FRAME PARTITIONS

Moveable steel partitions 4

Wood or steel studs, 5/8-inch gypsum board each side 8
Wood studs, 2 x 4, unplastered 4
Wood studs, 2 x 4, plastered one side 12
Wood studs, 2 x 4, plastered two sides 20
FRAME WALLS
Exterior stud walls
2 x 4 @ 16", 5/8" gypsum, insulated, 3/8" siding 11
2 x 6 @ 16", 5/8" gypsum, insulated, 3/8" siding 12
Exterior stud walls with brick veneer 48
Windows, glass, frame and sash 8
MASONRY WALLS
4-inch concrete block
8-inch concrete block
12-inch concrete block

*Weights of masonry include mortar but not plaster. For plaster, add 5 lbf/ff for
each face plastered. Values given represent averages. In some cases there is a
considerable range of weight for the same construction.

TABLE20-A4
MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS FOR MATERIALS

Material Load - lbf/ft3

Bituminous products 81
Asphaltum 135
Graphite
Paraffin
Petroleum, crude 55
Petroleum, refined 50
Petroleum, benzine 46
Petroleum, gasoline 42
Pitch 69
Tar 75
Brass 526
Bronze 552
Cast-stone masonry (cement, stone, sand) 144
Ceramic Tile 150
Charcoal 12
Concrete
Plain 144
Vermiculite and perlite aggregate, nonload-bearing 25-50

20-1
 Other light aggregate, load bearing 70-105

Reinforced 150
Copper 556
Cork, compressed 14.4
Earth (not submerged)
Soil 100
Sand and gravel 110
Sand and gravel, and clay 120
Earth (submerged)
Soil 70
Sand and gravel 60
Sand and gravel, and clay 65
Gravel, dry 104
Gypsum, loose 70
Gypsum, wallboard 50
Ice 57.2
Iron
Cast 450
Wrought 480
Lead 710
Lime
Hydrated, loose 32
Hydrated, compacted 45
Masonry, ashlar
Granite 165
Limestone, oolitic 135
Marble 173
Sandstone 144
Masonry, brick
Hard (low absorption) 130
Medium (medium absorption) 115
Masonry, rubble mortar
Limestone. Oolitic 138
Marble 156
Mortar, hardened
Cement 130
Lime 110
Particleboard 45
Plywood 36
Sand, clean and dry 90
Steel, cold drawn 489
Stone
Limestone, marble, quartz 95
Tin 459
Water

20-2
Fresh 62.4
Sea 64

20-3
Wood, seasoned
Cypress, southern 34
Fir, Douglas, coast region 34
Hem fir 28
Pine, southern yellow 37
Redwood 28
Spruce, red, white and Sitka 29
Zinc, rolled, sheet 449

20-4
NOTES

20-5
CHAPTER21
EXCAVATIONS, FOOTINGS AND FOUNDATIONS

2101 EXCAVATIONS
2102 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS
2103 SOIL BEARING FOUNDATIONS
2104 PILE FOUNDATIONS
2105 FOUNDATION WALLS AND GRADE BEAMS
2106 RETAINING WALLS
2107 SEAWALLS, BULKHEADS AND DOCKS
2108 MATERIALS

2101 EXCAVATIONS

2101.1 GENERAL:
(a) Excavations or fills for any buildings or structure and excavations
or fills accessory thereto shall be so constructed or protected that
they do not endanger life and property.

(b) All excavations shall be properly guarded and protected so as to

prevent the excavations from becoming dangerous to life and
prop erty and shall be sheet piled, braced and/ or shored, where
neces sary, to prevent the adjoining earth from caving in; such
protection to be by the person causing the excavation to be made.

(c) No fill or other surcharge loads shall be placed adjacent to any

building or structure unless such building or structure is capable
of withstanding the additional loads caused by the fill or
surcharge.

(d) Footings or foundations which may be affected by any excavation

shall be underpinned adequately, or otherwise protected against
settlement, and shall be protected against lateral movement.

(e) Fills to be used to support the foundations of any building or

struc ture shall be placed in accordance with the requirements of
section 2102 of this chapter.

2101.2 PERMANENT EXCAVATIONS: No permanent excavations shall be

made nor shall any construction excavations be left on any lot or lots
which will endanger adjoining property or buildings or be a menace to
public health or safety. Any such excavations made or maintained shall
be properly drained and such drainage provisions shall function
21-1
properly as long as

21-2
 the excavation exists. Permanent excavations shall have retaining walls
of steel, masonry, concrete or similar approved material of sufficient
strength to retain the embankment together with any surcharged loads.

2101.3 ENFORCEMENT: Where, in the opinion of the BCO, an unsafe

condition may result or damage may occur as the result of an excavation,
he may order the work stopped or may approve the work of excavation
subject to such limitations as he may deem necessary.

2102 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

2102.1 SOIL INVESTIGATION:

(a) Plans for new buildings or additions shall bear a statement as to
the nature and character of the soil under the structure. Where the
bearing capacity of the soil is not known or is in question, or the
load imposed on the soil is unusual, the BCO may require exami
nation of sub-soil conditions such as by borings and other tests.

