Research Methods

Research methods are how psychologists and scientists come up

with and test their theories. The A level psychology syllabus covers

several different types of studies and experiments used in

psychology as well as how these studies are conducted and

reported:

 Types of psychological
studies (including experiments, observations, self-reporting, and case
studies)
 Scientific processes (including the features of a study, how findings are
reported, and the features of science in general)
 Data handling and analysis (including descriptive
statistics and different ways of presenting data) and inferential testing

Example question: Design a matched pairs experiment the

researchers could conduct to investigate differences in toy

preferences between boys and girls. [12 marks]

Types of study

There are several different ways a psychologist can research the

mind, including:

 Experiments
 Observation
 Self-reporting
 Case studies
Each of these methods has its strengths and weaknesses. Different

methods may be better suited to different research studies.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

The experimental method looks at how variables affect outcomes.

A variable is anything that changes between two situations. For

example, Bandura’s Bobo the doll experiment looked at how

changing the variable of the role model’s behaviour affected how

the child played.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Experiments can be designed in different ways, such as:

 Independent groups: Participants are divided into two groups. One

group does the experiment with variable 1, the other group does the
experiment with variable 2. Results are compared.
 Repeated measures: Participants are not divided into groups.
Instead, all participants do the experiment with variable 1, then
afterwards the same participants do the experiment with variable 2.
Results are compared.

A matched pairs design is another form of independent groups

design. Participants are selected. Then, the researchers

recruit another group of participants one-by-one to match the

characteristics of each member of the original group. This provides

two groups that are relevantly similar and controls for

differences between groups that might skew results. The

experiment is then conducted as a normal independent groups

design.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENT
Laboratory vs. field experiment

Experiments are carried out in two different types of settings:

 Laboratory experiment: An experiment conducted in an artificial,

controlled environment
o E.g. Bandura’s Bobo the doll experiment or Asch’s conformity
experiments
 Field experiment: An experiment carried out in a natural, real-world
environment
o E.g. Bickman’s study of the effects of uniforms on obedience
AO3 evaluation points: Laboratory vs. field
experiment

Strengths of laboratory experiment over field experiment:

The controlled environment of a laboratory experiment minimises

the risk of other variables outside the researchers’ control skewing

the results of the trial, making it more clear what (if any) the causal

effects of a variable are. Because the environment is tightly

controlled, any changes in outcome must be a result of a change in

the variable.

Weaknesses of laboratory experiment over field experiment:

However, the controlled nature of a laboratory experiment might

reduce its ecological validity. Results obtained in an artificial

environment might not translate to real-life. Further, participants

may be influenced by demand characteristics: They know they are

taking part in a test, and so behave how they think they’re expected

to behave rather than how they would naturally behave.

Natural and quasi experiment

Natural experiments are where variables vary naturally. In other

words, the researcher can’t or doesn’t manipulate the variables.

There are two types of natural experiment:

 Natural experiment: An experiment where the variable changes

naturally and the researcher seizes the opportunity to study the effects
o E.g. studying the effect a change in drug laws (variable) has on
addiction
 Quasi experiment: An experiment that compares between two
variables that cannot be changed
o E.g. studying differences between men (variable) and women
(variable)
OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

The observational method looks at and examines behaviour. For

example, Zimbardo’s prison study observed how participants

behaved when given certain social roles.

OBSERVATIONAL DESIGN
Behavioural categories

An observational study will use behavioural categories to

prioritise which behaviours are recorded and ensure the different

observers are consistent in what they are looking for.

For example, a study of the effects of age and sex on stranger

anxiety in infants might use the following behavioural categories to

organise observational data:

Participant Sex Age Observed Anxiety

behaviour rating (1-10)

A F 2 IS 2

B F 1 AS 4

C M 3 IS 1

D F 2 IS 2

E M 2 AS 6

Rather than writing complete descriptions of behaviours, the

behaviours can be coded into categories. For example, IS =

interacted with stranger, and AS = avoided stranger. Researchers

can also create numerical ratings to categorise behaviour, like the

anxiety rating example above.

AO3 evaluation points: Behavioural

categories

Inter-observer reliability: In order for observations to

produce reliable findings, it is important that observers all code

behaviour in the same way. For example, researchers would have to

make it very clear to the observers what the difference between a

‘3’ on the anxiety scale above would be compared to a ‘7’. This

inter-observer reliability avoids subjective interpretations of the

different observers skewing the findings.

Event and time sampling

Because behaviour is constant and varied, it may not be possible to

record every single behaviour during the observation period. So, in

addition to categorising behaviour, study designers will also

decide when to record a behaviour:

 Event sampling: Counting how many times the participant behaves

in a certain way.
 Time sampling: Recording participant behaviour at regular time
intervals. For example, making notes of the participant’s behaviour
after every 1 minute has passed.

Note: Don’t get event and time sampling confused with participant

sampling, which is how researchers select participants to study from

a population.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Naturalistic vs. controlled

Observations can be made in either a naturalistic or

a controlled setting:

 Naturalistic: Observations made in a real-life setting

o E.g. setting up cameras in an office or school to observe how
people interact in those environments
 Controlled: Observations made in an artificial setting set up for the
purposes of observation
o E.g. Ainsworth’s strange situation or Zimbardo’s prison study
Covert vs. overt

Observations can be either covert or overt:

  Covert: Participants are not aware they are being observed as part of
a study
o E.g. setting up hidden cameras in an office
 Overt: Participants are aware they are being observed as part of a
study
o E.g. Zimbardo’s prison study
Participant vs. non-participant

In observational studies, the researcher/observer may or may not

participate in the situation being observed:

 Participant observation: Where the researcher/observer is actively

involved in the situation being observed
o E.g. in Zimbardo’s prison study, Zimbardo played the role of
prison superintendent himself
 Non-participant observation: When the researcher/observer
is not involved in the situation being observed
o E.g. in Bandura’s Bobo the doll experiment and Ainsworth’s
strange situation, the observers did not interact with the children
being observed
SELF-REPORT METHOD

Self-report methods get participants to provide information about

themselves. Information can be obtained

via questionnaires or interviews.

