. Plates are normally aligned
in rows running fore and aft, in a similar way to planks on wooden ships.
These rows of plating are referred to as strakes or runs.

The steel used in ships is not a uniform type and quality. Mild steels for ships
classed with Lloyds register are supplied in 4 grades, A, B, D and E, (Grade C
may be supplied for other classification societies such as the American Bureau
of Shipping). The grades are mainly distinguished by their toughness
(resistance to allow fractures to move through the material), with Grade A
being the least tough, but also cheapest. Different grades are used in
different sections of the hull. The strakes subject to the highest stress (those
away from the neutral axis) are usually fabricated from higher quality steel.
There are also higher quality strakes within the hull to stop cracks forming in
the hull, and reduce the danger of cracks propagating around the vessel in a
way similar to the liberty ships. The exact positioning depends on
classification society rules.
To make solid plate strong enough not to deform, the thickness of the plate
must be so much that it is extremely heavy. To get around this problem,
thinner plates are fitted with stiffeners (also known as stringers). This makes
the plate both strong enough and rigid enough. In the following figure the left
hand plate has these stiffeners attached, whilst the right hand plate has not.
The right hand plate is thicker, and has the same equivalent stiffness as the
left hand plate. The difference in mass of the two plates is obvious!

© Solent University (2019) Page 32

 1m
Stiffeners

1m

Plating
1m
1m

Thickness Mass (kg) Section Modulus

(mm) (m3)
Flat 61 475.8 1622
Stiffened 20 195 1622
.

Often a diagram known as the Shell Expansion Plan is used to show the
arrangement and position of plates on the vessel. The shell expansion plan is
also used for identification of individual plates, with strakes lettered, and
plates numbered. The individual plate thicknesses and steel grade will be
indicated. The plan will also show the position of decks, transverse bulkheads,
frames (numbered from aft), stringers, all openings in the hull, etc.

© Solent University (2019) Page 33

7.6 TRANSVERSE FRAMES
All vessels will have some sort of transverse structure. Transverse frames are
normally made of 3 sets of main components, and strengthened using brackets
or “knees”. A typical transverse frame is shown below.

The bottom of the frames (known as the “floors” or “deep floors”) may be
one of three designs.

7.7 SOLID, PLATE AND BRACKET FLOORS

Solid floors are used in the stern and bow, to resist pounding loads, under
watertight bulkheads to create the watertight seal, and under the engines to
reduce vibration.

© Solent University (2019) Page 34

 In areas of lighter loading, bracket floors or plate floors may be used.

7.8 THE KEEL GIRDER

The keel girder is the backbone of the vessel, running all the way along the
base of the ship on the centreline. Virtually every other main item of
structure is connected to the keel in some way. The exact arrangement of the
keel varies between ship type and size.
Bar Keels
These consist of one or more solid bars on the underside of the vessel,
supported by frames running around the inside of the vessel. Bar keels were
traditionally used on older vessels, but are less common on newer ships. They
are a very strong but heavy structure. They are still used on small vessels
(tugs etc.) where grounding is a risk.
Plate Keels
These consist of a solid plate, which is supported by frames running around
the vessel. These are lighter than bar keels, but more complex to fabricate
and not as strong.
Duct Keels
These consist of solid plates, welded into a box shape. This is the most
common method of building the keel for larger vessels. The duct keel is strong
and light, and good at resisting flexing. Duct keels also provide a useful
protected cable and pipe run fore and aft.

© Solent University (2019) Page 35

7.9 BASIC STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT
All of these components looked at so far can be can be put together to form a
very basic hull section. Remember:

The longitudinal structure takes up the torsion, hogging and sagging loads.

The transverse structure takes up the racking and hydrostatic pressure.

The plating keeps the interior of the ship dry.

For illustrations please see myCourse. On myCourse you will find PowerPoint
slides with labelled typical structural arrangements.