(b) The classification of the soil under all portions of every building
shall be based upon the examination of adequate test borings or
excavations made at the site when required by the BCO. When
ever, in the opinion of the BCO, the adequacy and class of a soil
cannot be determined by the test borings or excavations, he may
require a special soil investigation by an engineer recognised by
the Minister before approving the use of the footings.

2102.2 PRESUMPTIVE CAPACITIES: The allowable bearing capacities on

sup porting soils shall not exceed those set forth in the following table
unless the design bearing capacity is substantiated by recognised tests,
analysis and procedure. These values are considered safe in respect to
actual fail ure of the supporting ground but do not necessarily ensure the
preven tion of excessive foundation movements where any unusual soil
or mois ture conditions are encountered. All muck, topsoil, organic
material and debris shall be removed from the supporting subgrade.
M mum
AHo,wable So,i
!Pr _ure
(iPMLtild :JS.9,u . re !Foo.it)
. ----····----··-·· ---···... d
R ck of sand •ill o, i1 •f'hi.gh r h ari.ng capacily ............, 0

Undmsturbed s.andl, or sand.nd r, . k -.. -.--. . . ..... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... ..2500

So.lid.rock 0,1 .rock wjth po ho1 i:: eaned and BH cl! with
oonC'_re (Mitdtn·l),jm •a:tia 5 k t) ....................... .... 5000

21-3
 All stumps and roots shall be removed from the soil to a depth of at least
12 inches below the surface of the ground in areas to be occupied by
build ings.

Where swampy conditions exist, the BCD may require the use of a Regis
tered Engineer.

2103 SOIL BEARING FOUNDATIONS

2103.1 GENERAL: Footings shall be constructed of reinforced concrete, as set

forth in the Chapter on Reinforced Concrete (Chapter 22) and in this
Sec tion, and shall, insofar as practicable, be so designed that the soil
pressure shall be reasonably uniform to minimise differential settlement.

2103.2 CONTINUOUS FOOTINGS:

(a) Footings under walls shall be continuous or continuity otherwise
provided and shall not be less than required to keep the soil pres
sure within that set forth in Section 2102 of this Chapter nor less
than the following minimums:

AUo,w 'b]e B arri:nli!i ,Capad:t.y·

,(f,ou:ndh, per • q1.u1ire• . ooU De tb amd Wk'IUli.
00
12"
I 10''
2
l .1.0''
*One-storey or two-storey dwellings may be constructed directly
on the surface only if solid rock exists at the surface, with a
minimum depth of rock strata of 5 feet. Footings may be designed
as reinforced concrete grade beams for the superimposed loads
and may be the thickness of the wall they support, but never less
than 8 inches and shall be keyed 6 inches into the rock; rock
bearing pressures underneath shall not exceed the allowable
bearing capacity of the rock.

(b) Based on soil investigation as set forth in Sub-section 2102.1, of

this Chapter, the footing sizes may be reduced considering allow
able bearing values and load, but the minimum width of a footing
under the main walls of a building shall not be less than 16 inches
nor less than eight inches more than the width of the foundation
wall, except as indicated above for direct bearing on rock.

21-4
(c) The minimum continuous footings specified in this section shall
be reinforced as follows:

lo gHu.d.i ail Reinf n:ms;

(Plated in botmom o-.f
:footing wi J"' .li)!
ncrete co e.r·
'bel,ow rein.forc:irn.5) Width 0. 1.Found lion
1

4'" and 301' Wide

4--# 5 El rs .6"Wid

5 Ba ,mirli1n1.m: of onE Less .16" desi s gr d

b.air in b 1U:w'.i!'II.and ffilU bar m ;nd±eil.too i .2 ( )
in top, with 3"'. mi;re,t ..:: •
1 of t • pter ifot O to,rcy
r} and ""-'O• storey dweUi gs.
diooctly on
.-ock.

Where footings are 30 inches or more in width, cross bars designed to

resist bending at the face of the foundation wall shall be provided.
(1) Equivalent areas in #4 reinforcing bars may be substituted
for the sizes as specified.

(2) Splices in reinforcing bars shall not be less than 24 bar

diam eters and all corners shall be properly tied. When
three or more bars are required, the bars shall be held in
place and aligned by transverse bars spaced not more than
four feet apart.

(3) Reinforcing shall be uniformly spaced and shall provide a

minimum of three inches of concrete cover.

(d) Continuous footings on which the centre of gravity of the loads

fall outside of the middle one-third shall be considered eccentric
and provisions shall be made to limit the soil pressure at the edges
to acceptable values by means of counter-balancing or by other
approved methods.

(e) Concrete footings and pads shall not receive superimposed loads
until 12 hours or more after the concrete is placed.

(f) Excavations for footings and foundations which are to serve as

forms shall be thoroughly wet prior to the placing of concrete.
Standing water shall be removed from excavations prior to
plac ing concrete.