TYPES OF SELF-REPORT
Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a standardised list of questions that all

participants in a study answer. For example, Hazan and Shaver used

questionnaires to collate self-reported data from participants in

order to identify correlations between attachment as infants and

romantic attachment as adults.

Questions in a questionnaire can be either open or closed:

 Closed questions: Have a fixed set of responses, such as yes/no or

multiple choice questions.
o E.g. “Are you religious?”
 Yes
 No
o E.g. “How many hours do you spend online each day?”
 <1 hour
 1-2 hours
 2-8 hours
 >8 hours
 Open questions: Do not have a fixed set of responses, instead
enabling participants to provide responses in their own words.
o E.g. “How did you feel when you thought you were administering
a lethal shock?” or “What do you look for in a romantic partner
and why?”

Interviews

In an interview, participants are asked questions in person. For

example, Bowlby interviewed 44 children when studying the effects

of maternal deprivation.

Interviews can be either structured or unstructured:

 Structured interview: Questions are standardised and pre-set. The

interviewer asks all participants the same questions in the same order.
 Unstructured interview: The interviewer discusses a topic with the
participant in a less structured and more spontaneous way, pursuing
avenues of discussion as they come up.

Interviews can also be a cross between the two – these are

called semi-structured interviews.

AO3 evaluation points: Interviews

Strengths of interviews:

 More detail: Interviews – particularly unstructured interviews

conducted by a skilled interviewer – enable researchers to delve
deeper into topics of interest, for example by asking follow-up
questions. Further, the personal touch of an interviewer may make
participants more open to discussing personal or sensitive issues.
 Replicability: Structured interviews are easily replicated because
participants are all asked the same pre-set list of questions. This
replicability means the results can be confirmed by other researchers,
strengthening certainty in the findings.

Weaknesses of interviews:

 Lack of quantifiable data: Although unstructured interviews enable

researchers to delve deeper into interesting topics, this lack of
structure may produce difficulties in comparing data between
participants. For example, one interview may go down one avenue of
discussion and another interview down a different avenue. This
qualitative data may make objective or statistical analysis difficult.
 Interviewer effects: The interviewer’s appearance or character may
bias the participant’s answers. For example, a female participant may
be less comfortable answering questions on sex asked by a male
interviewer and and thus give different answers than if she were asked
by a female interviewer.
CASE STUDIES

Note: This topic is A level only, you don’t need to learn about case
studies if you are taking the AS exam only.

Case studies are detailed investigations into an individual, a group

of people, or an event. For example, the biopsychology page

describes a case study of a young boy who had the left hemisphere

of his brain removed and the effects this had on his language skills.
In a case study, researchers use many of the methods described

above – observation, questionnaires, interviews – to gather data on

a subject. However, because case studies are studies of a single

subject, the data they provide is primarily qualitative rather

than quantitative. This data is then used to build a case history of

the subject. Researchers then interpret this case history to draw

their conclusions.

TYPES OF CASE STUDY

Typical vs. unusual cases

Most case studies focus on unusual individuals, groups, and events.

Longitudinal

Many case studies are longitudinal. This means they take place

over an extended time period, with researchers checking in with the

subject at various intervals. For example, the case study of the boy

who had his left hemisphere removed collected data on the boy’s

language skills at ages 2.5, 4, and 14 to see how he progressed.

AO3 evaluation points: Case studies

Strengths of case studies:

 Provides detailed qualitative data: Rather than focusing on one or two

aspects of behaviour at a single point in time (e.g. in an experiment),
case studies produce detailed qualitative data.
 Allows for investigation into issues that may be impractical or unethical
to study otherwise. For example, it would be unethical to remove half a
toddler’s brain just to experiment, but if such a procedure is medically
 necessary then researchers can use this opportunity to learn more
about the brain.

Weaknesses of case studies:

 Lack of scientific rigour: Because case studies are often single

examples that cannot be replicated, the results may not be valid when
applied to the general population.
 Researcher bias: The small sample size of case studies also means
researchers need to apply their own subjective interpretation when
drawing conclusions from them. As such, these conclusions may be
skewed by the researcher’s own bias and not be valid when applied
more generally. This criticism is often directed at Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory because it draws heavily on isolated case
studies of individuals.

Scientific processes

This section looks at how science works more generally – in

particular how scientific studies are organised and reported. It also

covers ways of evaluating a scientific study.

STUDY FEATURES AND DESIGN

AIM

Studies will usually have an aim. The aim of a study is a description

of what the researchers are investigating and why. For example, “to

investigate the effect of SSRIs on symptoms of depression” or “to

understand the effect uniforms have on obedience to authority”.

HYPOTHESIS

Studies seek to test a hypothesis. The experimental/alternate

hypothesis of a study is a testable prediction of what the

researchers expect to happen.

 Experimental hypothesis: A prediction that changing

the independent variable will cause a change in the dependent
variable.
o E.g. “That SSRIs will reduce symptoms of depression” or
“subjects are more likely to comply when orders are issued by
someone wearing a uniform”.
 Null hypothesis: A prediction that changing the independent
variable will have no effect on the dependent variable.
o E.g. “That SSRIs have no effect on symptoms on depression” or
“subject conformity will be the same when orders are issued by
someone wearing a uniform as when orders are issued by
someone bot wearing a uniform”

Either the experimental/alternate hypothesis or the null hypothesis

will be supported by the results of the experiment.

SAMPLING

It’s often not possible or practical to conduct research

on everyone your study is supposed to apply to. So, researchers

use sampling to select participants for their study.

 Population: The entire group that the study is supposed to apply to

o E.g. all humans, all women, all men, all children, etc.
 Sample: A part of the population that is representative of the entire
group
o E.g. 10,000 humans, 200 women from the USA, children at a
certain school

For example, the target population (i.e. who the results apply to)

of Asch’s conformity experiments is all humans – but Asch didn’t

conduct the experiment on that many people! Instead, Asch

recruited 123 males and generalised the findings from this sample

to the rest of the population.

Researchers choose from different sampling techniques – each has

strengths and weaknesses.

Sampling techniques
Random sampling

The random sampling method involves selecting participants from

a target population at random – such as by drawing names from a

hat or using a computer program to select them. This method

means each member of the population has an equal chance of being

selected and thus is not subject to any bias.