7.10 BOW STRUCTURES

Bar and Plate Stem Bow
The bow structure must resist a range of loads, and must also offer some
protection in the event of a collision. The structure is built onto a bulkhead
known as the collision bulkhead, which is itself attached to the keel and all
the longitudinal structure. This bulkhead is designed to stop the vessel
flooding in the event of the vessel driving into another object.
Bulbous Bows
The bulbous bow structure must resist the same type loads as a bar and stem
bow, however these may be larger on a bulbous bow, as the bow is typically
blunter and therefore less hydrodynamic.
Again the structure is built onto the collision bulkhead, which is itself
attached to the keel and all the longitudinal structure. The structure is
basically a mesh of transverse and longitudinal stringers and moderately thin
plates, designed to produce a very strong yet light structure.

7.11 STERN STRUCTURES

The stern structure must also resist a range of loads. The propeller itself is
heavy, and must be supported, as must the rudder. The rudder creates
significant loads in turning which must be transmitted to the ship. The stern
must also take pounding loads in head and following seas, pressure pulsing
from the propeller and grounding/ dry docking forces.
There are a wide range of stern structures, depending on the stern shape
(cruiser, transom), the propulsion method, and the number of propulsors.

© Solent University (2019) Page 36

7.12 BULKHEADS - PLATE AND CORRUGATED
Bulkheads have three main roles – to provide transverse strength to the
vessel, and to give flooding and fire subdivision. These will be discussed in
detail later. There are two main methods of constructing a bulkhead - either
using plates, or corrugated sections.
Plate bulkheads are made of series of plates, often with thicker strakes
towards the base of the bulkhead – this will be discussed later. In a similar
way to hull plating, the bulkhead must be made more rigid with stiffeners.
To reduce labour costs associated with cutting and fitting bulkhead stiffeners,
some bulkheads are made from pre-formed corrugated plates. These are
aligned vertically, with flat plates around the turn of the bilge and sheer
strakes. These corrugated sections do not require stiffeners, but they are
difficult to fit perfectly with watertight decks. As they are vertically fitted,
the thickness is constant down the depth of the bulkhead, so they may
proportionally be heavier than plate bulkheads.

7.13 BULKHEADS - WATERTIGHT (MCM)

Watertight bulkheads must be capable of supporting the hydrostatic pressure
in bilged compartments following damage to the ship. The bulkheads must be
strong enough to contain the entire compartment filling with water to the
freeboard deck. The hydrostatic pressure is proportional to the depth of
water, so the hydrostatic pressure is greater lower down the bulkhead. Most
bulkheads are thicker towards the keel to compensate for this, which allows
for a more efficient, lighter structure which helps in keeping the lightship KG
low. Vertical stiffeners are used to support the bulkhead and reduce the
plating thickness to a minimum. Openings within bulkheads have to be kept to
a minimum, with the same structural strength as the surrounding bulkhead.
Watertight bulkheads must be hose tested during the build stage to ensure
that they are watertight.
The forward collision bulkhead is designed to minimise flooding and damage in
a forward end collision. It forms the aft boundary of the forepeak, and is not
less than 5% LBP and not more than 7.5% LBP from the forward end of the
summer waterline. The forward collision bulkhead runs up to the uppermost
continuous watertight deck, and is, by class rule, thicker than the other
bulkheads.
The after peak bulkhead is normally the aft collision bulkhead. This forms a
watertight enclosure for the stern tube (where the propeller shaft exits the
hull) to contain stern tube leaks. If the engine room and machinery are aft
then the aft machinery space bulkhead can double for this bulkhead.
Machinery bulkheads prevent damage to machinery from flooding, and localise
fire. They have to extend to the bulkhead deck.
Collision bulkheads must be tested during building by physically filling the
spaces to the waterline and checking for leaks.

© Solent University (2019) Page 37

7.14 BULKHEADS - FIRE CLASS (MCM)
Bulkheads provide the primary edges of the fire zones. Depending on the level
of protection, they are classed as one of three types, A, B and C, and have a
number attached which designates the time they are expected to survive fire
conditions. The classification of bulkhead required relates to the “standard
fire test”. This is a test where samples of the relevant bulkheads and decks
are exposed in a test furnace to temperatures corresponding approximately to
the standard time-temperature curve of a fire. The time-temperature
relationship is designed to mimic a fire building up.