21-5
 (g) Excavations for continuous footings shall be cut true to line and
grade and the sides of footings shall be formed, except where soil
conditions are such that the sides of the excavation stand firm
and square. Excavations shall be made to firm clear bearing soil
or rock.

(h) Continuous footings shall be placed level and any changes in the
grade of such footings shall be made with a vertical tie of the
same cross section and design as the footings, or the smaller of
the footings, so joined.

2103.3 ISOLATED FOOTINGS:

(a) Isolated footings on which the centre of gravity of the load falls
outside the middle 1 / 3 of any line passing through the centre of
gravity of the footings shall be considered eccentric, and provi
sions shall be made to limit the soil pressure at the edges by
means of footing straps or other approved methods.

(b) Where isolated footings support reinforced concrete columns, dow

els equivalent in number and area to the column reinforcing and
having a length not less than 20 diameters above and below the
joint shall be provided in the footing. Where footing depth does
not allow straight dowels, standard hooks will be allowable. Such
dowels, or anchor bolts as required for steel columns, shall be
held to proper grade and location during the pouring of the
footing by means of templates or by other approved methods.

2103.4 GRILLAGE FOOTINGS:When grillage footings of structural steel

shapes are used on soils, they shall be completely embedded in concrete
with at least 6 inches on the bottom and at least 4 inches at all other
points.

2103.5 CONCRETE SLABS ON FILL:

(a) Concrete floors within buildings where placed directly on the sup
porting soil shall comply with this Sub-section.

(b) The minimum thickness of concrete floor slabs supported directly

on the ground shall be not less than four inches.

(c) Concrete floor slabs placed directly on the supporting soil shall be
reinforced with not less than 0.029 square inches area of reinforc
ing per linear foot of slab in each direction (corresponds to 6" x 6"
10 ga./10 ga. steel wire. 10 ga. = 3.43 mm diameter).

21-6
2104 PILE FOUNDATIONS

2104.1 GENERAL:
(a) The use of types of piles not specifically mentioned in this Chap
ter, and the use of piles under conditions not specifically covered
herein, shall be permitted, subject to the approval of the BCO,
upon submission of acceptable test data, calculations, or other
informa tion relating to the properties and load-carrying capacity
of such piles.

(b) All foundations requiring piling shall be designed by an engineer

recognised by the Minister and all pile driving shall be supervised
by an engineer recognised by the Minister.

(c) All piles standing unbraced in air, water, or material not capable
of lateral support, shall conform with the applicable column
formula as specified in this Code. Such piles driven into firm
ground may be considered fixed and laterally supported at five
feet (d) below the ground surface and in soft material at ten feet
(10) below the ground surface unless otherwise prescribed by the
BCO after an acceptable foundation investigation has been made.

(d) Piles used for the support of any building or structure shall be
driven to a resistance and penetration in accordance with the
plans and/ or specifications and as set forth herein.

(e) Jetting shall not be used except where and as specifically permit
ted by the BCD. When used, jetting shall be carried out in such a
manner that the carrying capacity of existing piles and structures
shall not be impaired. After withdrawal of the jet, piles shall be
driven down until the required resistance is obtained, in no case
shall this be less than 12",

(f) The minimum centre to centre spacing of piles shall be not less
than twice the average diameter of round piles or 1-3/ 4 times the
diagonal dimension of rectangular piles but in no case less than
30 inches.

(g) Reinforced concrete caps shall be provided for all pile clusters
and such caps shall extend laterally not less than 6 inches beyond
the extreme pile surface and vertically not less than 4 inches
below the pile butt. Pile caps may be omitted when piles are used
to support grade beams, provided that the spacing of paragraph (f)
above is complied with and provided that the portions of the
grade beams acting in place of the pile cap shall be computed by a
recognised method of analysis to properly carry the loads.

21-7
(h) Piles shall be driven using an approved cushion block consisting
of material so arranged as to provide transmission of hammer en
ergy equivalent to one-piece hardwood with the grain parallel to
the axis of the pile and enclosed in a metal housing to prevent its
lateral deformation between the hammer ram and the top of the
pile.

(i) Diesel hammers may be used for driving piles if provided with one
of the following means of determining the energy of the hammer's
blow.

(1) Closed top diesel hammers shall be used with a rating in

strument and charts to measure the equivalent Watt hour
(Wh) energy per blow of the hammer. The equivalent Wh
energy as measured by the instrument shall be the ram's
weight times the equivalent ram stroke which is the actual
ram stroke plus an added value obtained from the energy
stored in the bounce chamber. The energy per blow shall be
the equivalent Wh energy for the closed top diesel.

(2) Open top diesel hammers shall be equipped with a ram

stroke indicator rod which is striped in increments above
the ham mer body and fastened to the body of the hammer.
The en ergy per blow for the open top diesel shall be
computed as the ram's working stroke times the ram's
weight.
(3) The load bearing formula applicable for single-acting pile
hammers shall be used to compute the bearing capacity of
the driven pile.