AO3 evaluation points: Random sampling

Strengths of random sampling:

 Unbiased: Selecting participants by random chance reduces the

likelihood that researcher bias will skew the results of the study.
 Representative: If participants are selected at random – particularly if
the sample size is large – it is likely that the sample will be
representative of the population as a whole. For example, if the ratio of
men:women in a population is 50:50 and participants are selected at
random, it is likely that the sample will also have a ratio of men to
women that is 50:50.

Weaknesses of random sampling:

 Impractical: It’s often impractical/impossible to include all members of

a target population for selection. For example, it wouldn’t be feasible
 for a study on women to include the name of every woman on the
planet for selection. But even if this was done, the randomly selected
women may not agree to take part in the study anyway.
Systematic sampling

The systematic sampling method involves selecting participants

from a target population by selecting them at pre-set intervals. For

example, selecting every 50th person from a list, or every 7th, or

whatever the interval is.

AO3 evaluation points: Systematic sampling

Strengths of systematic sampling:

 Unbiased and representative: Like random sampling, selecting

participants according to a numerical interval provides an objective
means of selecting participants that prevents researcher bias being
able to skew the sample. Further, because the sampling method is
independent of any particular characteristic (besides the arbitrary
characteristic of the participant’s order in the list) this sample is likely
to be representative of the population as a whole.

Weaknesses of systematic sampling:

 Unexpected bias: Some characteristics could occur more or less

frequently at certain intervals, making a sample that is selected based
on that interval biased. For example, houses tend to be
have even numbers on one side of a road and odd numbers on the
other. If one side of the road is more expensive than the other and you
select every 4th house, say, then you will only select even numbers
from one side of the road – and this sample may not be representative
of the road as a whole.
Stratified sampling

The stratified sampling method involves dividing the population

into relevant groups for study, working out what percentage of the
population is in each group, and then randomly sampling the

population according to these percentages.

For example, let’s say 20% of the population is aged 0-18, and 50%

of the population is aged 19-65, and 30% of the population is aged

>65. A stratified sample of 100 participants would randomly select

20x 0-18 year olds, 50x 19-65 year olds, and 30x people over 65.

AO3 evaluation points: Stratified sampling

Strengths of stratified sampling:

 Representative: The stratification is deliberately designed to yield a

sample that is representative of the population as a whole. You won’t
get people with certain characteristics being over- or under-
represented within the sample.
 Unbiased: Because participants within each group are
selected randomly, researcher bias is unable to skew who is included in
the study.

Weaknesses of stratified sampling:

 Requires knowledge of population breakdown: Researchers need to

accurately gauge what percentage of the population falls into what
group. If the researchers get these percentages wrong, the sample will
be biased and some groups will be over- or under-represented.
Opportunity and volunteer sampling

The opportunity and volunteer sampling methods:

 Opportunity sampling: Approaching participants who are available

and asking them to take part.
o E.g. Approaching people in the street and asking them to
complete a questionnaire.
 Volunteer sampling: Participants offer to take part (also called self-
selected sampling).
 o E.g. Placing an advert online inviting people to complete a
questionnaire.
AO3 evaluation points: Opportunity and
volunteer sampling

Strengths of opportunity and volunteer sampling:

 Quick and easy: Approaching participants (opportunity sampling) or

inviting participants (volunteer sampling) is quick and straightforward.
You don’t have to spend time compiling details of the target population
(like in e.g. random or systematic sampling), nor do you have to spend
time dividing participants according to relevant categories (like
in stratified sampling).
 May be the only option: With natural experiments – where a variable
changes as a result of something outside the researchers’ control
– opportunity sampling may be the only viable sampling method. For
example, researchers couldn’t randomly sample 10 cities from all the
cities in the world and change the drug laws in those cities to see the
effects – they don’t have that kind of power. However, if a city
is naturally changing its drug laws anyway, researchers could use
opportunity sampling to study that city for research.

Weaknesses of opportunity and volunteer sampling:

 Unrepresentative: The pool of participants will likely be biased towards

certain kinds of people. For example, if you
conduct opportunity sampling on a weekday at 10am, this sample will
likely exclude people who are at work. Similarly, volunteer sampling is
likely to exclude people who are too busy to take part in the study.
VARIABLES
Independent vs. dependent variables

If the study involves an experiment, the researchers will alter

an independent variable to measure its effects on a dependent

variable:

 Independent variable: Something that is changed by researchers in

an experiment.
 o E.g. In Bickman’s study of the effects of uniforms on obedience,
the independent variable was the uniform of the person giving
orders.
 Dependent variable: Something that is measured by researchers in
an experiment.
o E.g. In Bickman’s study of the effects of uniforms on obedience,
the dependent variable was how many people followed the
orders.
Extraneous and confounding variables

In addition to the variables actually being investigated (independent

and dependent), there may be additional (unwanted) variables in

the experiment. These additional variables are called extraneous

variables.

Researchers must control for extraneous variables to prevent them

from skewing the results and leading to false conclusions. When

extraneous variables are not properly controlled for they are known

as confounding variables.

For example, if you’re studying the effect of caffeine on reaction

times, it might make sense to conduct all experiments at the same

time of day to prevent this extraneous variable

from confounding the results. Reaction times change throughout the

day and so if you test one group of subjects at 3pm and another

group right before they go to bed, you may falsely conclude that the

second group had slower reaction times.

Operationalisation of variables

Operationalisation of variables is where researchers clearly and

measurably define the variables in their study.

For example, an experiment on the effects of sleep (independent

variable) on anxiety (dependent variable) would need to clearly

operationalise each variable. Sleep could be defined by number of

hours spent in bed, but anxiety is a bit more abstract and so

researchers would need to operationalise (i.e. define) anxiety such

that it can be quantified in a measurable and objective way.

If variables are not properly operationalised, the experiment cannot

be properly replicated, experimenters’ subjective interpretations

may skew results, and the findings may not be valid.

PILOT STUDIES

A pilot study is basically a practice run of the proposed research

project. Researchers will use a small number of participants and run

through the procedure with them. The purpose of this is to identify

any problems or areas for improvement in the study design before

conducting the research in full. A pilot study may also give an early

indication of whether the results will be statistically significant.

