UNIT: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES IT TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENTS & MEASUREMENT INTRODUCTION TO MEASURING INSTRUMENTS > Tests and measurements are important in designing, evaluating, maintaining and servicing electrical circuits, and equipment. > In order to detect electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance or power, it is necessary to transforman electrical quantity or condition into a visible indication, This is done with the aid of instruments (or meters) that indicate the magnitude of quantities either by the position of a pointer moving over a graduated scale (called an analogue instrument) or in the form of a decimal number (called a digital instrument). ‘The digital instrament has, in the main, become the instrument of choice in recent years; in particular, computer-based instruments are rapidly replacing items of conventional test equipment, with the virtual storage test instrument, the digital storage oscilloscope, being the most common, ¥ ¥ TYPES OF MEASURING INSTUMENTS ‘There two types of measuring instruments: Ss; 1. Anatogue measuring instrument —this is a deflection type with a scale and movable pointer. The deflection of the pointer is a function of the value of the electrical quantity being measured, Digital measuring instrament — I uses logic circuits and techniques to obtain a measurement and then display it in numerical-reading (digital) form. The digital readouts employs either LED displays or liquid crystal displays (LCD) ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS ‘The value of the electrical quantity is indicated by these instruments at the time when itis being measured. Pointers moving over the scale give the indication, Such instruments consist of a pointer which moves over a calibrated scale and which is attached to a moving system pivoted in jewelled bearings. ‘Ammeters, Voltmeters and wattmeters are the examples of these instruments. All analogue electrical indicating instruments require three essential devices: a) A deflecting or operating device. A mechanical force is produced by the current or voltage which causes the pointer to deflect from its zero position. b) A controlling device. The controlling force acts in opposition to the deflecting force and ensures that the deflection shown on the meter is always the same for a given measured quantity. It also prevents the pointer always going to the maxinmm deflection. There are two main types of controlling device: - spring control and gravity control. ©) A damping device. The damping force ensures that the pointer comes to rest in its final position quickly and without undue oscillation. There are three main types of damping used; eddy-current damping, air friction damping and fluid-friction damping. ‘THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS. A. MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS Definition: The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of current or voltage is, ‘mown as the moving iron instrument. It works on the principle that the iron place near the magnet attracts towards it, The force of attraction depends on the strength of the magnet field. The magnetic field induces by the electromagnet whose strength depends on the magnitude of the current passes through it. Prepared by Omondl Ferdnand -Eecricat 1 Trainer ~ Seme TVC - Kisumu CounnUNIT: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES IT TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENTS & MEASUREMENT ‘The Moving Iron instruments are of two types one is attracted type and another is repulsive type, Among these two types there is a common basic working principle. These instruments exist with soft iron which is connected to the pointer with the hetp of the spindle. 1. Attracted type: This is one of the types of moving iron instruments, which works on electromagnetism phenomenon. Principle operation: ‘These instruments works on the principle of electromagnetism that when a soft iron is placed in the magnetic field of a coil, then the iron is attracted towards coil ‘The supply current set up a magnetic field which attracts iron piece, this iron piece is attached to the pointer which shows readings. Construction: ‘The construction of attracted type instruments consists of a cylindrical coil or solenoid, this cylindrical coil is provided with spindle. This spindle is attached to the pointer which deflects easily over the scale. The produced different torques is controlled by spring control (Controlling torque) and by Air friction (Damping torque). Measuring scale and ‘Spindle Controlling spring iar If the supply is fed to the instrament the current produces the magnetic field in a coil based on Ampere’s law. Due to the attraction power of magnets the soft iron piece attracts towards the coil. On continuing this process, a twisting force (Torque) is produced which moves the pointer attached to the soft iron, ‘The movement of pointer is controlled by controlling torque with the help of spring & damping torque is minimized with air friction, Ifthe ditection of current in the coil reversed, the magnetic field also reverses. In this case also the magnetism produced in the soft iron. Hence the direction of deflecting torque remains unchanged. ‘These Instruments are applicable for both DC and AC. 2. Repulsion type: This is one of the types of moving iron instruments, which works on electromagnetism phenomenon. Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand -Electrical 2 Trainer = Seme PVC - Kisumu CountyUNIT: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES IT TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENTS & MEASUREMENT Principle operatio ‘These Instruments works on the principle of repulsion between two similar iron pieces. This also works on the phenomenon of electromagnetism. Constructior ‘The construction of Repulsion type instrument consists of cylindrical coil or solenoid, Inside the coil there are two iron pieces one is fixed with the coil and another is movable attached to pointer. ‘The pointer moves over the scale on the phenomenon of deflecting torque. The different types of torque’s are controlled by using spring control and air friction. Working: ‘When the Instrument is fed with the supply the coil energized and produces magnetic field. The magnetic field ‘magnetizes both the iron pieces in the same direction ie., both iron pieces are having same polarity (such as North- North or South-South). Hence there exists a repulsive force between fixed and movable magnets. Due to repulsive force the pointer moves over the scale. Advantages: i) These are robust, cheap in cost and simple in construction ii) High operating torque iii) Used for DC and AC circuits iv) It gives result accurate. Disadvantages: i) Thescale is Non-uniform fi) Less sensitive iii) High power consumption iv) In AC measurement errors are occurred due to frequency fluctuations. B. MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS In this type the current is fed to the coil through spiral springs which are two in numbers. The coll which carries a current, Which is to be measured, moves in a strong magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet and a pointer is attached to the spindle which shows the measured valve, Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand -Electrical 3 Trainer = Seme PVC - Kisumu CountyUNIT: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES IT TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENTS & MEASUREMENT ‘There are two types of moving coil instruments namely, permanent magnet moving coil type which can only be used for direct current and voltage measurements and the dynamometer type which can be used on either direct or alternating current and voltage measurements, J) Permanent magnet moving coil type (PMMC) Itis also called as D*Arsonval instruments, The PMMC works on the electromagnetic effect. A permanent magnet is used to produce magnetic flux and a coil that carries the current to be measured moves in this field. As the pointer is connected to the coil it gets deflected in proportion with the current. Construction of PMMC Pivot ond jewel Permonent magnet jewel bearing ‘The basic construction of PMMC is shown in above fig. a light rectangular coil wound on an alutninum frame is pivoted within the air gaps between the two poles of a permanent magnet and a cylindrical soft iron core. This light rectangular coil carries the current to be measured. Soft iron core provides formation of uniform magnetic field. The ‘aluminum frame supports the coil as well as provides eddy current damping. Two phosphor bronze springs coiled in opposite directions serve as leads for the current in the coil. The springs also provide controlling torque. Working Principle of a PMMC Instrument ‘When a current caring conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a force perpendicular to the field and the current.” (Fleming Left Hand Rule). This force tends to move the conductor. According to Fleming left hand rule; if your left-hand thumb, fore finger and middle finger are at 90 degree to each other. Then the magnetic field ‘would be along the fore finger, current across the middle while the force along the thumb. ‘When current flows in the coil on the aluminum former; a magnetic field is produced in the coil in proportion to the current flow. This electromagnetic force along with static magnetic field from the permanent magnet produces the deflection force in the coil. The spring then produce the controlling force to oppose further deflection: thus, helps in balancing the pointer. ‘Then damping force is produced in the system by the movement of aluminum core in the magnetic field. It keeps the pointer fixed to a position after it reach equilibrium with the controlling and deflection torque: providing better precision in measurement. Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand -Electrical 4 Trainer = Seme PVC - Kisumu CountyUNIT: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES IT TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENTS & MEASUREMENT Application PMMC or Permanent magnet moving coil are one of the best instruments to measure direct current. They are accurate, sensitive and work for longer period of time without defects / maintenance. These instruments on board are used to measure direct current and voltage. They can also be used as a galvanometer to detect small current or change in magnetic flux. Advantages of Using PMMC Equipment i) High weight to torque ratio. ii) Ithas pointer deflection proportional to the current; witich makes the scale more uniform over arc of 270 degree. iii) It consumes much less power than other alternatives. iv) Nohysteresis loss. ‘¥) Unaffected by stray magnetic field; perfect equipment for on-board applications. vi) All-purpose equipment; can be used as ammeter, voltmeter and galvanometer. Disadvantages of using PMMC Equipment i) Tronly works for Direct current (D.C) ii)_It's costly than its other alternatives. iii) Tt can show false reading due to above stated reasons (Cause of errors in permanent magnet moving coil instrument). 