(j) Followers shall be used only upon permission of the recognised

engineer and only where necessary to effect installation of piles.
A follower shall be of such size, shape, length, material and
weight as to permit driving the pile in the desired location and to
the re quired depth and resistance, without loss of hammer energy
in the follower.

(k) Splices shall be avoided as far as practicable. Splices shall be so

constructed as to provide and maintain true alignment and posi
tion of the component parts of the pile during installation and
sub sequent thereto. Splices shall develop the required strength of
the pile.

(1) Pile driving hammers shall develop a minimum of one foot-pound

of energy per pound of pile or mandrel, but not less than 7,000
foot-pounds of energy per blow.

21-8
(m) Piles may be driven with drop or gravity hammers provided
the hammer shall weigh not less than 3,000 pounds and the fall of
the hammer shall not exceed 6 feet.

(n) Piles shall be driven with a variation of not more than 1 / 4 inch
per foot from the vertical, or from the batter line indicated, with a
maxi mum variation of the head of the pile from the position
shown on the plans of not more than three inches.

(o) The recognised engineer shall be required to keep an accurate record

of the material and the principal dimensions of each pile; of the
weight and fall of the hammer, if a single-acting hammer or drop
hammer; the size and make, operating pressure, length of hose,
number of blows per minute and energy per blow, if a double
acting hammer; together with the average penetration of each pile
for at least the last five blows, and the grades at tip and cut-off. A
copy of these records shall be filed with the Buildings Control Di
vision and kept with the plans.

(p) Where piling must penetrate strata offering high resistance to

driv ing or where jetting could cause damage, the recognized
engineer may require that the piles be set in pre-drilled or
punched holes. The equipment used for drilling or punching
must be approved by the recognized engineer. The piles shall
reach their final pen etration by driving.

(q) The maximum load permitted on any pile shall not exceed 50 tons
unless substantiated by load test performed at the site as set forth
inSub-section2104.2 (c) of this Chapter. The BCO may require tests
on any pile where its performance is questionable.

(r) Piles shall be designed and driven to develop not less than 10 tons
safe bearing capacity.

(s) In soils in which the installation of piles caused previously

installed piles to heave, accurate level marks shall be put on all
piles imme diately after installation and all heaved piles shall be
reinstalled to the required resistance.

(t) Piles shall not be driven closer than two feet nor jetted closer than
ten feet to an existing building or structure unless approved by the
recognized engineer.

21-9
2104.2 ALLOWABLE PILE LOADS:
(a) GENERAL: The allowable axial and lateral loads on piles shall
be determined by an approved driving formula, by load tests, or
by a foundation investigation by a recognized engineer. A
foundation investigation shall be made if required by the BCO.

(b) ALLOWABLE LOADS BY DRIVING FORMULA: The allowable

axial load on a pile shall not exceed the value given by the
follow ing formulas, unless such load is otherwise determined as
speci fied in 2104.2(c):

Drop Hammer: R=2Wh

S+l
Single Acting Hammers: R=2Wh
S+0.l
Double Acting or Differential R=2(W +AP)h
S + 0.1
Hammers: In Which:
A = area of piston in square inches
P = pressure in pounds per square inch at the hammer
R = allowable total load in pounds
W = weight of striking part of hammer in pounds
h = height of fall of striking part of hammer in feet or stroke in
feet S = average penetration, in inches per blow, of not less
than the
five final blows
E = actual energy delivered by hammer per blow in foot pounds

(c) STATIC LOAD TESTS:

When the allowable axial load of piling is determined by load

test, the following method shall be used:

The safe load-carrying capacities may be determined by means of

loading tests performed on not less than 2 typical piles of an
instal lation and, where deemed necessary by the BCO, on not
less than one pile for each 15,000 square feet of building area.
The test load shall be twice the proposed load value of the pile
and shall be ap plied in 6 equal increments starting with 1 / 2 the
proposed work ing load. After the proposed working load has
been applied and for each increment thereafter, the test load shall
remain in place until there is no settlement in a 2-hour period. The
total test load shall remain in place until settlement does not
exceed 1 / 1000 of a foot in 48 hours. The total test load shall be
removed in decrements not exceeding 1 / 4 of the total test load
with intervals of not less than one hour. The rebound shall be
21-10
recorded after each decre-

21-11
 ment is removed, and the final rebound shall be recorded 24
hours after the entire test load has been removed. The maximum
allow able pile load shall be 1 / 2 that which causes a net
settlement after deducting the rebound of not more than 1 / 100 of
an inch per ton of total test load or shall be 1 / 2 that which
causes a gross settle ment of one inch, whichever is less. Elastic
shortening of the pile shall not be included in the gross
settlement.

