Poles: The geographic poles of the earth are the two points where the axis meets the

surface of the
earth. The earth rotates about its axis once each day. This rotation carries each point on the earth’s
surface towards East. West is the direction 180° from East, North is the direction 90° to the left of East,
and South is the direction 90° to the right of East. The two poles of the earth are designated as North Pole
and South Pole, accordingly.
Great Circle: A Great Circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which passes through the
centre of the sphere. There is only one great circle through any two points on the sphere’s surface, except
if the points are at the two ends of a diameter when an infinite number of great circles are possible.
Examples of great circle are the equator, the ecliptic and the meridians.
Latitude: Latitude of a point or an observer is the angle between plane of equator and vertical to the
surface at that point. Latitudes are measured from 0° to 90°, and named North or South according to the
place being North or South of the equator.
Longitude: Longitude is the arc of the Equator or the angle at the poles contained between the prime
meridian and the meridian through that place. Longitudes are measured from 0° to 180°, and named East
or West according to the place being East or West of the prime meridian.
Cable

Cable is 1/10th of a nautical mile that means there are 10 cables in one nautical mile and is equal to about 185 m.

Rhumb Line

A rhumb line is a line which crosses every meridian on the earth’s surface at the same angle. The rhumb line is the
most convenient track to follow as the course of the ship may remain constant for the entire passage. A rhumb line
is also known as loxodrome or loxodromic spiral. The equator and parallels of latitudes are rhumb lines as a ship
sailing along the parallels of latitudes will cross every meridian at an angle of 90º. All other rhumb lines which cut the
meridian at angle lesser than 90º will be curves which will spiral towards the pole of the hemisphere, but
theoretically never reaching it.

Departure

The departure between two points is the east-west distance between them expressed in nautical miles or linear
distance between meridians of the two points. When the ship sails along same parallel of latitude, the departure is
equal to the distance travelled.

Difference in Latitudes (d′lat) :The d′lat between two places is the arc of a meridian or angle at the
centre of earth contained between the parallels of latitude through the two places. D′lat is named North or
South according to the direction from the first place to the second.

Difference in Longitude (d′long) :The d′long between two places is the shorter arc of the equator or the smaller
angle at the poles contained between the meridians through the two places. D ′long is named East or West
according to the direction from the first place to the second place.

Meridional Parts : The meridional parts for any latitude is the length of meridian on Mercator chart between the Equator and
that latitude measured in units of longitude scale. The meridional parts are tabulated in nautical tables (Norie’s and Burton’s).
Meridional parts do not represent distance on the Mercator chart. The meridional parts in these nautical tables take into
account spheroid shape of the Earth.

Vertex of Great Circle: This is the point on the great circle that is nearest to the pole. At this point the
latitude is maximum. To every great circle, there are two vertices one in the northern hemisphere V N and
one in the southern hemisphere VS, unless great circle is the equator.
Q2 What is the significance of straits? Write 8 important straits ogf the world

 Straits play an important role in the Seaborne trade for commercial shipping.
 They play an important role in geopolitics.
 Straits have played an essential role in human civilization for millennia.
 They play an important role in economic and military matters.
 Major straits of the world are used for commercial shipping to travel from one exclusive zone or sea to
another.
 Straits are immensely commercially and strategically important. Straits provide various navigable routes to
many ships. For instance, the strait of Hormuz plays an important role as the world’s one-third of oil trade
takes place through this strait.
 Straits are also used in generating tidal power with the help of turbines. For example, 5.6 GW of energy is
produced by Cook’s strait of New Zealand.
 The Strait plays a vital role in serving as a channel through which ocean currents are passed which helps
in mortifying the climate of that area. That is why straits are playing an essential role both in physical and
human geography.

1. Strait of Hormuz:

 It links the Persian Gulf (West) with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea (southeast).
 It contains the Islands of Qeshm, Hormuz and Hengam.
 It is of crucial strategic and economic significance, particularly given that oil tankers bringing in cargo from
several Persian Gulf ports must cross the strait.
 OPEC members Saudi Arabia, Iran, the UAE, Kuwait and Iraq export most of the crude via the strait.
 Qatar, the world’s biggest LNG exporter, sends almost all of its LNG through the strait.

2. Strait of Malacca:

 It connects the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) and the South China Sea (Pacific Ocean)
 It is the longest strait in the world, measuring roughly 800 kilometres, and it not only makes it easier for
locals to travel about, but it also serves as a hub for trade, culture, ideas, and information between East
and West.
 The Strait of Malacca connects the Indian Ocean with the South China Maritime, making it the shortest
sea route between China and India and one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world.
 The importance of this region has grown as a result of the worldwide shift in economic power from the
West to the East as well as booming commerce, investments, and production in areas spanning the Indian
and Pacific Ocean basins.

3. Bab al-Mandab:

 The strait known as Bab al-Mandab is what divides the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of Africa.
 It connects the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden.
 The strait, which is bordered by Yemen on one side and Djibouti and Eritrea on the other, is barely 29 km
wide at its narrowest point.
 It is a crucial strategic route for trade and commerce, with an estimated 4% of the world’s oil supply
travelling through it.

4. Palk Strait:

 It links Palk Bay in the southwest with the Bay of Bengal in the northeast.
 The strait is less than 330 feet (100 metres) deep, 40 to 85 miles (64 to 137 km) long, and 64 to 137 km
broad.
 On the Sri Lankan side, it has several islands and receives various rivers, notably the Vaigai (India).
  The Adam’s Bridge is a collection of sand shoals formed over time by sedimentation.
 A calcareous foundation of dead reef and sand supports every island.
 Part of the Gulf of Mannar between Rameswaram and Tuticorin, which includes 21 islands and the nearby
shallow coastal waters, was designated as a Marine National Park in 1986 due to its great biodiversity of
over 4,000 species of varied flora and wildlife.

