UNIT 4

TECHNIQUES FOR REPAIR AND

PROTECTION METHODS
 Syllabus

Non-destructive Testing Techniques, Epoxy injection,

Shoring, Underpinning, Corrosion protection techniques
– Corrosion inhibitors, Corrosion resistant steels,
Coatings to reinforcement, cathodic protection.
 ● Epoxy-injection Grouting
Cracks as narrow as 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) can be bonded by the
injection of epoxy.

The technique generally consists of establishing entry and

venting ports at close intervals along the cracks, sealing the
crack on exposed surfaces, and injecting the epoxy under
pressure.

Epoxy injection has been successfully used in the repair of

cracks in buildings, bridges, dams, and other types of concrete
structures.

However, unless the cause of the cracking has been corrected,

it will probably recur near the original crack.
 The general steps involved are as follows
● Preparation of the surface: The contaminated cracks are
cleaned by removing all oil, grease, dirt and fine particles of
concrete which prevent the epoxy penetration and bonding.
The contaminants should preferably be removed by flushing
the surface with water or a solvent .

Installation of entry ports: The entry port or nipple is an

opening to allow the injection of adhesive directly into the
crack without leaking. The spacing of injection ports depends
upon a number of factors such as depth of crack, width or
crack and its variation with depth, viscosity of epoxy, injection
pressure etc. and choice must be based on experience
Mixing of epoxy: The mixing can be done either by batch or
continuous methods. In batch mixing, the adhesive components
are premixed in specified proportions with a mechanical stirrer,
in amounts that can be used prior to the commencement of
curing of the material.

Injection of epoxy: In its simplest form, the injection equipment

consists of a small reservoir or funnel attached to a length of
flexible tubing, so as to provide a gravity head. For small
quantities of repair material small hand-held guns are usually
the most economical. They can maintain a steady pressure

which reduces chances of damage to the surface seal.

Removal of surface seal: After the injected epoxy has occurred;
the surface seal may be removed by grinding or other means as
appropriate. Fittings and holes at the entry ports should be
painted with an epoxy patching compound.

C:\CE6021 Repair & Rehabilition of Structures\Unit 4\Epoxy Injection

Shoring, Underpinning
 Shoring
It is the means of providing support to get stability of a
structure temporarily under certain circumstances during
construction, repair or alteration.

1. The stability of a structure is endangered due to removal of a

defective portion of the structure.

2. The stability of a structure is endangered due to unequal

settlement during construction itself or in long run.

3. Certain alterations are to be done in present structure itself.

Eg: remodeling of walls, changing position of windows,etc.

4. Alterations are carried out in adjacent building for

remodeling, strengthening of foundation, etc.
 INSTALLATION OF SHORING
For shoring timber or steel tubes may be used. Sometimes
both are used in combination. If timber is used its surface
should be coated with a preservative so as to protect
against wet rot.

The shoring should be designed based on the load it has to

sustain and duration of load.

Shoring may be given internally or externally depending on

the case and in certain cases they may be provided on
either side of the wall to produce additional stability.
 TYPES OF SHORING
Raking or inclined shores
Flying or horizontal shores
Dead or vertical shores
RAKING OR INCLINED SHORES
FLYING OR HORIZONTAL
SHORING
DEAD OR VERTICAL SHORING
 UNDERPINNING
It is the method of supporting the structures while providing
new foundations or carrying out repairs and alterations
without disturbing the stability of existing structures.

When a building with deep foundation is to be constructed

adjoining a building which is built on shallow footings. Here
the shallow footings should be strengthened first.

In order to protect an existing structure from the danger of

excessive or differential settlement of foundation.

In order to improve the bearing capacity of foundation so as to

sustain heavier loads for which deepening or widening of
foundation is done.

In order to provide a basement for an existing structure.

 PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
The existing structure should be fully examined carefully and
appropriate underpinning method should be adopted.

All poor masonry work, such as joints, cracks, plastering

should be rectified before.

Necessary shoring and struting should be done such that

existing structure is safe.

Urgent repair like grouting of cracks, insertion of rod between

walls , etc. should be carried out before commencing
underpinning.

Adequate care should be taken to ensure that there should be

no movement of structure for which levels should be marked.
METHODS OF UNDERPINNING
Pit method

Pile method

Chemical method

Other method
PIT METHOD
PILE METHOD
 CHEMICAL METHOD
In this method the foundation soil is consolidated by
employing chemicals.