2104.3 WOOD PILES:

(a) Wood piles shall be in one piece of approved timber containing
no evidence of decay, free from short kinks or reverse bends and
hav ing uniform taper from butt to tip. A straight line drawn from
the centre of the butt to the centre of the tip shall lie wholly
within the body of the pile. The diameter of wood piles shall be
not less than 6 inches at the tip and not less than 10 inches three
feet from the butt for piles which are 25 feet or less in length; or 8
inches at the tip and 12 inches three feet from the butt for piles
which exceed 25 feet in length. No piles which have a spiral grain
exceeding one complete turn in 40 feet shall be used.

(b) Untreated wood piles in all cases shall be cut off not higher than
mean low water and shall be capped with concrete.

(c) Untreated piles used in permanent construction, except where

used for light frame structures over water or marsh lands, shall be
cut off below permanent water level.

(d) Piles of southern pine, Norway pine, Douglas fir or red oak when
pressure treated by an empty cell process, with coal tar creosote
to a net final retention of not less than 12 pounds of creosote per
cu bic foot of wood, may be used as follows:Where the upper
portion of the pile is exposed and accessible for inspection, the
cut-off may be above ground level or water level; where the upper
portion of the pile will not be readily accessible for inspection, the
cut-off shall be below the ground level but may be above the
ground-water level provided the tops are encased in masonry
footings so that no part of the pile will be exposed to the air. The
tops of the cut-off piles shall be treated with three coats of hot
creosote.

(e) The treatment of other species of wood for piles to extend above
permanent ground-water level, and the use of other preservative
materials or methods, may be used subject to written approval of
the BCO.

(f) Wood piles shall be driven with a protective driving cap or ring
21-12
when necessary to prevent brooming or splitting of the butt.
When

21-13
 brooming or splitting occurs, such piles shall be cut back to solid
wood before the final resistance to penetrations is measured.

(g) If required, when driving through or to hard material or to rock,

wood piles shall be fitted with a metal protective drive shoe satis
factory to the BCO.

(h) In the absence of load tests, the total load on any wood pile shall
not exceed these values:
Tip Diameter Butt Diameter Maximum Load
(Tons)
6" 10" 15
8" 12" 20
10" 14" 25

2104.4 PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE PILES:

(a) Precast concrete piles shall be cast of concrete having a
compressive strength of not less than 4,000 pounds per square
inch at time of driving based on standard 6 x 12 inch test
cylinder.

(b) The piling shall be reinforced with a minimum of four longitudi

nal steel bars having an area of not less than .01 nor more than .04
of the gross concrete area. The longitudinal reinforcement in
driven precast concrete piles shall be laterally tied with steel ties
or wire spirals, of not less than 3 inches centre to centre spacing
for a dis tance of 18 inches from the ends and not more than 8
inches else where.

(c) All reinforcement shall be protected by 2 inches or more of con

crete, except that for piles subjected to the action of open water,
waves, or other severe exposure a 3 inch protective covering shall
be furnished in the zone of such exposure.

(d) Piling shall be designed to resist stresses induced by handling and

driving as well as loads.

(e) Piling shall have their date of manufacture and the lifting points
clearly marked on the pile.

(f) In the absence of load tests, the maximum allowable load per pile
shall not exceed the values set forth in the following table:
Size (Inches) Maximum Load (Tons)
10 X 10 17
12 X 12 25
21-14
14x 14 35

21-15
2104.5 PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PILES (PRETENSIONED):
(a) Precast prestressed concrete piles shall develop a compressive
strength of not less than 4000 pounds per square inch before driv
ing based on standard 6 x 12 inch test cylinder. The piles shall de
velop an ultimate compressive strength at 28 days after pouring of
not less than 5000 pounds per square inch based on standard 6 x
12 inch test cylinder.

(b) The longitudinal reinforcement shall be high tensile seven wire

strand laterally tied with steel ties or wire spirals. Ties or spiral
reinforcement shall be spaced not more than 3 inches apart centre
to centre for a distance of 18 inches from the ends, and not more
than 8 inches elsewhere.

(c) Longitudinal reinforcing shall be protected by 2 inches of concrete.

(d) Precast prestressed piling shall be designed to resist stresses in

duced by handling and driving as well as by loads. The effective
prestress in the pile shall not be less than 400 pounds per square
inch for piles up to thirty feet (30') in length, 550 pounds per
square inch for piles up to fifty feet (50') in length, and 700
pounds per square inch for piles greater than fifty feet (50') in
length.

(e) The allowable compressive stress in the concrete due to

externally applied load shall not exceed 0.20 of the 28 day 6 x 12
inch test cylinder strength.

(f) If the compressive stress due to effects of prestressing exceeds

0.20 of the 28 day 6 x 12 inch test cylinder strength, the
allowable compressive stress due to externally applied loads as
permitted above, shall be reduced accordingly.

(g) Effective prestress shall be based on an assumed loss of 30,000

pounds per square inch in the prestressing steel.

(h) The allowable stress in the prestressing steel shall not exceed the
values specified in the Chapter on Reinforced Concrete. (Chapter
22).