For example, if a task is too easy for participants, or it’s too obvious

what the real purpose of an experiment is, or questions in

a questionnaire are ambiguous, then the results may not be valid.

Conducting a pilot study first may save time and money as it

enables researchers to identify and address such issues before

conducting the full study on thousands of participants.

STUDY REPORTING
FEATURES OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT

The report of a psychological study (research paper) typically

contains the following sections in the following order:

 Title: A short and clear description of the research.

 Abstract: A summary of the research. This typically includes
the aim and hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusion.
 Introduction: Funnel technique: Broad overview of the context (e.g.
current theories, previous studies, etc.) before focusing in on this
particular study, why it was conducted, its aims and hypothesis.
 Method: A detailed description of the procedure used in the study, so
that the study can be evaluated and replicated. Typically includes the
following sub-sections (if appropriate):
o Study design: This will explain what method was used
(e.g. experiment or observation), how the study was designed
(e.g. independent groups or repeated measures), and
identification and operationalisation of variables.
o Participants: A description of the target population to be studied,
the sampling method, how many participants were included.
o Equipment used: A description of any special equipment used in
the study and how it was used.
o Standardised procedure: A detailed step-by-step description of
how the study was conducted. This allows for the study to
be replicated by other researchers.
o Controls: An explanation of how extraneous variables were
controlled for so as to generate accurate results.
 Results: A presentation of the key findings from the data collected.
This is typically written summaries of the raw data (descriptive
statistics), which may also be presented in tables, charts, graphs, etc.
The raw data itself is typically included in appendices.
 Discussion: An explanation of what the results mean and how they
relate to the experimental hypothesis (supporting or contradicting it),
 any issues with how results were generated, how the results fit with
other research, and suggestions for future research.
 Conclusion: A short summary of the key findings from the study.
 References: A list of all the sources – i.e. books and published articles
– used in the study. These are listed according to standard formats, e.g.
the Harvard referencing style:
o Book: Milgram, S., 2010. Obedience to Authority. 1st ed. Pinter &
Martin.
o Journal article: Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S.,
1961. Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of
Aggressive Models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 63(3), pp.575-582.
 Appendices: This is where you put any supporting materials that are
too detailed or long to include in the main report. For example, the raw
data collected from a study, or the complete list of questions in
a questionnaire.
PEER REVIEW

Peer review is a way of assessing the scientific credibility of a

research paper before it is published in a scientific journal. The idea

with peer review is to prevent false ideas and bad research from

being accepted as fact.

It typically works as follows: The researchers submit their paper to

the journal they want it to be published in, and the editor of that

journal sends the paper to expert reviewers (i.e. psychologists who

are experts in that area – the researchers’ ‘peers’) who evaluate the

paper’s scientific validity. The reviewers may accept the paper as it

is, accept it with a few changes, reject it and suggest revisions and

resubmission at a later date, or reject it completely.

There are several different methods of peer review:

  Open review: The researchers and the reviewers are known to each
other.
 Single-blind: The researchers do not know the names of the reviewers.
This prevents the researchers from being able to influence the
reviewer. This is the most common form of peer review.
 Double-blind: The researchers do not know the names of the
reviewers, and the reviewers do not know the names of the
researchers. This additionally prevents the reviewer’s bias towards the
researcher from influencing their decision whether to accept their
paper or not.
AO3 evaluation points: Peer review

Criticisms of peer review:

 Bias: There are several ways peer review can be subject to bias. For
example, academic research (particularly in niche areas) takes place
among a fairly small circle of people who know each other and so these
relationships may affect publication decisions. Further, many
academics are funded by organisations and companies that may prefer
certain ideas to be accepted as scientifically legitimate, and so this
funding may produce conflicts of interest.
 Doesn’t always prevent fraudulent/bad research from being published:
There are many examples of fraudulent research passing peer review
and being published (see this Wikipedia page for examples).
 Prevents progress of new ideas: Reviewers of papers are typically older
and established academics who have made their careers within the
current scientific paradigm. As such, they may reject new or
controversial ideas simply because they go against the
current paradigm rather than because they are unscientific.
 Plagiarism: In single-blind and double-blind peer reviews, the reviewer
may use their anonymity to reject or delay a paper’s publication and
steal the good ideas for themself.
 Slow: Peer review can mean it takes months or even years between the
researcher submitting a paper and its publication.
STUDY EVALUATION
ETHICS

In psychological studies, ethical issues are questions of what is

morally right and wrong. An ethically-conducted study will protect

the health and safety of the participants involved and uphold their

dignity, privacy, and rights.

To provide guidance on this, the British Psychological Association

has published a code of human research ethics:

 Valid consent:
o Participants are told the project’s aims, the data being collected,
and any risks associated with participation.
o Participants have the right to withdraw or modify their consent at
any time.
o Researchers can use incentives (e.g. money) to encourage
participation, but these incentives can’t be so big that they
would compromise a participant’s freedom of choice.
o Researchers must consider the participant’s ability to consent
(e.g. age, mental ability, etc.)
 No deception: Researchers should avoid misleading participants
about the nature of the study wherever possible. However, some
studies require a degree of deception (e.g. Asch’s conformity
experiments wouldn’t have worked if participants were told the true
nature of the test) and so in such cases the deception must be
scientifically justified and researchers must use risk management to
avoid harm. This may involve:
o Prior (general) consent: Informing participants that they will be
deceived without telling them the nature of the deception.
However, this may affect their behaviour as they try to guess the
real nature of the study.
o Retrospective consent: Informing participants that they were
deceived after the study is completed and asking for their
consent. The problem with this is that if they don’t consent then
it’s too late.
o Presumptive consent: Asking people who aren’t participating in
the study if they would be willing to participate in the study. If
these people would be willing to give consent, then it may be
reasonable to assume that those taking part in the study would
also give consent.
 Confidentiality: Personal data obtained about participants should not
be disclosed (unless the participant agreed to this in advance). Any
data that is published will not be publicly identifiable as the
participant’s.
  Debriefing: Once data gathering is complete, researchers must
explain all relevant details of the study to participants – especially if
deception was involved. If a study might have harmed the individual
(e.g. its purpose was to induce a negative mood), it is ethical for the
debrief to address this harm (e.g. by inducing a happy mood) so that
the participant does not leave the study in a worse state than when
they entered.
RELIABILITY

Study results are reliable if the same results can be

consistently replicated under the same circumstances. If results are

inconsistent then the study is unreliable.