Standard Fire Test

950

900

850

800
Temp, Degrees C

750

700

650

600

550

500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tim e, minutes

Type A bulkheads must be built of steel or other equivalent material, and

must be suitably stiffened to avoid buckling in intense heat. They must be
capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flame to the end of the 60
minute standard fire test. They must be insulated with approved non-
combustible materials, so that the average temperature of the unexposed side
will not rise more than 140°C above the original temperature. The
temperature, at any one point, including any joint, must not rise more than
180°C above the original temperature, within the time listed below:

Class “A-60” - 60 min

Class “A-30”- 30 mm

Class “A-15” - 15 min

Class “A-0” - 0 min

Type B bulkheads must be capable of preventing the passage of flame to the

end of the first 30 minutes of the standard fire test. They must be
constructed of approved non-combustible materials and all materials used in
the construction of "B" class divisions must be non-combustible, with the
© Solent University (2019) Page 38
 exception that combustible veneers may be permitted provided they meet
other requirements relating to toxicity. They must have an insulation value
such that the average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more
than 140°C above the original temperature, nor will the temperature at any
one point, including any joint, rise more than 225°C above the original
temperature, within the time listed below:

Class "B-15" 15 min

Class "B-0" 0 min

Type C bulkheads are divisions constructed of approved non-combustible

materials.
There are no requirements relative to the passage of smoke and flame or
limitations relative to the temperature rise. Combustible veneers are
permitted provided they have low flame-spread characteristics, do not
produce excessive quantities of smoke and/or toxic products and a total
allowable thickness or volume of veneer is not exceeded.
Different spaces require different types of bulkheads between them, as per
the table below.

© Solent University (2019) Page 39

 Spaces (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

Control Stations (1) A-60 A-30 A-30 A-0 A-0 A-60 A-60 A-60 A-0 A-0 A-60 A-60 A-60 A-60

Stairways (2) A-15 A-30 A-60

A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-30 A-60 A-15 A-60
A-0 A-0 A-15

Corridors (3) A-30 A-30 A-15

A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-30 A-60 A-60
A-0 A-0 A-0

© Solent University (2019)

Lifeboat Stations (4) - - A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-60 A-0 A-60

Open Deck Spaces (5) - A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0

7.15 GENERAL CARGO SHIPS

Accommodation (Minor A-15 A-30 A-30 A-15 A-15
Fire Risk) (6) A-0 A-0 A-30 A-30
A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0

Accommodation

reduce the stress concentrations.

A-30 A-60 A-30 A-30
(Moderate Fire Risk) (7) A-0 A-0 A-60 A-60
A-0 A-15 A-0 A-0

Accommodation (High A-60 A-60 A-30

Fire Risk) (8) A-0 A-0 A-60 A-60
A-15 A-15 A-0

Sanitary and Similar

A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0
Spaces (9)
Tanks, Void And Low
A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0 A-0
Risk Auxiliary Spaces (10)
Tanks, Void And
Moderate Risk Auxiliary A-0 A-60 A-0 A-60
Spaces (11)
Machinery Spaces And A-30
Galleys (12) A-60 A-60
A-15

Stores and Workshops

A-0 A-30
(13)
Flammable Liquid Stores
A-60
(14)

reinforced with large hatch coamings, “gusset” and “doubler” plates to

openings in the deck for hatches create local areas of high stress, and so are
The structure is a combination system, with tween decks supported by pillars.
This gives maximum internal volume with suitable longitudinal strength. Large

Page 40
7.16 SINGLE HULL TANKERS
The structure is based on a longitudinal system, as the fluid cargo takes up
the volume available. The loss in internal cargo volume normally associated
with longitudinal framing systems is therefore not an issue. These single skin
vessels are still legal in some waters but are slowly being replaced or
converted to double hulls.

7.17 DOUBLE HULL TANKERS

The structure is again based on a longitudinal system. The hull is arranged so
that the cargo tanks are protected by spaces around the bottom and sides of
the vessel. The minimum size of these spaces is set by legislation, which is
intended to make sure that in the event of hull damage oil is not able to
escape to the sea.

7.18 CONTAINER SHIPS

Most container ships have a combination framing system, although some are
longitudinally framed, as the box shape of the containers limits the stowage
options. As container ships have very large hatch openings, all of the deck
longitudinal structure is concentrated in the deck girders.
The very large hatch openings mean that container ships suffer from very
large torsional stresses in quartering seas. To reduce the twisting of the hull,
an additional piece of longitudinal structure, known as the torsion box, runs
around the deck. On some ships, this doubles as a walkway to give safe access
forward in rough weather.