5. Sunda Strait:

 It connects the Indian Ocean to the Java Sea in the Pacific Ocean (south).
Between the east Java and Sumatra islands is the Sunda Strait, or Selat Sunda in Indonesian. Its width
ranges from 16 to 70 miles (26 to 110 kilometres).
 An essential route linking eastern Asia and the Indian Ocean is the Sunda Strait.
 This shallowness, very powerful tidal currents, sandbanks, and man-made obstacles like oil rigs off the
Java coast make it infamously challenging to navigate.
 Many big, contemporary ships utilise the Strait of Malacca instead of the strait due to its narrowness,
shallowness, and lack of good mapping.

6. Mozambique Channel:

 It is situated between the eastern island country of Madagascar and Mozambique on the continent of
Africa (west).
 The northern entrance is marked by the Comoro Archipelago, and the southern entry is marked by the
islands of Bassas da India and Europa.
 It receives all main Madagascar rivers and has the ports of Mahajanga (Majunga) and Toliary (Tuléar) on
the same coast, making it a crucial route for commerce in eastern Africa.
 The mouth of the Zambezi River and the ports of Maputo (formerly Lourenço Marques), Moçambique, and
Beira are located on the opposite shore.
 The strait is traversed by the Mozambique Current.

7. Gibraltar Strait:

 It is a waterway that runs between the southernmost point of Spain and the westernmost point of Africa,
bridging the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
 Between Point Marroqu (Spain) and Point Cires, it is 36 miles (58 km) long and narrows to 8 miles (13 km)
in width (Morocco).
 Because it allows for seaborne transit for commerce between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, as well as
via the Suez Canal into the Indian Ocean and beyond, it is one of the most important worldwide sea lanes.
 The Strait is the busiest shipping waterway in the world after the English Channel.

8. Bosphorus strait and Dardanelles strait:

 The Bosphorus sometimes referred to as the Strait of Istanbul, is a narrow, naturally occurring waterway
that connects northwest Turkey to the rest of the world.
 The Bosporus links the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and, indirectly, to the Aegean and
Mediterranean Seas via the Dardanelles.
 It is the narrowest strait in the world that is used for international shipping.
 The Dardanelles, a strait that separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey, is a narrow, naturally
occurring, and globally significant waterway that is located in northwest Turkey.
 The Sea of Marmara is linked to the Aegean, Mediterranean, and, indirectly through the Bosphorus, the
Black Sea by the Dardanelles.
 Q3 MAJOR OCEAN ROUTES OF THE WORLD
Ocean route Sea ports on the route

N North Atlantic route Ports on the east coast of North America

Busiest ocean trade route which connects the New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
ports of western coast of Europe with the ports Montreal, Quebec, Toronto (through the great
on the east coast of North America. Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway)
Developed and very dense populated regions
are located on both sides. Ports on the west coast of Europe
The foreign trade of the north Atlantic route is Gothenburg, Oslo, Copenhagen, Rotterdam,
greater than any other route is greater than any Hamburg, Antwerp, London, Southampton,
other route of the world. Glasgow, Liverpool, le Havre, Lisbon, etc.

T Suez canal route Mediterranean ports – Marseilles, Gibraltar,

Passes through the heart of the world and Genoa, Venice, Athens, Naples are ports of
connects Europe with the Far East through Suez Europe and Algiers, port Said are ports of Africa.
Canal.
Shortens the distance between Europe and Asian ports – Aden, Karachi, Mumbai,
south Asian countries by 9000 km. Colombo, Singapore and manila.

It was once considered as lifeline of Britain. Important ports of call – Mombasa, Zanzibar,
Mozambique, Aden, Mumbai, Perth, Adelaide,
Oil supplies from Middle East, raw material from Melbourne and Sydney.
tropical Asia and manufactured goods from
Europe are the main trade commodities.

3. The panama canal route Panama and colon are important ports on the
Connects the pacific ocean with Atlantic ocean. panama canal.
Increase the trade between the countries of both
Atlantic and Pacific seaboards since the opening Save the distance between New York and
of Panama Canal in 1914. Auckland.
Facilitated the trade in oil, minerals, food stuffs,
raw materials, and manufactured goods., Ports of Gulf coast of USA and Caribbean States
West and east coast of USA are the most are also important.
benefited region.

T cape route Ports of West Europe: London, Liverpool,

Cardiff, Lisbon Southampton, etc.
Connects the countries of western Europe with Ports of Africa: cape town, port Elizabeth.
western and southern part of Africa, Australia Ports of Australia: Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne,
and New Zealand. and Sydney.

The trans – pacific route Ports of north America: Vancouver, Seattle,

Connects the ports of western coast of North Portland, san Francisco, Los Angeles Dells with
America with the ports of East Asia. timber, wheat, paper- pulp, fish etc.
Ports of east Asia: shanghai, Tokyo, Yokohama,
Several routes of the Trans – pacific converge at Kobe, and Manila deals with manufactured
Honolulu (the crossroads of Pacific). goods, e.g., textiles, electrical equipments, etc.
Q4. GREAT CIRCLE : A great circle is a circle, on the SURFACE OF A sphere, whose plane passes
through the centre of the sphere.
a) A great circle divides the sphere into two identical parts, each called hemisphere.
(b) The radius of a great circle is equal to that of the sphere.
(c) Any number of great circles could pass through a given point on the surface of the sphere. However, all
these great circles would also pass through a point diametrically opposite to the given point.
(d) Only one great circle can pass through any two given points on the surface of a sphere. However if the
two points are diametrically opposite to each other, any number of great circles can pass through the two
points.
e) Numerous on the globe.

f) Runs either vertically or horizontally.

g) Could run in any direction.

h) They are the shortest distance between any two points on the earth's surface.

i) The center of a Great Circle is also the center of the earth.

j) Most Great Cires are equal in length.

k)The equator is the only latitude that is a Great Circle

l) Not always seen as a straight line on a map due to the earth's spherical shape

Q5 What are Properties of spherical triangle ?

1. If a circle is drawn on a sphere so that the radius of the circle is the same as the radius of the sphere it
is called a great circle . Any other circle is a small circle .