Note: Just because a study is reliable, its results are not

automatically valid. A broken tape measure may reliably (i.e.

consistently) record a person’s height as 200m, but that doesn’t

mean this measurement is accurate.

There are several ways researchers can assess a study’s reliability:

Test-retest

Test-retest is when you give the same test to the same person on

two different occasions. If the results are the same or similar both

times, this suggests they are reliable.

For example, if your study used scales to measure participants’

weight, you would expect the scales to record the same (or a very

similar) weight for the same person in the morning as in the

evening. If the scales said the person weighed 100kg more later that
same day, the scales (and therefore the results of the study) would

be unreliable.

Inter-observer

Inter-observer reliability is a way to test the reliability

of observational studies.

For example, if your study required observers to assess participants’

anxiety levels, you would expect different observers to grade the

same behaviour in the same way. If one observer rated a

participant’s behaviour a 3 for anxiety, and another observer rated

the exact same behaviour an 8, the results would be unreliable.

Inter-observer reliability can be assessed mathematically by looking

for correlation between observers’ scores. Inter-observer reliability

can be improved by setting clearly defined behavioural categories.

VALIDITY

Study results are valid if they accurately measure what they are

supposed to. There are several ways researchers can assess a

study’s validity:

 Concurrent validity: A test’s results are correlated with (i.e. similar

to) the results of a similar test.
o E.g. let’s say you come up with a new test to measure
participants’ intelligence levels. If participants scoring highly on
your test also scored highly on a standardised IQ test and vice
versa, that would suggest your test has concurrent validity
 because participants’ scores are correlated with a known
accurate test.
 Face validity: The study just looks like it measures what it’s supposed
to at face value.
o E.g. a study that measures participants’ intelligence levels by
asking them when their birthday is would not have face validity.
Getting participants to complete a standardised IQ test would
have greater face validity.
 Ecological validity: The extent to which a study’s findings apply
outside of the environment it was conducted in (i.e. in real life or other
contexts).
o E.g. let’s say your study was supposed to measure aggression
levels in response to someone annoying. If the study was
conducted in a lab and the participant knew they were taking
part in a study, the results probably wouldn’t have much
ecological validity because of the unrealistic environment.
 Temporal validity: The study’s results stay true over time.
o E.g. a study conducted in 1920 that measured participants’
attitudes towards social issues may have low temporal validity
because societal attitudes have changed since then.
CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

There are several different types of extraneous variables that can

reduce the validity of a study. A well-conducted psychological study

will control for these extraneous variables so that they do not skew

the results.

Demand characteristics

Demand characteristics are extraneous variables where the

demands of a study make participants behave in ways they wouldn’t

behave outside of the study. This reduces the study’s ecological

validity.

For example, if a participant guesses the purpose of an experiment

they are taking part in, they may try to please the researcher by
behaving in the ‘right’ way rather than the way they would

naturally. Alternatively, the participant might rebel against the study

and deliberately try to sabotage it (e.g. by deliberately giving wrong

answers).

In some study designs, researchers can control for demand

characteristics using single-blind methods. For example, a drug trial

could give half the participants the actual drug and the other half a

placebo but not tell participants which treatment they received. This

way, both groups will have equal demand characteristics and so any

differences between them should be down to the drug itself.

Investigator effects

Investigator effects are another extraneous variable where the

characteristics of the researcher affect the participant’s behaviour.

Again, this reduces the study’s ecological validity.

Many characteristics – e.g. the researcher’s age, gender, accent,

what they’re wearing – could potentially influence the participant’s

responses. For example, in an interview about sex, females may feel

less comfortable answering questions asked by a male interviewer

and thus give different answers than if they were asked by a female.

The researcher’s biases may also come across in their body

language or tone of voice, affecting the participant’s responses.

In some study designs, researchers can control for demand

characteristics using double-blind methods. In a double-blind drug

trial, for example, neither the participants nor the researchers know

which participants get the actual drug and which get the placebo.

This way, the researcher is unable to give any clues (consciously or

unconsciously) to participants that would affect their behaviour.

Participant variables

Participant variables are differences between participants. These

can be controlled for by random allocation.

For example, in an experiment on the effect of caffeine on reaction

times, participants would be randomly allocated into either the

caffeine group or the non-caffeine group. A non-random allocation

method, such as allocating caffeine to men and placebo to women,

could mean variables in the allocation method (in this case gender)

skew the results. When participants are randomly allocated, any

extraneous variables (e.g. gender in this case) will be

allocated evenly between each group and so not skew the results of

one group more than the other.

Situational variables

Situational variables are the environment the experiment is

conducted in. These can be controlled for by standardisation.

For example, all the tests of caffeine on reaction times would be

conducted in the same room, at the same time of day, using the

same equipment, and so on to prevent these features of the

environment from skewing the results.

Task order

In a repeated measures experiment, researchers may

use counterbalancing to control for the order in which tasks are

completed.

For example, half of participants would do task A followed by task B,

and the other half would do task B followed by task A.

IMPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH FOR THE

ECONOMY

Psychological research often has practical applications in real life.