7.19 BULK CARRIERS

The structure is based on a longitudinal system. Bulk carriers have to carry
small amounts of very dense cargo. This creates large local loads on the hold
floors, and very large shear forces and bending moments. Bulk carriers all
have double bottoms, but can be either single or double skin on the sides.
The interior of the hold is kept as clean from structure as possible to aid
removal of cargo. Large hatch openings mean that the deck structure is
concentrated along the edges of the deck.
The bulkheads on bulk carriers have to withstand very large forces from the
cargo, and are also the point of maximum global and local shear force. They
are built in a specific manner to withstand these loads. The bulkheads also
form part of the hatch opening structure, and add to the strength of the deck
around the openings.

© Solent University (2019) Page 41

8 ICE CLASS PROTECTION (MCM)
Classification societies require additional strengthening for ships operating in
ice. The strengthening will be specified according to one of two defined ice
conditions. First-year ice occurs in regions where waters ice up for only the
winter months, and thaw again each summer. This type of ice is relatively
weak in comparison to multi-year ice, which occurs in Arctic and Antarctic
regions all year round. Vessels are designed to operate in one of these ice
conditions, with further restrictions for ice of a specified thickness.
Ships classified by Lloyds Register (other classification societies use similar
methods) for navigation in multi-year ice may be classified according to one
of the following notations;

ICE CLASS AC1 - Ship is strengthened for navigation in unbroken level ice
up to 1.0 m thick

ICE CLASS AC1.5 - Ship is strengthened for navigation in unbroken level ice
up to 1.5 m thick

ICE CLASS AC2 - Ship is strengthened for navigation in unbroken level ice
up to 2.0 m thick

ICE CLASS AC3 - Ship is strengthened for navigation in unbroken level ice
up to 3.0 m thick

Ships classified by Lloyds Register for navigation in first-year ice may be

classified with one of the following ‘special features’ notations;

ICE CLASS 1AS - Ship is strengthened for navigation in unbroken level ice
up to 1.0 m thick

ICE CLASS 1A - Ship is strengthened for navigation in unbroken level ice up
to 0.8 m thick

ICE CLASS 1B - Ship is strengthened for navigation in unbroken level ice up
to 0.6 m thick

ICE CLASS 1C - Ship is strengthened for navigation in unbroken level ice up
to 0.4 m thick

ICE CLASS 1D - Ship is strengthened for navigation in light first-year ice
conditions in areas other than the Northern Baltic. The requirements are
as for 1C but only for the forward region, rudder and steering
arrangements

Regardless of ice class notation and vessel strengthening, all of the

strengthening requirements assume that the ship’s speed will be reduced
appropriately when approaching ice infested waters. Sailing into an ice field
at the service speed will cause structural damage to ice class vessels! Ships
specially designed for icebreaking duties are assigned the ship type notation
‘icebreaker’ with the ‘special features’ notation added according to the
degree of ice strengthening.