Perforated pipes are driven in an inclined direction beneath

the foundation . The slopes are provided such that the entire
area under the existing footing comes under the area used to
be strengthened.
After the pipes are installed, solution of sodium silicate in
water is injected through the pipes. This is a two-injection
method.

The pipes are withdrawn and at the time of withdrawal of

pipes, calcium or magnesium chloride is injected through
pipes.

Chemical reaction takes place between these two chemicals

and the soil is strengthened by consolidation.

This method is suitable for granular soils.

 OTHER METHODS
Other methods are cement grouting,
freezing, vibrofloatation, etc.
 Corrosion Protection techniques
Factors Influencing corrosion of Reinforcement

General Influencing factors

General accelerating factors

General Influencing factors

pH Value , Moisture , Oxygen , Carbonation , Chlorides ,

Ambient temperature , Severity of exposure , Quality of
concrete , Cover to the reinforcement , Initial curing
condition , Formation of cracks.
General Accelerating factors

Chlorides

Sulphates

Chlorine

Electrical Charges

Methane Acids
Methods of Corrosion Protection
The following are some of the methods for protecting steel
from corrosion

Protective coatings for reinforcement

Cathodic protection

Corrosion Resistant steel

Corrosion inhibitors
 Protective coatings for reinforcement

1. Cement Slurry Coating

Cement Slurry Coating provides short-term protection until

placement in concrete.

Several methods have been developed for an effective

corrosion protection using cement slurry.

One such coating is a mixture of cement, condensed silica

and polymer dispersion.

This mixer found to be impermeable to water, chlorides and

carbon-di-oxide.
ii. Epoxy Coating

Epoxy coating is formed by application of an epoxy resin

with appropriate curing agents catalysts, pigments and flow
control agents.

Fusion bonding using the electrostatic process is the recent

development.

Fusion bonded epoxy coating provides long-term protection

against corrosion.

Though the cost is relatively high, it is the one which is the

most effective in high alkaline and chloride contaminated
environment.
iii. Plastic Coating

Similar to epoxy coating, the plastic coatings are very

effective in preventing corrosion of reinforcement even in
high alkaline or chloride contaminated environment.

However, the reduction in bond between plastic coated bar

and the concrete is quite substantial and hence plastic
coating cannot be considered as a solution for prevention
of corrosion which cannot be solved by conventional
methods.
iv. Galvanizing

Galvanizing gives protection to the reinforcement

against corrosion, by means of metallic coating such as
zinc.

However, in case of corrosion due to excessive

chlorides, the effect of galvanizing protection is reduce
and hence is not advisable in highly chloride
contaminated environments.
Cathodic protection

Cathodic protection interferes with the natural action of the

electrochemical cells that are responsible for corrosion.

Cathodic protection can be effectively applied to control

corrosion of surfaces that are immersed in water or exposed
to soil.

Cathodic protection in its classical form cannot be used to

protect surfaces exposed to the atmosphere
The use of anodic metallic coatings such as zinc on
steel(galvanizing) is, however, a form of cathodic protection,
which is effective in the atmosphere.

There are two basic methods of supplying the electrical

currents required to interfere with the electrochemical cell
action. They are

1. Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes.

2. Impressed current cathodic protection

Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes

Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion

of a metal surface by making it work as a cathode of an
electrochemical cell. This is achieved by placing in contact with
the metal to be protected another more easily corroded metal to
act as the anode of the electrochemical cell.

This method is also called sacrificial anode cathodic protection

system, where the active metal is consumed in the process of
protecting the surfaces, so that corrosion is controlled.

In sacrificial anode systems the high energy electrons required

for cathodic protection are supplied by the corrosion of an
active metal.
Impressed current Cathodic protection
In impressed current cathodic protection, an alternative
source of direct electrical current, usually a rectifier that
converts alternating current to direct current is used to
provide the required electrical current.

In this system, the electrical circuit is completed through an

inert anode material that is not consumed in the process.
 Corrosion inhibitors
A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical substance which, when
added in small concentrations to an environment, minimizes or
prevents corrosion.

Corrosion inhibitors are used to protect metals from corrosion,

including temporary protection during storage or transport as
well as localized protection, required.

One example is brine, in a nonaggressive phase, such as oil.

An efficient inhibitor is compatible with the environment, is
economical for application, and produces the desired effect
when present in small concentrations.
Mechanisms of actions of inhibitors
The inhibitor is chemically adsorbed on the surface of the
metal and forms a protective thin film with inhibitor effect
or by combination between inhibitor ions and metallic
surface.

The inhibitor leads a formation of a film by oxide protection

of the base metal.