The following are some examples of how psychological findings may

affect the economy:

 Attachment: Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis suggests that

periods of extended separation between mother and child before age 3
are harmful to the child’s psychological development. And if mothers
stay at home during this period, they can’t go out to work. However,
some more recent research challenges Bowlby’s conclusions,
suggesting that substitutes (e.g. the father, or nursery care) can care
for the child, allowing the mother to go back to work sooner and
remain economically active.
 Psychopathology: Mental disorders affect people’s ability to work and
so addressing these will likely have benefits for the economy. Further,
psychologically healthy people are less likely to need use of health
 services or end up in prison, so psychological research may help save
money in these areas. Examples:
o Depression: Psychological research has found effective therapies
for treating depression, such as cognitive behavioural
therapy and SSRIs. The benefits of such therapies – if they are
effective – are likely to outweigh the costs because they enable
the person to return to work and pay taxes, as well avoiding
long-term costs to the health service.
o OCD: Similar to above: Drug therapies (e.g. SSRIs) and
behavioural approaches (e.g. CBT) may alleviate OCD symptoms,
enabling OCD sufferers to return to work, pay taxes, and avoid
reliance on healthcare services.
 Memory: Public money is required to fund police investigations.
Psychological tools, such as the cognitive interview, have improved the
accuracy of eyewitness testimonies, which equates to more efficient
use of police time and resources.
FEATURES OF SCIENCE
THEORY CONSTRUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Science works by making empirical observations of the world,

formulating hypotheses/theories that explain these observations,

and repeatedly testing these hypotheses/theories via

experimentation.

FEATURES OF SCIENCE
 Objectivity: Observations are made from a neutral perspective
without bias, rather than the scientist’s subjective viewpoint.
o E.g. A tape measure provides a more objective measurement of
something compared to a researcher’s guess. Similarly, a set of
scales is a more objective way of determining which of two
objects is heavier than a researcher lifting each up and giving
their opinion.
 Replicability: Scientific procedures and experiments can be repeated
to double-check the findings are valid.
o E.g. Burger (2009) replicated Milgram’s experiments with similar
results.
 Falsifiability: When a theory or hypothesis is tested/replicated, there
must be some possible observation that could prove it false – even if
that never actually happens.
o E.g. The hypothesis that “water boils at 100°c” could be falsified
by an experiment where you heated water to 999°c and it didn’t
 boil. In contrast, “everything doubles in size every 10 seconds”
could not be falsified by any experiment because whatever
equipment you used to measure everything would also double in
size.
o Freud’s psychodynamic theories are often criticised for being
unfalsifiable: There’s not really any observations that could
disprove them because every possible behaviour (e.g. crying or
not crying) could be explained as the result of some unconscious
thought process.
PARADIGM SHIFTS

Philosopher Thomas Kuhn argues that science is not as unbiased

and objective as it seems. Instead, the majority of scientists just

accept the existing scientific theories (i.e. the existing paradigm) as

true and then find data that supports these theories while

ignoring/rejecting data that refutes them.

Rarely, though, minority voices are able to successfully challenge

the existing paradigm and replace it with a new one. When this

happens it is a paradigm shift. An example of a paradigm shift in

science is that from Newtonian gravity to Einstein’s theory of

general relativity.

Data handling and analysis

TYPES OF DATA
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE

Data from studies can be quantitative or qualitative:

 Quantitative: Numerical
  Qualitative: Non-numerical

For example, some quantitative data in the Milgram

experiment would be how many subjects delivered a lethal shock. In

contrast, some qualitative data would be asking the subjects

afterwards how they felt about delivering the lethal shock.

AO3 evaluation points: Quantitative vs.

qualitative data

Strengths of quantitative data / weaknesses of qualitative data:

 Can be compared mathematically and scientifically: Quantitative data

enables researchers to mathematically and objectively analyse data.
For example, mood ratings of 7 and 6 can be compared objectively,
whereas qualitative assessments such as ‘sad’ and ‘unhappy’ are hard
to compare scientifically.

Weaknesses of quantitative data / strengths of qualitative data:

 Less detailed: In reducing data to numbers and narrow definitions,

quantitative data may miss important details and context.
Content analysis

Although the detail of qualitative data may be valuable, this level of

detail can also make it hard to objectively or mathematically

analyse. Content analysis is a way of analysing qualitative data.

The process is as follows:

 A sample of qualitative data is collected

o E.g. A bunch of unstructured interviews on the topic of childhood
 Relevant coding units are identified and operationalised
o E.g. Discussion of traumatic events, happy memories, births, and
deaths
  The data is analysed according to these coding units to produce
quantitative metrics
o E.g. Researchers listen to the unstructured interviews
and count how often traumatic events are mentioned
 Statistical analysis is carried out on this data
PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY

Researchers can produce primary data or use secondary data to

achieve the research aims of their study:

 Primary data: Original data collected for the study

 Secondary data: Data from another study previously conducted
Meta-analysis

A meta-analysis is a study of studies. It involves taking several

smaller studies within a certain research area and using statistics to

identify similarities and trends within those studies to create a larger

study.

We have looked at some examples of meta-analyses elsewhere in

the course such as Van Ijzendoorn’s meta-analysis of several

strange situation studies and Grootheest et al’s meta-analysis of

twin studies on OCD.

A good meta-analysis is often more reliable than a regular study

because it is based on a larger data set, and any issues with one

single study will be balanced out by the other studies.

 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY: MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE

Mean, median, and mode are measures of central tendency. In

other words, they are ways of reducing large data sets

into averages.

Mean

The mean is calculated by adding all the numbers in a set together

and dividing the total by the number of numbers.

 Example set: 22, 78, 3, 33, 90

 22+78+3+33+90=226
 226/5=45.2
 The mean is 45.2
AO3 evaluation points: Mean

Strengths:

 Uses all data in the set.

 Accurate: Provides a precise number based on all the data in a set.

Weaknesses:

 Can be skewed by one or two freak scores (e.g. one really high or one
really low number).
o E.g.: 1, 3, 2, 5, 9, 4, 913 <- the mean is 133.9, but the 913 could
be a measurement error or something and thus the mean is not
representative of the data set
Median

The median is calculated by arranging all the numbers in a set from

smallest to biggest and then finding the number in the middle. Note:

If the total number of numbers is odd, you just pick the middle one.
But if the total number of numbers is even, you take the mid-point

between the two numbers in the middle.

 Example set: 20, 66, 85, 45, 18, 13, 90, 28, 9
 9, 13, 18, 20, 28, 45, 66, 85, 90
 The median is 28
AO3 evaluation points: Median

Strengths:

 Won’t be skewed by freak scores (unlike the mean).

Weaknesses:

 May not be representative of central tendency (especially if the data

set is small)
o E.g.: 1, 1, 3, 9865, 67914 <- 3 is not really representative of the
larger numbers in the set.
 Less accurate/sensitive than the mean.
Mode

The mode is calculated by counting which is the most commonly

occurring number in a set.