2. An infinit number of great circle can pass through one point , but only one great circle can pass through
tow points , unless they are diametrically opposite .

3. A spherical triangle is a triangle each of whose sides is a great circle .

4. The length of the arc of a circle can be measured by the angle which the arc subtends at the center of
the circle . The sides of a spherical triangle are measured in degree , minutes , and seconds .

5. No sides of a spherical triangle can therefore exceed 180° .

6. The maximum value of an angle of spherical triangle is 180degree.

7. The sum of three sides of spherical triangle is less than 360degrees.

8. The three angles of a spherical triangle must together be more than 180° and less than 540°.

9. The greater side is opposite the greater angle.

10. If two sides are equal their opposite angles are equal .

11. If one angle of the triangle is 90° it is called a right-angle triangle. In spherical triangle , it is possible for
more than one angle to be equal to 90degree.
12. If one side of the triangle 90° it is called a quadrantal triangle. In spherical triangle, it is possible for
more than one side to be equal to 90degree.

Q6 Composite Great Circle Sailing

Although the great circle track is the shortest route between two locations, it also usually enroutes closer
to the pole (or to higher latitude) than the two places

To avoid the danger of sailing high latitude, which is normally

associated with bad weather and icing, a careful master mariner
will normally set a latitude limit on his ocean passage plan. The
ocean passage will thus consist of a first great circle track with
vertex at the latitude limit then sailing along that latitude until
meeting the vertex of a second great circle track leading to the
destination. This type of route is named as composite great
circle route.

The easiest method to outline a composite greate circle route is

by plotting it on a Gnomonic chart.

The figure on the right shows the relationship between the three
types of route, the rhumb line, the great circle and the
composite great circle routes for the same set of locations.

A few points about composite circle sailing:

 In composite circle sailing, the first and third leg of the passage are actually parts of two different
great circles. This is the reason that on the limiting latitude there are two different vertices.
 However, if the initial and final latitudes were same, the two legs of great circles would have same
size.
 The entire composite circle calculations, are only done by Napier’s method. Use of cosine formula
is not needed.
 Initial course of composite circle route is always equatorwards of the initial course if it were single
GC.
 In a situation when limiting latitude is same as the latitude of destination and the d’long to the vertex
V of composite circle route is more than d’long to destination, then composite route is same as
single GC route.

Q7. What is meaning of Great Circle Sailing ?

Great circle sailing involves the solution of courses, distances, and points along a great circle between two points.
Great Circle Sailing is used for long ocean passages. For this purpose, the earth is considered a perfect
spherical shape; therefore, the shortest distance between two points on its surface is the arc of the great
circle containing two points. As the track is the circle, so the course is constantly changing, and the track
must be broken down into a series of short rhumb lines at frequent intervals that can be used to sail on the
Mercator chart. Doing this, the navigator would use the Gnomonic charts combined with the Mercator chart
to draw track.
A great circle is the shortest path between two points along the surface of a sphere. A great circle is the
intersection of the surface with a plane passing through the center of the planet. The equator and all
meridians are great circles. All great circles other than these do not have a constant azimuth, the spherical
analog of slope; they cross successive meridians at different angles. The Gnomonic Projection represents
arbitrary great circles as straight lines. Great circles are examples of geodesics. A geodesic is the shortest
possible path constrained to lie on a curved surface, independent of the choice of a coordinate system.
The initial course always has same name as the initial latitude and east or west direction of the
course. The final course always has the opposite name from final latitude unless initial position
and final position are in different hemispheres, when the

Great circle sailing

A course represented by a straight line on a Mercator chart is called a rhumb line and for short voyages
sailing along such a line between the port of departure and that of arrival makes a minimal difference.

In order to find the shorter route for a longer passage, the same straight line will have to be drawn on a
gnomonic chart, which uses a different projection with meridians converging at the poles and parallels of
latitude represented by curved lines. Any straight line on a gnomonic chart is part of a great circle and is
the shortest distance between the two points joined by that line.

A Great Circle is a circle whose plain intersects with the centre of the Earth. So there already are two kinds
of natural Great Circles drawn on all our maps: 1- the Equator 2- all Meridians of Longitude. A great circle
would effectively cut the whole earth in half.

if you are sailing in North-South directions, a Great Circle route is not necessary to be calculated, as you
follow it anyway when sailing along a meridian of Longitude. Same applies if you are sailing around the
equator. The differences are biggest in long East/West passages in high latitudes

Because gnomonic charts can not be used for navigation, the great circle chart drawn on such a chart has
to be transferred to a Mercator chart. This is done by making a note of the latitudes at which the great
circle route intersects successive meridians which have been selected at convenient intervals, usually at 5
degrees.
These positions are transferred to the correponding Mercator chart and joined by straight lines. This
succesion of rhumb lines approximates very closely the actual great circle track for that route.

When you plot your course on the chart as a rhumb or straight line – you must then also plot the great
circle course and double check that there are no hazards along that track. The problem with hitting an
iceberg is also a consideration.

To avoid the danger of sailing high latitude, which is normally associated with bad weather and icing, a
careful navigator will normally set a latitude limit on his ocean passage plan. The ocean passage will thus
consist of a first great circle track with vertex at the latitude limit then sailing along that latitude until
meeting the vertex of a second great circle track leading to the destination. This type of route is named as
composite great circle route.

The easiest method to outline a composite greate circle route is by plotting it on a Gnomonic chart.

Q8 Find the inial & final course and the distance by Great circle track from A: 06degree00’N
079degree 00’W to B: 38degree00’S 179degree00’E.