The inhibitor reacts with a potential corrosive component

present in aqueous media and the product is a complex
Inorganic Inhibitors
The addition of inorganic inhibitors causes suppression of
electrochemical reaction at anodic– cathodic areas. Most of the
times, inhibitors are used in a blended form. These inhibitors
only react at an adequate level of concentration.

Organic Inhibitors
Organic inhibitors are used in the oil industry to control oil and
gas well corrosion.

Organic inhibitors react by adsorption on a metallic surface.

Cationic inhibitors (+), like amines, or anionic inhibitors (−),like
sulfonates, are preferentially adsorbed depending on the
charge of the metal surface (+)or(−).
 Corrosion resistant steel
Stainless steel is an iron based alloy made of some of the basic
elements such as: Iron, Chromium, Silicon, Nickel, Carbon,
Copper, etc.

It has excellent resistance to corrosion due to its chromium

content, which normally range from 10.5 to 20 percent of the
alloy.

There are five families of stainless steel these are:

Ferritic

Austenitic

Martensitic

Duplex & Precipitation Hardening

FERRITIC
These steels are based on Chromium with small amounts
of Carbon usually less than 0.10%.

They have a similar microstructure to carbon and low alloy

steels.

They are usually limited in use. Ferritic steels are also

chosen for their resistance to stress corrosion cracking
and are magnetic.
AUSTENITIC

These steels are the most common. Their microstructure is

derived from the addition of Nickel, Manganese and
Nitrogen.

This structure gives these steels their characteristic

combination of weld ability and formability.

They cannot be hardened by heat treatment but have the

useful property of being able to be work hardened to high
strength levels whilst retaining a useful level of ductility
and toughness.

They are nominally non-magnetic but usually exhibit some

magnetic response depending on the composition and the
work hardening of the steel.
MARTENSITIC

These steels are similar to ferritic steels in being based on

Chromium but have higher Carbon levels up to as high as
1%.

This allows them to be hardened and tempered much like

carbon and lowalloy steels.

They are used where high strength and moderate corrosion

resistance is required.

They are more common in long products than in sheet and

plate form.

They have generally low weldability and formability and are

DUPLEX
These steels have a microstructure which is approximately
50% ferritic and 50% austenitic. This gives them a higher
strength than either ferritic or austenitic steels.

They are resistant to stress corrosion cracking.

They are weldable but need care in selection of welding

consumables and heat input.

They have moderate formability. They are magnetic but not

so much as the ferritic, martensitic.
PRECIPITATION HARDENING (PH)
These steels can develop very high strength by adding
elements such as Copper, Niobium and Aluminium to the steel.

With a suitable “aging” heat treatment, very fine particles form

in the matrix of the steel which imparts strength.

These steels can be machined to quite intricate shapes

requiring good tolerances.

Corrosion resistance is comparable to standard austenitic

steels
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The manufacture of stainless steel

involves a series of processes.

The raw materials are melted together

in an electric furnace. This step
usually is 8 to 12 hours of intense
heat.

Next, the mixture is cast into one of

several shapes, these include blooms
(rectangular shapes), billets (round or
square shapes) and slabs.
After steel goes through forming
operations, beginning with hot
rolling, in which the steel is heated
and passed through huge rolls.

Blooms and billets are formed into

bar and wire, while slabs are
formed into plate, strip, and sheet.

Bars are available in all grades

and come in rounds, squares,
octagons, or hexagons.
After the stainless steel is formed, most types must go through an
annealing step.

Annealing is a heat treatment in which the steel is heated and

cooled under controlled conditions to relieve internal stresses
and soften the metal.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF STAINLESS STEELS
• The characteristics of the broad group of stainless steels can be
viewed as compared to the more familiar plain carbon "mild"
steels. As a generalisation the stainless steels have:

Higher work hardening rate Higher ductility

Higher strength and hardness Higher hot strength

Higher corrosion resistance Higher cryogenic toughness

Lower magnetic response (austenitic only)

Must retain corrosion resistant surface in the finished product.

 APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL
Bulk Materials Handling Equipment
Building Exteriors And Roofing
Automobile Components (exhaust, Trim/Decorative, Engine,
Fasteners, Tubing)
Chemical Processing Plants (scrubbers And Heat Exchangers)
Pulp And Paper Manufacturing
Petroleum Refining,
Water Supply Piping
Consumer Products
Marine And Shipbuilding
Pollution Control
Sporting Goods (snow Skis)
Transportation (rail Cars)
Discussions ?