 Example set: 7, 7, 20, 16, 1, 20, 25, 16, 20, 9

 There are two 7’s, but three 20’s
 The mode is 20
AO3 evaluation points: Mode

Strengths:

 Won’t be skewed by freak scores (unlike the mean).

 Makes more sense for presenting the central tendency in data sets
with whole numbers. For example, the average number of limbs for a
human being will have a mean of something like 3.99, but a mode of 4.

Weaknesses:
  Does not use all the data in a set.
 A data set may have more than one mode.
MEASURES OF DISPERSION: RANGE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

Range and standard deviation are measures of dispersion. In

other words, they quantify how much scores in a data set vary.

Range

The range is calculated by subtracting the smallest number in the

data set from the largest number.

 Example set: 59, 8, 7, 84, 9, 49, 14, 75, 88, 11

 The largest number is 88
 The smallest number is 7
 88-7=81
 The range is 81
AO3 evaluation points: Range

Strengths:

 Easy and quick to calculate: You just subtract one number from another
 Accounts for freak scores (highest and lowest)

Weaknesses:

 Can be skewed by freak scores: The difference between the biggest

and smallest numbers can be skewed by a single anomalous result or
error, which may give an exaggerated impression of the data
distribution compared to standard deviation.
 Does not account for how common scores are. For example, the
following data sets have the same range but the distributions are
clearly very different:
o 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7, 19
o 4, 16, 16, 17, 17, 17, 18, 19 19
Standard deviation

The standard deviation (σ) is a measure of how much numbers in

a data set deviate from the mean (average). It is calculated as

follows:

 Example data set: 59, 79, 43, 42, 81, 100, 38, 54, 92, 62
 Calculate the mean (65)
 Subtract the mean from each number in the set
o -6, 14, -22, -23, 16, 35, -27, -11, 27, -3
 Square these numbers
o 36, 196, 484, 529, 256, 1225, 729, 121, 729, 9
 Add all these numbers together
o 36+196+484+529+256+1225+729+121+729+9=4314
 Divide the result by the number of numbers
o 4314/10=431.4
 The square root of this number is the standard deviation
o √431.4=20.77
 The standard deviation is 20.77

Note: This method of standard deviation is based on the entire

population. There is a slightly different method for calculating based

on a sample where instead of dividing by the number of numbers in

the second to last step, you divide by the number of numbers-1 (in

this case 4314/9=479.333). This gives a standard deviation of

21.89.

AO3 evaluation points: Standard deviation

Strengths:

 Is less skewed by freak scores: Standard deviation measures

the average difference from the mean and so is less likely to be
skewed by a single freak score (compared to the range).

Weaknesses:
  Takes longer to calculate than the range.
PERCENTAGES

A percentage (%) describes how much out of 100 something

occurs. It is calculated as follows:

 Example: 63 out of a total of 82 participants passed the test

 63/82=0.768
 0.768*100=76.8
 76.8% of participants passed the test
Percentage change

To calculate a percentage change, work out the difference between

the original number and the after number, divide that difference by

the original number, then multiply the result by 100:

 Example: He got 80 marks on the test but after studying he got 88

marks on the test
 88-80=8
 8/80=0.1
 0.1*100=10
 His test score increased by 10% after studying
NORMAL AND SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS
Normal distribution

A data set that has a normal distribution will have the majority of

scores on or near the mean average. A normal distribution is also

symmetrical: There are an equal number of

scores above the mean as below it. In a normal distribution, scores

become rarer and rarer the more they deviate from the mean.
An example of a normal distribution is IQ scores. As you can see

from the histogram below, there are as many IQ

scores below the mean as there are above the mean:

When plotted on a histogram, data that follows a normal distribution

will form a bell-shaped curve like the one above.

Skewed distribution

A data set that has a skewed

distribution will not be symmetrical: Scores are not distributed

evenly either side of the mean.

Skewed distributions are caused by outliers: Freak scores that throw

off the mean. Skewed distributions can be positive or negative:

 Positively skewed: A freakishly high score (or a cluster of low scores)

makes the mean much higher than most of the scores, so most scores
are below the mean.
o Mean > Median > Mode
 Negatively skewed: A freakishly low score (or a cluster of high
scores) makes the mean much lower than most of the scores, so most
scores are above the mean.
o Mean < Median < Mode
CORRELATION

Correlation refers to how closely related two (or more) things are

related. For example, hot weather and ice cream sales may be
positively correlated: When hot weather goes up, so do ice cream

sales.

Correlations are measured mathematically using correlation

coefficients (r). A correlation coefficient will be anywhere between

+1 and -1:

 r=+1 means two things are perfectly positively correlated: When one
goes up, so does the other by the same amount
 r=-1 means two things perfectly negatively correlated: When one
goes up, the other goes down by the same amount
 r=0 means two things are not correlated at all: A change in
one is totally independent of a change in the other

The following scattergrams illustrate various correlation coefficients:

 PRESENTATION OF DATA
TABLES

Tables are ways of

presenting data. They can present raw data (data tables) or

summarise results (results tables).

For example, the behavioural categories table above presents the

raw data of each student in this made-up study. But in the results

section, researchers might include another table that

compares average anxiety rating scores for males and females.

SCATTERGRAMS

A scattergram illustrates two

variables for various data points.

For example, each dot on the correlation scattergram opposite could

represent a student. The x-axis could represent the number of hours

the student studied, and the y-axis could represent the student’s

test score.

BAR CHARTS

A bar

chart illustrates discrete data categories for comparison. The x-axis

lists the categories and the y-axis illustrates the different results

between the categories.

For example, the results of Loftus and Palmer’s study into the

effects of different leading questions on memory could be presented

using the bar chart above. It’s not like there are categories in-

between ‘contacted’ and ‘hit’, so the bars have gaps between them

(unlike a histogram).

HISTOGRAMS

A histogram is a bit like a bar chart but is used to

illustrate continuous or interval data (rather than discrete data or

whole numbers).
 For example, it’s not like

you can only weigh 100kg or 101kg – there are many intervals in
between. The x axis on the histogram opposite organises this

continuous data (i.e. the in-between scores) into categories. The y

axis illustrates the frequency of scores within each category.