Solution:-

From A 06deg 00’N 079deg 00’W

TO B 38deg 00S 179deg 00’E

Difference 44deg00’S 102deg 00’W

dlat dlong

co-lat (a) = 52deg, Co-lat (b) =96deg, d long(P) =102deg

Havp = Hav (a diff b) + sina x sinb x HavP

Havp = Hav (52deg diff 96deg) + sin52deg x sin96 x HavP

Havp = Hav (44deg) + sin52deg x sin96 x HavP

Havp = (1-cos44deg)/2 +sin52deg x sin96 x (1-cos102deg)/2

Havp = 0.140330099 + (0.994522 x 0.788010 x 0.603956)

(1- Cosp)/2 = 0.140330099 + 0.4733165 = 0.6136466

Cosp = 1- (0.6136466 x 2) = 1- 1.2227293 = - 0.2272293

P =103.134 deg = 6188 nautical miles (great Circle Distance)

Initial Course :-

Hav a = Hav ( 103.134 – 96) + Sin 103.134 X Sin 96 x hav A

Hav 52deg = Hav ( 7.134 ) + Sin 103.134 X Sin 96 x hav A

0.1921693 = 0.00386646 + (0.9738572 x 0.9945219) x (1-cosA) / 2

(0.1921693 - 0.00386646) / 0.96852231 = (1-cosA) / 2

0.18830284 / 0.96852231 =0.1944228 = (1-cosA) / 2

0.1944228 x 2 =1-cosA

cosA = 1- 0.3888456 = 0.61115436

A = S52.32W = 232.32 DEG(T) =232DEG 19.2’ (T) INITIAL COURSE

FINAL COURSE:

Hav 96 = Hav (103.134 – 52) + Sin 103.134 X Sin 52 x hav B

0.55226423= 0.18624943 + 0.9738413 x 0.788011 x (1-cosB)/2

0.3660148 / 0.7673974 = (1-cosB)/2

0.476956 x 2 = 1-cosB = 0.95391201

1 - 0.95391201 = 0.04608798 = CosB

B= N87.35W = 272DEG38.7’ (T) FINAL COURSE

Q9. Find the inial & final course and the distance by Great circle track from A: 24degree00’N
074degree 15’W to B: 46degree00’N 053degree45’W.

Solution:-

From A 24deg 00’N 074deg 15’W

TO B 46deg 00N 053deg 45’W

Difference 22deg00’N 020deg 30’E

dlat dlong

Co-Lat AP(b) = 66deg, Co-Lat BP (a) = 44deg, Angle P = 20.5 deg(dlong)

Two sides & included angle is given (Angle P, Side PA & PB)

Havp = Hav (a diff b) + sina x Sinb x HavP

Havp = Hav ( 66-44) + Sin66deg x Sin44deg x Hav20.5 degree

(1- cosp)/ 2 = (1-cos22deg)/ 2 + Sin66deg Sin44deg x (1-cos20.5deg) / 2

(1- cosp)/ 2 = 0.03640807 + 0.91354546 x 0.69465837 x 0 .031663905

(1- cosp)/ 2 = 0.03640807 + 0.02009398 = 0.056502047

1- 0.113004094 = Cosp = 0.8869959

P= 27.501 deg =27 deg 30.1’ = 1650.11 nautical miles ( Great Circle Distance)

Hav a = Hav(b diff p) + Sinb x Sin p x Hav A

Hav44deg= Hav (66 diff 27.5) + Sin 66deg X sin 27.5deg x HavA

HAV A = (Hav44deg – Hav 38.5deg) / Sin 66deg X sin 27.5deg

HAV A = ( (1-cos44deg) /2 - (1-cos38.5deg) /2 )) / Sin 66deg X sin 27.5deg

HAV A = ( 0.140330099 - 0.1086959216) / 0.42182834 = 0.031634178 / 0.42182834

(1- CosA)/2 = 0.0749930116,

CosA = 1- 0.1499860 = 0.850013977

Angle A=N31.787E = 031deg47’ (T) Initial course

FINAL COURSE : angle B

Hav b = Hav(a diff p) + Sina x Sin p x Hav B

Hav 66deg = Hav(44 diff 27.5) + Sin44 x Sin 27.5deg x Hav B

(1- Cos66deg)/ 2 = (1-Cos16.5deg)/ 2 + Sin44deg x Sin27.5deg x (1-cosB deg) / 2

0.296632 = 0.020590 + (0.320757 x (1-cosB deg) / 2)

(0.296632 - 0.020590) / 0.320757) x 2 = (1- cosB deg)

1.7211901 = 1- cosB

CosB = 1- 1.7211901 = - .7211901

B = 136.15deg= 136deg 09’. Final course = 180- 136.15 deg =43deg51’ (T)

Q10. Explain different Kinds of Sailings.

There are seven types of sailings:

1. Plane sailing: solves problems involving a single course and distance, difference of latitude, and
departure, in which the Earth is regarded as a plane surface. This method, therefore, provides
solution for latitude of the point of arrival, but not for longitude. To calculate the longitude, the
spherical sailings are necessary. Plane sailing is not intended for distances of more than a few
hundred miles.
2. Traverse sailing combines the plane sailing solutions when there are two or more courses and
determines the equivalent course and distance made good by a vessel steaming along a series of
rhumb lines.

3. Parallel sailing is the interconversion of departure and difference of longitude when a vessel is
proceeding due east or due west.

4. Middle- (or mid-) latitude sailing uses the mean latitude for converting departure to difference of
longitude when the course is not due east or due west and it is assumed the course is steered at
the mid latitude.

5. Meridian sailing describes a vessel is sailing due north or south along a meridian of longitude.
No solutions are necessary because there is no departure or difference in longitude. Though
course is constant, it actually is also a great circle sailing.

6. Mercator sailing provides a mathematical solution of the plot as made on a Mercator chart. It is
similar to plane sailing, but uses meridional difference and difference of longitude in place of
difference of latitude and departure, respectively.
 7. Great circle sailing involves the solution of courses, distances, and points along a great circle
between two points. Great circle sailing takes advantage of the shorter distance along the great
circle between two points, as compared to the longer rhumb line. The arc of the great circle
between the points of departure and arrival is called the great circle track. The rhumb line appears
the more direct route on a Mercator chart because of chart distortion. Along any intersecting
meridian the great circle crosses at a higher latitude than the rhumb line. Because the great circle
crosses meridians at higher latitudes, where the distance between them is less, the great circle
route is shorter than the rhumb line.