© Solent University (2019) Page 42

 The main protection on ice class vessels is the “ice belt”. This is a belt of
thickened plating around the waterline of the vessel. Plating within the main
ice belt zone, and around the shoulders and forefoot, is thickened, with the
amount depending on the ice class. This increases strength and includes an
allowance for corrosion and wear from the ice.
The dimensions of the ice belt depend on the waterline of the vessel. The
“Ice load waterline” corresponds to the Fresh Water Summer Loadline, whilst
the “Ice light waterline” corresponds to the lightest condition in which the
ship is expected to navigate in ice. The main ice belt zone extends vertically
above and below the ice load and ice light waterlines by laid down distances
that vary with the intended ‘ice class’ notation.
To ensure that the ice belt is at the waterline, the ballast capacity of the ship
is to be sufficient to give adequate propeller immersion in all ice navigating
conditions without trimming the ship in such a manner that the actual
waterline at the bow is below the ice light waterline. To ensure that the
vessel has sufficient power to push through ice and to manoeuvre, a minimum
total installed shaft power for ice strengthened ships is specified. To ensure
that this is sufficient scale models of ships are propelled along water tanks
with frozen surfaces to replicate ice conditions.
In addition to the above, ships intending to operate in the Canadian Arctic
must comply with the Canadian Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention
Regulations. These regulations may require additional strengthening of
forward cargo wing tanks or place a limitation that the level of oil or chemical
in such tanks be limited to 1.0 m below the waterline.
To support the ice belt, and given extra strength, the scantlings of transverse
frames are increased in way of the main ice belt zone accordingly with
intermediate frames being added. These extra frames are known as “ice
frames”. The transverse ice framing is supported by ice stringers and decks
and longitudinal ice framing by web frames. The increase in scantlings in way
of the main ice belt zone varies with ice class and distance from forward.
As the bow is generally the impact point with the ice, the stem is to be made
from rolled, cast or forged steel or from shaped steel plates. A sharp edged
stem is preferred since this improves the manoeuvrability of the ship in ice.
The reinforced stem is to extend from the keel plate to 750 mm above the ice
load waterline.
There is a possibility that ice may travel under the vessel and into the
sterngear. To protect against this, shafting and stern tubes of ships with two
or more propellers are generally to be enclosed within plate bossings. Rudder
posts, rudder horns, sole pieces, rudder stocks and pintles are to be
dimensioned in accordance with classification society rules. For Ice Classes
1AS and 1A the rudder head and upper edge of the rudder are to be protected
from ice pressure by an ice knife or equivalent, and due regard is to be paid
to the method of securing the rudder in the centreline position when
reversing into ice. Where possible rudder stoppers working on the blade or
rudder head are to be fitted to secure and protect the rudder when going
astern.

© Solent University (2019) Page 43

9 CORROSION
9.1 INTRODUCTION (MCM)
Corrosion is defined as an unintentional chemical reaction between a metal
and the environment. This results in degradation of the material properties,
either through removal of material or the conversion of material into an oxide
or other compound. Corrosion can be broadly categorised into dry corrosion
and aqueous corrosion.
Dry corrosion is the result of a reaction between a metal and a gas, such as
steel and oxygen in the air. Most metals react with the oxygen in the air at
moderate temperatures, and build up oxide layers. Some materials, such as
Aluminium, build up a very tough oxide layer which is actually beneficial to
the overall material properties.
Aqueous corrosion is caused primarily by contact with liquid or moisture. For
aqueous corrosion to occur, there must be a continuous electrical path
through two dissimilar metals which are connected with a solid conductor at
one end and a liquid conductor at the other. Electrons flow through the solid
path, whilst positive and negative ions flow through the fluid. The anodic
material corrodes as it loses ions to the cathodic material.

9.2 DISSIMILAR METAL CORROSION (MCM)

Dissimilar metal corrosion occurs when two different metals are connected
together in an atmosphere where aqueous corrosion could take place. If there
is sufficient potential difference between the materials, one will become an
anode, and the other a cathode, and aqueous corrosion takes place. The
anodic material will corrode. In general, dissimilar metals must not be
physically connected to each other with any material which may conduct an
electric current. Similar metals can also corrode when in contact if the
metallurgical structure of the metal varies slightly.
The following figure shows the Galvanic Series, which ranks different
materials according to potential. The wider apart two different materials are
in the series, the greater the rate of corrosion.

© Solent University (2019) Page 44

 Noble, cathodic end
Platinum
Gold
Graphite
Titanium
Silver
18-8 austenitic stainless steels (passive condition)
Iron-chromium alloys (passive condition)
Nickel
Monel
Cupronickel alloys
Bronzes
Copper
Brasses
Tin
Lead
18-8 Austenitic stainless steels (active)
13% Chromium stainless steel (active)
Cast iron
Mild steel and iron
Cadmium
Aluminum alloys
Zinc
Magnesium and magnesium alloys
Active, anodic end