(i) Maximum allowable loads per pile, in the absence of load tests,
shall not exceed the values set forth in the table on Precast Rein
forced Concrete Piles, Section 2104.4 of this Chapter.

21-16
2104.6 CONCRETE FILLED STEEL PIPE PILES:
(a) Concrete filled steel pipe piles driven open ended shall have a nomi
nal outside diameter of not less than 10 inches and a nominal wall
thickness of not less than 0.25 inch except that pipes having a
nomi nal outside diameter 14 inches or over shall have a nominal
wall thickness of not less than 0.375 inch. Concrete filled steel
tubular piles driven with ends closed may be of smaller sizes and
wall thickness but no tapered pile shall have a diameter of less
than 8 inches at the top nor 6 inches at the foot, and nosuch pile
of uniform section shall have a diameter of less than 8 inches.

(b) A forged, cast steel or flat plated end of approved design shall be
used on concrete-filled steel pipe piles driven with a closed end.

(c) The compressive stress on any cross section of a concrete-filled steel

pipe shall not exceed .225 of the specified strength of the concrete
which shall have an ultimate compressive strength at the end of
28 days of not less than 2,500 pounds per square inch, based on
the standard 6 x 12 inch test cylinder, plus .35 of the specified
mini mum yield strength of the steel when such steel shell is 1 /
10 of an inch or greater. No compressive stress shall be permitted
on steel shells less than 1 / 10 of an inch thick. The minimum
specified yield strength of steel shells shall not be assumed greater
than 36,000 pounds per square inch for computation purposes.

(d) The concrete shall be deposited in a continuous operation so as to

insure a full sized pile without voids or separation. Concrete shall
be placed in the dry. The pile may be sealed by depositing
concrete by tremie or other approved method.

2104.7 ROLLED STRUCTURAL STEEL PILES:

(a) Rolled structural steel piles shall conform to the Standards for
General Requirements for Hot-Rolled and Cold-Finished Carbon
and Alloy Steel Bars, ASTM A29, and Carbon Steel Bars Subject
to Mechanical Property Requirements, ASTM A306, set forth in
Section Appendix JA' of this Code, except that copper may be
added to increase the corrosion-resistant properties of the
material.

(b) Sections of such pile of H form shall have flange projections not
exceeding 14X the thickness of web or flange and total flange
width not less than 85% of the depth of the section.

(c) No section shall have a nominal thickness of metal less than 3/8".

21-17
 (d) For end-bearing piles, the allowable stress may be determined on
the basis of an allowable stress of 25% of the yield value of the
steel.

(e) In the absence of adequate corrosion protection, 1/16 shall be

11

de ducted from each face in determining the area of the pile

section.

(f) The allowable load, when used as friction piles, shall be deter
mined by load tests at the Site.

2104.8 SPECIAL PILES OR SPECIAL CONDITIONS: The use of types of piles

or conditions not specifically covered herein may be permitted, subject to
the approval of the Buildings Control Officer, upon submission of ac
ceptable test data, calculations or other information relating to the prop
erties and load-carrying capacity of such piles.

2104.9 LOAD TEST ON PILES:

(a) Single piles tested shall be loaded to at least twice the desired de
sign load and should pile groups be tested, the test load shall be
not less than 1-1/2 times the total desired load for the group.

(b) The apparatus for applying known vertical loads to the top of the
pile shall maintain constant load under increasing settlement, and
shall apply the loads in such a way that no lateral forces or im
pact will occur. Hydraulic jacks when used, shall be equipped
with a calibrated pressure gage. Uplift piles used to provide the
jacking resistance shall be a sufficient distance from the test pile
so as not to influence its behaviour under test.

(c) The test load shall be applied in increments of not more than 25%
of the design load until the total test load has been applied.

(d) The method for determining vertical movement shall be subject to

the approval of the BCO. Readings shall be sufficient in number
to define the time settlement and rebound curve.

(e) Each load increment shall be maintained for a minimum of 1

hour, and until the rate of settlement is less than 0.01 per hour.
11

The total load shall be maintained until settlement does not exceed
0.01 in 24 hrs. Settlement readings shall be taken at regular inter
11

vals during the test period.

(f) After the maximum load has remained on the pile for 24 hrs and
final settlement readings have been taken, the pile shall be un
loaded in 50% decrements of design load. Re-bound readings
21-18
shall

21-19
 be taken at regular intervals during the unloading period, and fi
nal reading taken approximately 12 hrs after the entire load has
been removed.

(g) The maximum allowable pile load shall be 1/2 of that load which
causes a net settlement of not more than 0.005" per ton of test
load, a gross settlement of 1", whichever is less, or a
disproportionate increase in settlement.

(h) Control test piles shall be tested in accordance withASTMD1143,

Method of Testing Piles Under Axial Compressive Load. If quick
load test procedures are used, then the applied test load shall be
not less than 3 times the working pile capacity and in accordance
with the standard.