Q11 Describe Properties of a Mercator Chart

Charts carry a lot of information for Navigational use. They represent a portion of earth’s surface with
suitable scale. Projection is “Cylindrical Orthomorphic Projection”.

(i) The world with the exception of Polar regions can be seen at a glance.
(ii) Rhumb line courses from one position to another on the Earth appear as straight lines.
(iii) The angles between the rhumb lines are unaltered as between Earth and chart.
(iv) The Equator which is a rhumb line as well as a great circle, appears on the chart as straight line.
(v) The parallel of latitudes appear as straight lines parallel to the Equator.
(vi) The meridians within limits of the chart appear as straight lines perpendicular to the Equator. The
course from one position to another is found by simply laying a parallel ruler over them and reading
off this direction from the compass rose printed on the chart.
(vii) A straight line joining two points does not represent the shortest distance between them (unless
both lie on meridian or equator).
(viii) The shortest distance, being a great circle, would appear as a curve. It can be seen that the
meridians on surface of the earth converge towards the poles. As Mercator chart is also cylindrical
projection therefore the meridians are represented by equidistant parallel straight lines. Thus the
east-west distortion on the chart increases as the latitude increases. In order to preserve the
correct shape of landmasses the spacing between the parallel of latitudes on the Mercator chart
must be distorted in the same proportion as the distortion caused due to spacing between the
meridians. This increase in spacing between the parallel of latitudes is governed by secant of
latitude.

For a particular Mercator chart the longitude scale is fixed. Since space between parallels of
latitudes increases as we go towards poles so the latitude scale also increases. The relationship between
longitude scale and latitude scale is Lat scale = Long scale × Secant lat . The latitude scale is the
distance scale of of a Mercator chart .
Q12. Write Advantages & Disadvantages of a Mercator Chart

(i) Rhumb line courses are easily laid off as straight lines.

(ii) Distances are easily measured as scale of distance = scale of latitude.

(iii) Shapes of land masses in the neighbourhood of a point are correctly shown.

(iv) Angles between rhumb lines are unaltered between the earth and the chart.

(v) Directions remain correct though distortions of areas occur.

vi) Directions and position lines can be transferred correctly from one part of the chart to another as
parallel lines. This facility which is often used by a navigator for obtaining running fixes is not available in
most other projections.

Disadvantages of a Mercator Chart

(i) Great circle courses cannot be laid off easily as they would appear curved.
(ii) Polar regions cannot be represented due to extremely large distortions. So most Mercator charts
cover areas up to about 70º parallel of latitude.
(iii) The scale of distance which is the scale of latitude is a varying unit.
(iv) Areas cannot be compared due to the varying distortion.
(v) Distortion increases as we go towards the poles.
(vi) Land masses cannot be compared
Q13 Difference between Mercator and Gnomonic charts

MERCATOR GNOMONIC
Orthomorphism (Shape retention). The shape is not retained.
Rhumb lines are straight. Rhumb lines are not straight
Great circles are curved Great circles are straight
The projection is cylindrical. The projection is Zenithal
There is no tangent point. There is tangent point.
Meridians are parallel. Meridians are not parallel.
Compass rose is present on chart There is no compass rose on chart

Q14 What is Variation, Deviation & Compass Error. Where do you find variation & deviation on
board ship?
A ships sails on a compass course of 035º(c), find true course if variation is 4ºW and deviation is 2ºE.

Variation : At any place is the angle between geographic (true) meridian and magnetic meridian or angle
between true north and magnetic north is known as the variation. It is caused due to the geographical and
magnetic poles not coinciding. Variation is different at different places since earth’s magnetic field strength
varies from place to place.
Deviation: As the ship is built of steel, she creates her own magnetic field around magnetic compass
placed on board. As a result of this, the needle or the N-S line of the compass card on a ship does not
point towards magnetic pole but towards a direction called compass north. The angle between magnetic
north and compass north is called the deviation.
Compass Error: Compass error is defined as the angle between the true north and compass north. This
error is being caused due to variation and deviation so it also may be defined as algebraic sum of variation
and deviation. It is named East if compass north lies to the right of true north and west if it lies to the left of
true north.
Variation can be obtained from navigational chart of area & deviation can be found from deviation
curve of the vessel.
Solution

Variation : 4ºW, Deviation : 2ºE, C. Error : 2ºW. As per rule we are changing compass course to
true course we have to subtract Westerly error. So the true course will be 033º (T).
Q15 From the following log abstracts find : (i) Course, distance made good and speed made good
Noon to Noon. (ii) Position arrived at next day Noon. Departed Noon Position 15°00′N, 10°00′E,
Current was known to be setting NW @ 2 knots throughout.

Time Course Var. Dev. Log

Noon Set Co 030° (C) 2°W 3°E 0
1800 /A/C 085° (C) 2°W 2°E 78
0200 /A/C 210° (C) 3°W 4°W 188
0800 /A/C 170° (C) 4°W 1°E 268
1000 /A/C VESSL STOPPED AND DRIFTED 290
1200 /A/C VESSL STOPPED AND DRIFTED

Solution:- During the interval 1000 ~ 1200 though the vessel is stopped but it will drift with the
current. Hence current is applicable for 24 hours and has been taken as one of the course
component.