Because the data on the x axis is continuous, there are no gaps

between the bars.

LINE GRAPH

Like a histogram, a line

graph (sometimes called a frequency polygon) also illustrates

continuous data. But whereas a histogram can only represent one

data category, a line graph can illustrate multiple data categories.

For example, the line graph above illustrates 3 different people’s

progression in a strength training program over time.

PIE CHART

Pie charts illustrate how

commonly different things occur relative to each other. In other

words, they provide a visual representation of percentages.

For example, the frequency with which different attachment styles

occurred in Ainsworth’s strange situation could be represented by

the pie chart opposite.

INFERENTIAL TESTING
PROBABILITY AND SIGNIFICANCE

The point of inferential testing is to see whether a study’s results

are statistically significant, i.e. whether any observed effects are

as a result of whatever is being studied rather than just random

chance.
For example, let’s say you are studying whether flipping a

coin outdoors increases the likelihood of getting heads. You flip the

coin 100 times and get 52 heads and 48 tails. Assuming a baseline

expectation of 50:50, you might take these results to mean that

flipping the coin outdoors does increase the likelihood of getting

heads. However, from 100 coin flips, a ratio of 52:48 between heads

and tails is not very significant and could have occurred due to luck.
So, the probability that this difference in heads and tails is because

you flipped the coin outside (rather than just luck) is low.

Probability is denoted by the symbol p. The lower the p value, the

more statistically significant your results are. You can never get

a p value of 0, though, so researchers will set a threshold at which

point the results are considered statistically significant enough to

reject the null hypothesis. In psychology, this threshold is usually

<0.05, which means there is a less than 5% chance the observed

effect is due to luck and a >95% chance it is a real effect.

Type 1 and type 2 errors

When interpreting statistical significance, there are two types of

errors:

 Type 1 error (false positive): When researchers conclude an effect is

real (i.e. they reject the null hypothesis), but it’s actually not
o E.g. The p threshold is <0.05, but the researchers’ results are
among the 5% of fluke outcomes that look significant but are just
due to luck
  Type 2 error (false negative): When researchers conclude there is no
effect (i.e. they accept the null hypothesis), but there actually is a real
effect
o E.g. The p threshold is set too low (e.g. <0.01), and the data falls
short (e.g. p=<0.02)

Increasing the sample size reduces the likelihood of type 1 and type

2 errors.

Key maths skills made easy!

The research methods section of the colourful and concise

revision guide includes simple explanations and worked examples

of all the key mathematical and statistical skills needed for exam
success, including: Which statistical test to use, how to use critical

values tables, the sign test, and standard deviation.

TYPES OF STATISTICAL TEST

Note: The inferential tests below are needed for A level only, if you

are taking the AS exam, you only need to know the sign test.

There are several different types of inferential test in addition to

the sign test. Which inferential test is best for a study will depend on

the following three criteria:

 Whether you are looking for a difference or a correlation

 Whether the data is nominal, ordinal, or interval
o Nominal: Tallies of discrete categories
 E.g. at the competition there were 8 runners, 12 swimmers,
and 6 long jumpers (it’s not like there are in-
between measurements between ‘swimmer’ and ‘runner’)
o Ordinal: Whole numbers that can be ordered, but are not
necessarily precise measurements
 E.g. First, second, and third place in a race
 E.g. Ranking your mood on a scale of 1-10
o Interval: Standardised units of measurement (that can include a
decimal point)
 E.g. Weights in kg
 E.g. Heights in cm
 E.g. Times in seconds
 Whether the experimental design is related (i.e. repeated measures)
or unrelated (i.e. independent groups)

The following table shows which inferential test is appropriate

according to these criteria:

 Test of difference Test of correlation

Unrelated Related

Nominal Chi squared Sign test Chi squared

Ordinal Mann Whitney Wilcoxon Spearman’s rho

Interval Unrelated t test Related t test Pearson’s r

Note: You won’t have to work out all these tests from scratch, but

you may need to:

 Say which of the statistical tests is appropriate (i.e. based on whether

it’s a difference or correlation; whether the data is nominal, ordinal, or
interval; and whether the data is related or unrelated).
 Identify the critical value from a critical values table and use this to say
whether a result (which will be given to you in the exam) is statistically
significant.
The sign test

The sign test is a way to calculate the statistical

significance of differences between related pairs (e.g. before and

after in a repeated measures experiment) of nominal data. If the

observed value (s) is equal or less than the critical value (cv), the

results are statistically significant.

Example: Let’s say we ran an experiment on 10 participants to see

whether they prefer movie A or movie B.

Participant Movie A rating Movie B rating Sign

A 3 6 B

B 3 3 n/a
 C 5 6 B

D 4 6 B

E 2 3 B

F 3 7 B

G 5 3 A

H 7 8 B

I 2 6 B

J 8 5 A

 The most important thing in the sign test is not the actual amount (e.g.
4, 6, etc.), but the sign – i.e. whether they preferred movie A or
movie B. You exclude any results that are the same between the pairs.
o n = 9 (because even though there are 10 participants, one
participant had no change so we exclude them from our
calculation)
o B=7
o A=2
 Look to see if your experimental hypothesis is two-tailed (i.e. a change
is expected in either direction) or one-tailed (i.e. change is expected to
go in one direction)
o In this case our experimental hypothesis is two-tailed:
Participants may prefer movie A or movie B
o (The null hypothesis is that participants like both movies equally)
 Find out the p value for the example (this will be provided in the exam)
o In this case, let’s say it’s 0.1
 Using the information above, look up your critical value (cv) in a critical
values table (this will be provided in the exam)
o n=9
o p = 0.1
o The experimental hypothesis is two-tailed
o So, in this example, our critical value (cv) is 1
 Work out the observed value (s) by counting the number of instances
of the less frequently occurring sign (A in this case)
o In this example, there are 2 As, so our observed value (s) is 2
 In this example, the observed value (2) is greater than the critical
value (1) and so the results are not statistically significant. This means
we must accept the null hypothesis and reject the experimental
hypothesis.