9.3 CONCENTRATION CELL CORROSION (MCM)

Rapid corrosion can also occur with concentration cells. This type of aqueous
corrosion occurs on materials with an oxide layer. This is a significant issue
with stainless steel. Concentration cell corrosion occurs when an area of
microscopic damage to a metal, such as a small fissure, cannot get sufficient
oxygen. In the damaged areas, there may not be sufficient water flow to
make oxygen available. The oxygen is required to let the protective oxide
layer form and repair. Without oxygen, the layer cannot repair itself, and the
stainless steel effectively becomes mild steel. The stainless steel is anodic to
the oxide layer, and so corrodes beneath the oxide layer. The corroded areas
of the stainless steel fill with water, which stagnates, resulting in even more
corrosion. The process continues, with significant damage to the material.
The oxide layer is the cathode, and (apart from the initiating point of
damage) so is undamaged through this process. Therefore there are no visual
clues – the metal appears to be perfectly normal, but is actually internally
corroded.
Some materials, such as galvanised steel, have zinc coatings. The coating
becomes a sacrificial anode in the event of damage, allowing the load bearing
material underneath to avoid corrosion.

© Solent University (2019) Page 45

9.4 RUST CORROSION (MCM)
Iron rusts when the environment contains both oxygen and moisture but not
with oxygen or moisture alone.
The rust occurs in a number of stages:

The surface begins to form iron oxide, and atoms in the surface of the
metal lose electrons and becomes anodic

The electrons move through the metal, gathering water and oxygen
molecules, creating cathodic areas

A hydrated ion oxide layer builds up on the cathode

Generally the rust traps water and accelerates the process.

9.5 STRESS CORROSION (MCM)

Stress itself can lead to corrosion. Repeated heavy working or stress changes
slightly the grain structure of the material. The stressed area can become
anodic to the rest of the surrounding material. This can cause galvanic action
in a local area, which is already highly loaded. Similar action can occur in
areas suffering from fatigue, increasing the failure rate.

9.6 FRETTING CORROSION (MCM)

Fretting is the action when two closely fitting metallic surfaces rub against
each other cyclically. On a microscopic scale, the surfaces have pits and
troughs, and so the contact is only over a microscopically small area. This
contact area becomes stressed, and so stress corrosion can occur.

9.7 CAVITATION CORROSION (AND EROSION) (MCM)

Around the propeller blades, there are significant pressure changes in the
fluid. These can be enough to change the fluid to vapour, creating bubbles of
vapour which implode onto the propeller surfaces. These are very powerful,
and erode the blade, allowing concentration cell corrosion to take place. This
creates a rougher surface, which creates more cavitation, and the process
rapidly causes damage.

© Solent University (2019) Page 46

10 DRY-DOCKING AND MAINTENANCE
10.1 INTRODUTION (MCM)
Dry docking is undertaken periodically for a range of maintenance and
inspection tasks. The process of dry docking is effectively a carefully
controlled grounding. It is not risk free, but the risks can be minimised. The
procedure varies with different yards, ship types and dock types, but there is
a basic generic process:

Determine the required draft and trim (on advice of the dry-dock
manager/yard naval architect), and ballast appropriately.

If you are docking with cargo on board a cargo plan is required, and
additional shores/blocks are placed under unsupported cargo holds.

Check that there is adequate GM to counteract the rise in ‘G’ due to the
up-thrust.

A repair/defects list should be prepared well in advance and kept to hand
– make sure the yard manager is aware of it and progress through it.
(Protect the ship owner’s investment!)

Make the yard aware of the utilities/shore connections required, (eg
water, power, access and waste disposal)

Stabilisers have to be stowed, and any bottom speed logs/transducers
stowed.

Stow all hatches and beams (to give continuity of strength, removing stress
concentration points).

Secure derricks and cranes down (to counteract roll, and to improve
stability).

Sound tanks and eliminate, control or quantify free surfaces.

Apply security requirements / lock-up spaces.

Rig fenders.

Plug and secure scuppers to prevent accidental pollution during works.

Check dry-dock plan and shell expansion plans for shore positions.

Centreline keel blocks are prepared for the keel to sit on. Using the ship
construction plans, additional blocks are placed under areas such as bulkheads
and web frames to support the hull structure. As the vessel manoeuvres into
the dock, winches and alignment systems are used to position the vessel
exactly.
Often divers will check the positioning of the blocks. Some modern docks can
move blocks around the floor with the dock flooded.
The dock is slowly emptied (known as de-ballasting) until the stern touches.
De-ballasting is stopped to check the alignment (while the heading of the ship
can be adjusted). Once the ship is perfectly aligned, de-ballasting can
continue.
Once the dock is dry, services can be attached, fire hydrants and gangways
attached, and permits to work issued. The usual enclosed space entry
procedures are still required!