TIME COMPASS CPMPASS TRUE QUADRANTAL LOG DISTANCE

COURSE ERROR COURSE COURSE READING
1200 - 1800 030° (C) 1°E 031° N31°E 0 78
1800 - 0200 085° (C) NIL 085° N85° E 78 110
0200 - 0800 210° (C) 7°W 203° S23° W 188 80
0800 - 1000 170° (C) 3°W 167° S13° E 268 22
1000 - 1200 290
1200 -1200 315° N45° W 48
Extract from table above is used in the days work table below :

QUADRANTAL DISTANCE d.lat = dist* cos co. Departure = dist *sin co.
COURSE
N31°E 78 66.86 N 40.17 E
N85° E 110 9.59 N 109.58E
S23° W 80 73.64 S 31.26W
S13° E 22 21.44 S 4.95 E
N45° W 48 33.94 N 33.94 W
15.31N resultant d.lat 89.5 E resultant departure

Departed Noon position 15°00.0′N 10°00.0′E

Resultant d.lat 00 15.31N 01°32.7E (d’long from below calculation)

Arrived Noon position 15°15.3′N 11°32.7E

Mean Lat 15°07.65′N

d.long = departure / cos M′lat = 89.5 / cos 15.1275 = 92.7 = 01°32.7E

For Course and Distance Made Good

Tan course = departure/d.lat = 89.5/ 15.31 = 5.84585

 Course made good = N 80.29 E (since d′lat is North and departure is East.) (080.3º T) Distance Made
Good (DMG) = departure/sin course = 89.5/ sin 80.29 = 90.8′ n.miles Speed Made Good = DMG/
Steaming time = 90.8’/22 = 4.13 kts

Q16. At 1200 hours on 25th June, 1992 a point of land in lat. 24°37′N, long. 047°12′W bore 057°(T),
dist. off by radar 5.5 miles. She then sailed the following courses and distance.

Gyro Co. Gyro Error Distance Wind Direction Leeway

347° 1° High 111 M SW 3°

001° 1° High 47 M W Nil

187° 1° High 27 M W 1°
Find the estimated arrival position. If the final position by observation was
26°27.5′N, 47°32.2′W, find the set and drift of the current experienced and the
course and distance made good.

SOLUTIONS:-
Gyro Gyro True Leeway Course Quad. Distance
Course Error Course Made Course
Good
347° (G) 1°High 346° (G) 3º (+) 349 N 11°W 111
001° (G) 1°High 000 Nil 000 North 47
187° (G) 1°High 186° 1 (-) 185° S 05°W 27

Note 1 : The bearing and distance given is that of the point of land from the ship. Therefore,
the bearing of the ship from the point of land will be the reverse of the given bearing, the
distance off being the same. Thus the position of the ship at that instant can be found by
applying to the position of the point of land, the d′lat and d′long obtained with the reversed
bearing as course and the distance off as distance. Since in this example, the initial position
is not required, the final estimated position could be obtained by applying to the position of
land, the d′lat and d′long for the various legs of the traverse including the reverse bearing
and distance off also as one of the legs.

It is important to note that, while finding course and dist. made good by the vessel, the d′lat
and departure for the reverse bearing and distance off should be disregarded, as it is not part
of the ship’s run. If that d′lat and departure were also considered, the course and distance
calculated would be erroneous.
Quadrantal Course Distance d.lat = dist* cos co. Departure = dist *sin co.
Rev. Brg. S 57°W 5.5 3.0 S 4.6 W
N 11°W 111 109.0 N 21.2 W
NORTH 47 47 N -
S 05°W 27 26.9 S 2.4 W
126.1 N Resultant d.lat 28.2 W resultant dep

Resultant d′lat 156.0′N − 29.9′S = 126.1′N = 2°06.1′N

Resultant departure = 28.2′W

Latitude of point of land = 24°37.0′N

d′lat = 2°06.1′N

Lat. of estimated arrival position = 26°43.1′N

Mean latitude = 25°40.0′N

For dep. of 28.2 miles in mean lat. 25°40′, d′long = 31.2′W

Long. of point of land = 047°12.0′W

d′long = 31.2′W

Long. of estimated arrival position = 047°43.2′W

Estimated position of arrival = 26°43.1′N, 047°43.2′W

Position by observation = 26°27.5′N, 047°32.2′W

d′lat and d′long from estimated to observed position. :

d′lat 15.6′S, d′long 11.0′E

For d′long 11.0′E in mean lat. 26°35.3′N

dep = 9.8 miles E

dep = 9.8 miles E

tan set = dep / d′lat. = 9.8 / 15.6 set of current = S32°08′E

drift = d′lat × sec set = 15.6 × sec 32°08’ = 18.4 Miles.

To find course and distance made good :

d′lat made good : 109.0′N + 47.0′N − 26.9′S − 15.6′S = 113.5′N

Departure made good : 21.2′W + 2.4′W − 9.8′E = 13.8′W

tan course made good = dep / d′lat = 13.8/113.5

Course made good = N6°56′W

Distance made good = d′lat × sec co = 113.5’ × sec 6°56’ = 114.34 M

Q17. A ship departs from position 7° 20′N 079° 10′E and arrives in position
07°20′N077°18′Eaftersailing for 6 hrs. Find the speed of ship.
Solution
As the ship has sailed on same latitude, i.e. parallel sailing.
D′long is 1° 52′ W d′long = 112′
Using the formula dep/d′long = cos lat
Dep = 112 × cos 7° 20′
Dep = 111.1′
As the ship has sailed on same parallel, departure is distance. Distance covered in 6 hrs is 111.1 miles.
So speed of the ship = 111.1/6.
Answer : Ship’s speed = 18.51 kts.
Q18 Find the course and distance by Mercator sailing formula from: 13º15′N, 072º10′E to 22º 55′S,
009º 56′E.

Solution

Lat Long MP

From 13º15′N 072º10′E 796.82

To 22º55′S 065º 56′E 1404.09

D’lat = 36º10′S = 2170′S D’long = 6º 14′W = 374′ W DMP = 2200.91

tan Co. = D′long/DMP = 374/2200.91 = 0.16993

Course = tan− 1 0.16993 Course = S9º38.6′W

Distance = d′lat × secant course = 2170 × sec. 9º38.6′

Distance = 2201.1 N.mile

Q19 WHAT IS NATURAL SCALE?

Natural scale is the relationship between the actual length of something on the earth and the
length by which that thing is shown on the chart. It does not matter what size the unit is or in what
system it is measured for example, a scale of 1/80,000
or 1 : 80,000 means that one unit (inch, foot, meter, mile etc.) on a chart represent 80,000 such
unit on the earth.