2105 FOUNDATION WALLS AND GRADE BEAMS

2105.1 EXTERIOR FOUNDATION WALLS:

(a) GENERAL:
(1) Exterior foundation walls of buildings, where the character
of the soil is such that allowable soil loads of 1,500 pounds
or less per square foot are used for design, shall be poured-
in place reinforced concrete from the footing to the bottom
of the ground floor construction.

(2) Exterior foundation walls of buildings, where the character

of the soil is such that allowable soil of more than 1,500
pounds per square foot are used for design, may be of unit
masonry or concrete on continuous concrete footings.

(3) Under the exterior walls of buildings of Type V (Wood Frame)

construction, in locations where extreme dampness exists,
the BCO may approve isolated piers, provided such piers
are as otherwise set forth in Paragraph 2105.2 (b) of this Chap
ter.

(b) DETAILED REQUIREMENTS:

(1) The thickness of the foundation wall shall be not less than
8 inches.

(2) Where wood joist construction is used for the ground floor,
the thickness of the exterior foundation walls shall be not
less than 8 inches plus 4 inches for the bearing of joists.

21-20
 (3) Foundations of unit masonry supporting joists shall be
capped with 4 inches of concrete.

2105.2 INTERIOR FOUNDATION WALLS: Interior foundation walls shall be

of the material and design as specified in Section 2505.1 of this Chapter,
ex cept as follows:

(a) Interior foundation walls which support stud walls shall be ex

empted from the additional 4 inches of width required for the bear
ing of joists.

(b) For wood frame buildings not exceeding one-storey in height, iso
lated piers may be substituted for interior foundation walls where
such piers do not exceed 24 inches in height, are a minimum of
12 inches by 12 inches in cross-sectional dimension, and are
located at corners and points of concentration, but not more than
six feet apart. Where such piers rest on rock they shell be keyed 6
inches into the rock.

2105.3 GRADE BEAMS:

(a) Grade beams, supporting loads between piles or piers, shall be re
inforced concrete, or structural steel protected by 2 inches of con
crete cover.

(b) Grade beams shall be the thickness of the wall they support
but never less than 8 inches nor less than set forth for foundation
walls herein.

(c) Grade beams shall be suitably designed and reinforced around

access openings and vents.

2106 RETAINING WALLS

(a) Walls built to retain or support the lateral pressure of earth or water or
other superimposed loads shall be designed and constructed of approved
masonry, reinforced concrete, steel sheet piling or other approved
materi als within allowable stresses conforming to this code.

(b) Retaining walls shall be designed to resist the pressure of the retained
material including both dead and live load surcharges to which they may
be subjected, and to insure stability against overturning, sliding, exces
sive foundation pressure and water uplift.

(c) Unless drainage is provided, the hydrostatic head of water pressure shall
be assumed equal to the height of the wall.

21-21
 (d) All masonry retaining walls other than reinforced concrete walls shall be
protected with an approved coping.

2107 SEAWALLS, BULKHEADS, AND DOCKS

All dredging, waterfront filing and excavation, and waterfront construction such as
docks, piers, wharves, badges, groins, jetties, moles, break-waters, seawalls, revetments, and
cause ways, shall be planned and designed by an engineer recognized by the Minister.

2108 MATERIALS

The quality and design of materials used structurally in excavations, footings, founda
tions, retaining walls, seawalls, bulkheads and docks, shall conform to the requirements
specified in the Chapters forming the Engineering and Construction Requirements of this
Code. (Chapters 20-27).

21-22
NOTES

21-23
CHAPTER22
REINFORCED CONCRETE

2201 GENERAL
2202 STANDARDS
2203 DEFINITIONS
2204 MATERIALS AND TESTS
2205 WORKING STRESSES AND QUALITY OF CONCRETE
2206 MIXING AND PLACING
2207 FORMS AND DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION
2208 PRECAST CONCRETE FLOOR AND ROOF UNITS
2209 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
2210 PNEUMATICALLY PLACED CONCRETE

2201 GENERAL

Structures in concrete of cast-in-place or precast construction, plain, reinforced or pre

stressed shall be of the materials, proportions, strength and consistency as set forth in this
chapter and shall be designed by methods admitting of rational analysis according to
established principles of mechanics and in accordance with the standards adopted by this
Code and set forth in the Appendices.

2202 STANDARDS

The standards listed in Appendix A are hereby adapted as a part of this Code and supple
ment, but do not supersede, the specific requirements as set forth herein.

2203 DEFINITIONS

The following words and terms shall for the purpose of this Code, have the meanings set
forth in this section:

ADMIXTURE, a material other than Portland cement, aggregate, or water added

to concrete to modify its properties.

AGGREGATE, inert material which is mixed with Portland cement and water to
produce concrete.

22-1
COLUMN, an upright compression member the length of which exceeds three times
its least lateral dimension.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE, specified compressive strength

of concrete in pounds per square inch. Compressive strength shall be determined
by tests of standards 6 x 12 inch cylinders made and tested in accordance with
ASTM Standards at 28 days or such earlier age as concrete is to receive its full
service load or maximum stress.