© Solent University (2019) Page 47

10.2 HULL MAINTENANCE (MCM)
The hull is first pressure washed to remove growth and loose corrosion.
Pressure washing is effective, but can remove some modern non-TBT coatings,
and is labour intensive. Pressure washing also creates a very fine mist which
can accelerate corrosion. Sometimes grit blasting may be used as an
alternative, as this dryer but more abrasive.
The hull is then checked for damage, and any suspect areas cleaned and
examined. All areas of the hull are checked for corrosion. The hull is repaired
if necessary, primed and repainted with anti-foul paint. Ideally this should be
undertaken in warm, dry conditions, away from direct sunlight. Anodes are
checked for size, and if necessary replaced –but never painted over! The
gratings over inlets and thruster tunnels are cleaned and checked.

10.3 RUDDER MAINTENANCE (MCM)

The rudder is treated in a similar way to the hull, and checked for damage.
The “wear” is also checked, to ensure that friction between moving parts is
not causing excessive abrasion and movement. If necessary the rudder is
removed or even replaced, although this is expensive and time consuming.
Most modern rudders are buoyancy neutral, meaning that they flood as part of
the design. The internal structure may need to be checked.

10.4 PROPELLER MAINTENANCE (MCM)

The propellers are cleaned and checked for damage from impacts on the
blade tips, cavitation damage on the roots, and corrosion. If necessary, the
propellers are polished. This can improve fuel consumption by up to 12%.
Generally the flow speeds around propellers are too fast for conventional
anti-foul paints. The propeller may be removed for diameter or pitch
adjustments.

10.5 MISC. MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, MODIFICATION & OVERHAUL TASKS

(MCM)
Miscellaneous maintenance tasks

Inspection and overhaul of anchors and cables, including ranging and
marking

Inspection cleaning and painting of cable lockers

Plugs to be taken from all bottom and peak tanks (the plugs to be labelled
and retained by the chief officer and replaced before the dock is flooded)

All sea valves and sea chests to be inspected overhauled and painted

Inspection and overhaul and load test of all lifting appliances

All tanks holds compartments and their closing appliance to be inspected
and overhauled

© Solent University (2019) Page 48

 Standard Miscellaneous repair tasks

Renewal of piping as required

Cargo-handling equipment

Hatch-closing arrangements

Bulkhead leaks/damage

Hull structure damage

Replacement of ships side rails

Instrumentation and control equipment refurbishing

Electric cables

Heavy weather damage

Overhaul of fire fighting and life saving appliance

Standard miscellaneous modification/overhaul tasks

Fire fighting systems such as foam or carbon dioxide

Fire detection system

New piping and structural arrangements (e.g. Segregated ballast system)

Inert gas systems

Life-saving appliances arrangements

Conversions or restructuring in order to comply with any new mandatory
equipment requirements

10.6 TANK INSPECTION (MCM)

‘Dangerous Space’ procedures should be observed

Check that no rungs are missing from any ladders

As many welds as possible should be checked

Inspect any protective coating and ensure that areas which are difficult to
reach have been adequately covered

If sacrificial anodes have been fitted check the position of anodes agree
with the plans and that the anodes are secure

Ensure that the sounding pipe is correctly located and that the striker
plate has been fitted (have a sounding rod lowered through the pipe and
view it touch the striker plate)

Check that the drain is correctly located and in the position indicated on
the plan

Check that the air pipes and filling pipes have been fitted with appropriate
plugs

Make sure that all loose equipment and shipyard rubbish has been removed

The pumping arrangement should be given a thorough inspection

The chief officer should be present with the surveyor at any ‘Tank Tests’.
Extension pieces are fitted to the filling pipes and the tank slowly filled
until a pressure head of 8 feet or 2.45 m above the top of the tank is
obtained. Bulkheads, cofferdams and watertight seals on the manhole
covers and all areas adjacent to the tank should be checked for leaks. The
water in the tank then should be dropped to the operational level.

© Solent University (2019) Page 49

10.7 UNDOCKING (MCM)

After work has been completed, the process of re-floating can be
undertaken. This is historically where the problems have occurred!