2) Dynamometer type wattmeter Ina de circuit, the power supplied to a load can be determined by measuring the load voltage and current and multiplying them together: P=IV However, it is much more convenient to have an instrument that indicates power directly. The meter used for this purpose is called a wattmeter, and the instrument that can be applied as a wattmeter is known as a dynamometer, or sometimes as an electrodynamic instrument. The construction of a dynamometer instrument to some extent resembles the PMMC instrument. The major difference from the PMMC construction is that the permanent magnet is replaced by two coils, as illustrated in figure (1). The magnetic field in which the lightweight moving coil is situated is generated by passing current through the fixed field coils shied Fixed Coil Fixed Coil ‘Maving Coil Series Resistor Fig.1: Dynamometer Instrument Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand -Electrical 5 Trainer = Seme PVC - Kisumu CountyUNIT: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES IT TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENTS & MEASUREMENT Working principles Then, when a current is passed through the moving coil, the moving coil and the meter pointer are deflected The deflection of the pointer ofa dynamometer instrument is propostional to the current through the moving coil, but itis also proportional to the flux density of the magnetic field set up by the fixed field coils. This ‘means, the deflection is also proportional the current through the fixed field coils, Construction Consider the arrangement shown in figure 1. The moving coil of the instrument has a series resistor and is connected in parallel with the load. Consequently, current I, through the moving coil is directly proportional to the load voltage. The field coils are connected in series with the load, so the current flowing through them is (LotI), as shown. If Ty<) v= Vu bob where ra = resistance of instrument = 10 2, Ry = resistance of multiplier, 7= total permissible instrument current =8mA = 0.008 A, V = total pd. required to give f.s.d.=100V. V=Va+t Vue = Tra + Re ile. 100 =(0.008)(10) + (0.008) Ru or 100 — 0.08 =0.008 Ry 99.92 thus Ru = Tog = 124902 = 1249 k= Hence for the moving-coil instrument to be used as a voltmeter with a range 0-L00V, a resistance of value 12.49K Q needs to be connected in series with the instrument. 4 Theohmmeter An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring electrical resistance. A simple ohmmeter circuit is shown in Figure 3(a). Unlike the ammeter or voltmeter, the ohmmeter circuit does not receive the energy necessary for its operation from the circuit under test. In the ohmmeter this energy is supplied by a self-contained source of voltage, such as a battery. Initially, terminals XX are short-circuited and adjusted to give £s.d. on the milliammeter. If current / is at a maximum value and voltage F is constant, then resistance R = £'7is at a minimum value. Thus f.s.d. on the milliammmeter is made zero on the resistance scale. ‘When terminals XX are open circuited no current flows and R(=£/0) is infinity, ©. Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand -Electrical 8 Trainer = Seme PVC - Kisumu CountyUNIT: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES IT TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENTS & MEASUREMENT 00 200 Os oo % I~ SS aS & Oo 7 estan €) ad “e = resstance » Curent (ma) ‘The milliammeter can thus be calibrated directly in ohms. A cramped (non-linear) scale results and is “back to front’, as shown in Figure 3 (b). When calibrated, an unknown resistance is placed between terminals XX and its value determined from the position of the pointer on the scale, An ohimmeter designed for measuring low values of resistance is called a continuity tester. An ohmmeter designed for measuring high values of resistance (i.e., megohms) is called an insulation resistance tester (e.g., ‘Megger”). 5S. Mutimeters Instruments are manufactured that combine a moving coil meter with a number of shunts and series multipliers, to provide a range of readings on a single scale graduated to read current and voltage. Ifa battery is incorporated then resistance can also be measured. Such instruments are called multimeters or universal instruments or multirange instruments. ‘An ‘Avometer’ is a typical example. A particular range may be selected either by the use of separate terminals or by a selector switch. Only one measurement can be performed at a time. Often such instruments can be used in ac, as well as d.c. circuits when a rectifier is incorporated in the instrument. Digital Multimeters (DMM) are now almost universally used, the Fluke Digital Multimeter being an industry leader for performance, accuracy, resolution, ruggedness, reliability and safety. These instruments measure d.c. currents and voltages, resistance and continuity, ac. (tn.s.) currents and voltages, temperature, and much more, Exercise 1: Further problems on shunts and multipliers 1) A moving-coil instrument gives f.d. for a current of 10 mA. Neglecting the resistance of the instrument, calculate the approximate value of series resistance needed to enable the instrument to measure up to (a) 20V (by LO0V (c) 250V. [(a) 240 (b) 10 kA (c) 25 KO} 2) A meter of resistance 50@ has a fs.d. of 4 mA. Determine the value of shunt resistance required in order that £s.d, should be (a) 1SmA (b) 20A (c) 100A. [(a) 18.182 (b) 10.00m2 (c) 2.00m2] 3) A moving-coil instrument having a resistance of 200, gives a fs.d. when the current is mA. Calculate the value of the multiplier to be connected in series with the instrument so that it can be used as a voltmeter for ‘measuring p.d.’s up to 200V. [39.98 k] 4) A moving-coil instrument has a f..d, of 20mAand a resistance of 252. Calculate the values of resistance required to enable the instrument to be used (a) as a 0 - 10A ammeter, and (b) as a 0 - 100V voltmeter. State the mode of resistance connection in each case. _[(a) 50.10m2 in parallel (b) 4.975 kQ in series) Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand -Electrical 9 Trainer = Seme PVC - Kisumu County