Natural scale is the ratio of the length of 1’ of latitude on the chart to the length of 1
nautical mile on the surface of the Earth.
Lat scale = long scale X Sec Lat
Length of 1’ of latitude (l) on the chart = length of 1’ of long (L). sec (L)

Length of 1 nautical mile on the Earth = 1852.3 – 9.4 cos2L (in min)
20 Vertex, The Master-key?

Vertex the key to all secrets

Information about the coordinates of vertex is the master key to all the secrets of a great circle. Any
calculation in respect of a great circle can be accomplished, if the position of vertex is known. Be it the
intermediate position; intermediate course; or the position where a parallel of latitude or meridian is cut;
everything and anything can be found. Vertex, though described in a simple way as most poleward point of
a great circle, contains many secrets within.

Great Circle Sailing

Higher probability of bad weather and lower temperatures on a great circle route than what would be
experienced in relevant Rhumb Line sailing, are some of the factors which come to mind when a Master
decides about options to cross an ocean, particularly in winters. Most mariners, generally resort to rhumb-
line sailing only. Fear of rough weather; bad visibility; probability of confronting ice; and the mention of
limiting latitude in crew agreements are some of the deterrents in following a great circle route.

Finding the way-points

Indeed, the excitement of altering course every noon or at an intermediate way-point, during an ocean
passage and then eventually reaching the destination, is unique. To do a great circle sailing, positions of
intermediate waypoints must be found. These waypoints may be at fixed d’long intervals. Finding the
latitude at some intermediate meridian can be done in three ways. The first method uses, gnomonic sheet
to find the intermediate way-points. Waypoints may be planned say every 5 degrees of d’long. A straight
line drawn on the gnomonic sheet between initial and final positions is actually a great circle route.
Latitudes every 5 degrees off are noted down. The coordinates of waypoints are transferred on Mercator

chart. Courses between these way-points are traversed by plane or rhumb-line sailing.

In the other two methods involving calculations, first, initial course is found using initial and final position. In
the next step:

1. Using co-lat of initial position A, initial course, and angle V being 900, triangle APV is solved to find
position of vertex using Napier’s method. Using the co-lat of vertex and d’long with the pre-decided
meridians, the respective co-lats on these meridians are found, thereby giving intermediate waypoints.
Navigation between adjacent waypoints is done by rhumb-line sailing.
2. Using initial course, initial co-lat & d’long to any predetermined meridian, the co-lat of way-point can be calculated
by four parts formula. This way co-lat for d’longs of 50, 100, 150, etc are found. Thus, waypoints every 50 d’long off
are found. Navigation between adjacent way-point done by rhumb-line sailing.

Four Part Formula:

A spherical triangle has 6 parts. Four part formula can be used to find the missing outer part (only), if the 4 parts
used are in continuity. Thus, in above fig angle A, side AP, angle B & side PC are in continuity. Angle A & side PC
are outer parts. (Outer angle and outer side respectively), whereas side AP & angle P are inner parts. Let angle A
be 400, side AP be 520.Then for any d’long or say a d’long of 100, PC can be calculated by following formula.

Thus, Cot PC x Sine PA = Cot 400 x Sine 100 + Cos 520 x Cos 100

 Vertex represents the maximum pole-ward position of a great circle.

Vertex really does not mean that one is in ice latitudes. The equator has no vertex. On a great circle
that crosses equator on a course of 0850 will not go very high in terms of latitude. In fact the vertex
latitude will be 50N. Following a course of 0900 is doing a great circle course, whose vertex is the
pole itself.

 Latitude of vertex is actually equal to the smaller angle between the ship’s head and the equator at
equator crossing.

This can be visualized from the following picture of a cricket ball.

 Every great circle has 2 vertices one in the northern hemisphere and the second in

southern hemisphere.

 If the course at one vertex is 090°, the course at the second vertex is also 90°
Course on the GC is continuously changing and at vertex, North component changes to South and
vice versa. But this is not true about East or West component. The East component never changes
to West (and vice versa) in a great circle route. Throughout the passage, either the vessel has
easterly component or westerly component.

 For the vertex to be in between initial and final position a course of 090° or 270° must be there
between initial and final course.
This is because the course at vertex is either 0900 or 2700. In northern hemisphere if the course has
northerly component, the vertex is ahead. If the course however, has a southerly component, the
vertex is passed behind. Well, there has to be a vertex in northern hemisphere,, either ahead or

behind. A similar rule would apply in southern hemisphere.

 D’long between the equator crossing and vertex is 90°

In a complete 3600 traverse of a great circle, there are two equator crossings and two vertices. In
fact they come alternately, every 900 off. This means, after 900 d’long of an equator crossing there
will be vertex and after 900 d’long of vertex, there will be the equator crossing.

Some Interesting points

  If we know the longitude of one of the vertex the longitude of the vertex in other hemisphere is
found by adding 180°, then subtracting from 360° and changing the name.
 If initial and final positions are given, the vertex latitude can be calculated in three steps.
 Knowledge of course and longitude at equator crossing is enough to know the latitude and
longitude of vertex without doing any spherical triangle calculation.
 If the d’long between the initial and final position is more than 90° and both the positions are in the
same hemisphere the vertex lies between the initial and final positions.
 If V1 & V2 are two vertices of a great circle, there can be infinite number of Great circles which can
be drawn passing through the two vertices.
 If the initial and final positions are in the same hemisphere and have the same latitude, the vertex is
equidistant from the two positions and is at the mid-long of the two positions.

Q20. What is Gnomonic Chart? Explain advanges & disadvantages of Gnomonic

Chart. GNOMONIC CHARTS

1. Gnomonic charts are used for great circle sailing, as in these charts the great circles
 appear to be straight lines.
2.The projection is tangential.
3. These are small scale charts and therefore are not used for navigation.
4. Meridians are straight line converging towards the pole.
5. Meridians are not parallel to each other.
6. Small circles and Rhumb lines are curved.
7.After marking the shortest distance on Gnomonic chart, points are marked on the track
at regular intervals of longitude and then transferred to the Mercator chart.
Advantages

1. Great circle track appear as straight line.

2.Polar regions can also be represented on Gnomonic charts.