Make sure all the items on the work and repair lists have been completed
to a satisfactory standard. A complete internal inspection of the vessel
should be made.

The hull exterior should be inspected, and all tank plugs replaced. The
Chief Officer should see and verify that all the tank plugs being replaced.
Bottom plugs must be closed and sea chests should be in full working
condition.

You must ensure during your final checks that no objects or people are in
the dock, prior to flooding the dry dock – make sure you are the last
person out of the dock!

Check that there are adequate supplies of fresh water, fuel and
lubricating oil on board to suit the ships movement needs.

Sound all the tanks to check the state - then check the GM during re-
floating and make sure it is sufficient. Don’t forget to include changes in
the lightship values if there has been significant structural work. If
necessary, pump ballast into appropriate spaces.

Make sure that the shore connections are removed and personnel are
available both ashore and aboard the ship in order to release these safely
and at the appropriate time.

Close the hatch covers to maintain strength. All anchors and cables should
be stowed correctly aboard the vessel.

Once this is complete and he/she is satisfied everything is safe, the C/O or
master signs the “Authority to Flood Certificate”. He/she must make sure
that the yard has completed the repairs and work, and that the ship is in a
safe condition to float.

When the level of seawater in the dry dock reaches the sea level, the dock
gates are opened. If the gates are opened too early, there may be an
uncontrollable rush of water, which may snap lines etc.

10.8 PLANNED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS (MCM)

Planned maintenance systems are generally computerised systems which
contain data on the ship and the equipment onboard that has to be
maintained, along with the timescales for maintenance, and logs of when the
work was completed. For each item, there should be a record of the process
of maintenance required, the actual maintenance undertaken (and dates),
and the spare parts required and held. There should be an auditable trail
showing the maintenance, which should be controlled by the Chief Engineer or
a nominated person aboard. This can be checked as part of the survey process
of the ship.
Maintenance of the structure and components of the ship must be planned to
ensure that every item requiring attention or servicing is maintained within
set limits. This may be because of the risk of environmental
degradation/corrosion, fatigue or routine maintenance required to avoid
future problems. Having a planned maintenance system is a requirement of
classification society rules, and can be counted towards requirements for

© Solent University (2019) Page 50

 surveys for some items of equipment. Correct maintenance also adds to the
resale value of the vessel!
The plan must be carefully thought out, well controlled, and an efficient
recording system must be kept up to date. Records of maintenance, checks
and repairs are vital in a number of areas. The maintenance of safety
equipment and emergency team training should be integrated with the overall
maintenance plan. Exact requirements vary between different companies –
they may be more stringent than legal requirements imposed under ISM.
As an example, the Germanischer Lloyd planned maintenance systems
requires the following records:

Inventory content, i.e. items/systems included in the maintenance
program.

Maintenance time intervals, i.e. time intervals at which the maintenance
jobs are to take place.

Maintenance instructions, i.e. maintenance procedures to be followed.

Maintenance documentation and history, i.e. documents specifying
maintenance jobs carried out and their results.

Reference documentation, i.e. performance results and measurements
taken at certain intervals for trend investigations from delivery stage.

Document flow chart, i.e. chart showing flow and filling of maintenance
documents.

Signing instructions, i.e. who signs documents for verification of
maintenance work carried out.

As shipping is an uncertain business, the system must be adaptable to various

weather conditions. The system must be flexible so that changes of orders or
cargoes do not upset it unduly. The length of voyages, routes and trades that
the vessel is involved in must be considered. The system should include the
availability of appropriate equipment for breakdown maintenance due to
unforeseen circumstances.
Dry-docking and repair periods should be integrated with the system, and for
optimum efficiency the system should be constructed so that the appropriate
equipment is bought up to optimum condition for statutory and classifications
surveys. Provisions should be made for spare part replacements due to wear
and tear maintenance. There should also be a method for ordering spares as
soon as replacement items are used. Manufacturer’s advice should be
complied with and all manufactures maintenance logs should be completed.

© Solent University (2019) Page 51

Solent University
4U
.BSZhT
$BNQVT

$IBQFM
3PBE

Southampton
SO1 (-

www.solent.ac.uk