Disadvantages

1. As we go away from the centre the distortion for shape, size and distance increases.
2.Rhumb line courses cannot be plotted as they appear to be curved lines.
3. Plotting lines cannot be transferred from one portion of the chart to another.

Q21 Find the distance along the great circle, the initial course, final course and the position of the
vertex, when sailing from 33° 50' S, 23° 12' E to 20° 10' S 104° 00' E.
Solution

A 33° 50' S 023° 12' E

B 20° 10' S 104° 00' E

D'long 080° 48' E

Cosp = CosaCosb + SinaSinbCosP ( a= 90deg – 20deg 10’ = 69deg 50’, b = 90- 33deg 50’ = 56deg 10’)

Cosp = Cos69deg 50’ x Cos56deg 10’ + Sin69deg 50’ Sin56deg 10’Cos080deg48’

 = 0.3447576 x 0.5567799 + 0.9386917 x 0.830654 x 0.1598811

= 0.191954 + 0.1246638 = 0.31661777 = 71.5415deg = DISTANCE

4292. 5

nautical miles

Initial course
Cosa = CosbCosp+ SinbSinpCosA

CosA = Cosa - CosbCosp

SinbSinp

CosA = Cos 69deg 50’ - Cos56deg 10’Cos071.541deg'

sin56deg 10’sin071.541deg

CosA= Cos69.833deg – Cos56.167degCos071.541deg

Sin56.167degSin071.541deg

CosA= 0.3447578 – 0.5568611 x 0.3166260

0.8306056 x 0.9485504

CosA = 0.16844110 / 0.78787127= 0.213808 = 77.654deg = 077deg 39.26’

180-077deg39.26’ = 102deg20.74’ Initial course

Final course
CosB = Cosb - CosaCosp

SinaSinp

CosB = Cos56deg 10’ - Cos 69deg 50’ Cos071.541deg

Sin69deg 50’ Sin 071.541deg

CosB = 0.5568611 - 0.3447578 x 0.3166260

0.9386917 x 0.9485504
CosB = 0.4477018 / 0.8903964 = 0.50281178 = 59.814deg = 59deg48.83’

Therefore,

Initial course : S 77° 39.26' E or 102° 20.7' (T)

Final course : N59 48.83' E or 059° 48.83' (T)

In traingle PAV, Using Napier's rule

A = 77°39.26', PA = 56° 10',

Latitude of V & Longitude of V =?

Sin (PV) = Cos (90 - A) x Cos (90 - PA) = cos (90- 77deg39.26’) x Cos (90-56deg10’)

Sin (PV) = cos12.35 x Cos33.833 = 0.81144 = 54.2368deg

Lat V = 90- PV = 90 - 54.2368deg = 35.76deg = 35deg 46’ South

Sin (90-PA) = tan(90-P) X tan(90-A)

Sin (90-56.167) = Tan (90- P) X tan (90-77.66)

Sin33.833deg / tan 12.34deg = tan (90-P) deg

0.55677/0.21895 = 2.5429 =68,532deg

90-P = 68.532deg
P= 90- 68.532 = 21.47deg = 21deg 27.6

P = 21° 27.6deg D'long from A to V 021° 27.6' E

Long. A 023°12.00' E

Long. V 044° 39.6 E

Position of V: 35° 46 S' 044° 39.6’E

Q22. Find the great circle distance, initial and final courses, from 10° 25' S, 90° 12' E to 39° 27' N 55°
10' E. find also the position of the vertex.

Solution:-
A 10° 25' S090° 12' E
B 39° 27' N055° 10' E

D’lat 49deg 52’N D'long 035° 02' W

P = 35.03°, b= 100.42°, a= 50.55°

Cosp = CosaCosb + Sina x Sinb x CosP

Cosp = Cos50.55° Cos100.42° + Sin50.55° x Sin100.42° x Cos35.03°

Cosp = 0.635405 x -0.1808625+ 0.772179 x 0.9835084 x 0.81882155

Cosp = -0.1149209 +0.62184955 = 0.50692895 = 59.54° = 3572.4 NM

Initial course
Cosa = CosbCosp + Sinb x Sinp x CosA

Cos50.55° - Cos100.42° Cos59.54° = CosA

Sin100.42° x Sin59.54°

0.635405 – ( -0.1808625 x 0.506937)

0.9835084 x 0.8619833

CosA = 0.7270909 / 0.8477678 = 0.8576533 = 30.946° = 30° 56.76’ =A

Initial course = 329° 03.24' (T) or N 30° 56.76' W

Final course

Cosb = CosaCosp + Sina x Sinp x CosB

Cos100.42° = Cos50.55° Cos59.54° + Sin50.55° x Sin59.54° x CosB

-0.1808625 = 0.635405 x 0.506937 + 0.772179 x 0.8619833 x CosB

-0.1808625 – (0.635405 x 0.506937) = CosB = -0.502973 / 0.6656063 = - 0.75566 = 139.083°

0.772179 x 0.8619833

Final course 139° 4.98' + 180 = 319°05’ (T)

Vertex :

Initial course = 329° 03.24'(T) & Final course = 319°05’ (T)

At Vertex course is 090 0r 270deg. Here 270 will be near to initial & final course. 270 is out side Initial
course & towards final course hence vertex is out side the PAB triangle & towards final course & in
northern latitude.
SinPV = Cos49.08° X Cos 39.45° = 0.6550046 X 0.772179 = 0.5057808 = 30.38° = 30°23’

Lat of V = 90° - 30°23’ = 59°37’ N

Sin 39.45° = tan49.08° X tan 90°-P

0.6354046 = 1.153618 X tan 90°-P

0.6354046 / 1.153618 = 0.550793= tan 90°-P

90°-P = 28.85°

P= 90- 28.85° = 61.15° W (D’Long)

Long of posn B = 55.167° E

Long of V = 61.15° W - 55.167° E = 5.983° W = 005° 59’ W

Position of V: 59° 37' NO05° 59' W

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