CONCRETE, a mixture of Portland cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and

water.

CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT, a concrete containing lightweight

aggregate.

GROUT, a large amount of cement paste to which has been added a small amount
of fine aggregate to produce a mixture of fluid consistency. When the amount of
fine aggregate is increased so that the mixture loses its fluidity and behaves as a
cohesive plastic, the mixture is termed MORTAR.

PLAIN CONCRETE, concrete that does not conform to the definition of

reinforced concrete.

PRECAST CONCRETE, a plain or reinforced concrete element cast in other than its
final position in the structure.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE, reinforced concrete in which there have been

intro duced internal stresses of such magnitude and distribution that the stresses
result ing from service loads are counteracted to a desired degree.

REINFORCED CONCRETE, concrete containing reinforcement and designed on

the assumption that the two materials act together in resisting forces.

SHOTCRETE: Mortar or concrete pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a

surface.

SUPERPLASTICIZER: a chemical or a mixture of chemicals that, when added to

normal concrete.

(a) imparts extreme workability

(b) allows a large water reduction to be made beyond the limits or

normal plasticizing admixtures.

22-2
2204 MATERIALS AND TESTS

2204.1 MATERIALS: Portland cement, concrete aggregates, both coarse and

fine, and reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of the
standards listed in Appendix A.

2204.2 TESTS:
(a) The BCO may order or make a test of any material entering into
concrete or reinforced concrete to determine its suitability for the
purpose; may order or make a reasonable number of tests of the
concrete from time to time to determine whether the materials and
methods in use are such as to produce concrete of the necessary
quality; and may order or make a test under load of any portion of
a completed structure, when conditions have been such as to leave
doubt as to the adequacy of the structure to serve the purpose for
which it is intended.

(b) When cylinders are made at early ages to obtain advance

informa tion on 28 day strengths, and these cylinders are lower
than the age-strength relationship generally established for the
materials and proportions used, the BCO may serve notice on the
contractor or owner that the concrete is suspect. The BCO may
also order changes in the concrete sufficient to increase the
strength require ments and may order load tests for that portion of
the structure where the questionable concrete has been placed.

(c) To conform to the requirements of these specifications, the

average strength of the laboratory cured cylinders representing
each class of concrete as well as the average of any five
consecutive strength tests representing each class of concrete
shall be equal to, or greater than the specified strength and not
more than 1 strength test in 10 shall have an average value of less
than 90% of the specified strength.

(d) Where earlier tests than 28 days are used the relationship between
the early tests and the 28 day strength of the concrete shall be es
tablished by tests for the materials and the proportions used.

2205 WORKING STRESSES AND QUALITY OF CONCRETE

2205.1 WORKING STRESSES: The allowable working stresses in concrete

shall not exceed those set forth in the standards adopted as part of this
Code in Appendix A for the value of specified compressive strength of
concrete used.

22-3
2205.2 CONCRETE QUALITY:
(a) For the design of reinforced concrete structures, the specified
compressive strength used for determining the allowable stresses
shall be based on the 28-day compressive strength of the concrete
or the specified minimum compressive strength at the earlier age
at which the concrete may be expected to receive its full load. All
plans, submitted for approval or used on the job, shall clearly
show the assumed strength of concrete at a specified age for
which all parts of the structure were designed.

(b) The normal minimum quality of structural concrete recognized by

this Code shall be concrete having a design strength of 2,000 pounds
per square inch in 28 days based on 6 x 12 inch cylinders. The
mini mum strength of light weight aggregate concrete, used
structur ally, shall be not less than 500 psi based on 6 x 12 inch
cylinders.

(c) The BCO may in particular cases accept concrete mixed in the
pro portion of one cubic foot or one 94 lb. sack of Portland
cement, two cubic feet of sand and 3 cubic feet of coarse
aggregate when ma chine mixed with sufficient water to make a
plastic mix with no free water, provided the use of concrete so
proportioned and mixed is limited to minor building components.

(d) The determination of the proportions of cement, aggregate, and

water to attain the required strengths shall be made by one of the
following methods:

Method 1-Without preliminary tests

Where preliminary test data on the materials to be used in the

con crete have not been obtained, the water-cement ratio for a
given strength of concrete shall not exceed the values shown in
the fol lowing table.

Method 2 - For combinations of materials previously evaluated

or to be established by trial mixtures.

Water-cement ratios or strengths greater than shown in the

follow ing table may be used provided that the relationship
between strength and water-cement ratio for the materials to be
used has been previously established by reliable test data and the
resulting concrete satisfies strength requirements.

22-4
 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE WATER-CEMENT RATIOS
FOR CONCRETE (METHOD NO. 1)"·1
(Without Preliminary Tests)

·. pe •. feed on pressive bsol •re

Strength t 28,D ..., P $LI - .• al
Per .4-fu. Ra.Ho
by
. "'x1i- •linder g fCc1:ne11l \V. ight
7 /2 0.663
'7-t/4 0.642
6-1/2 0.576
5--3/ 0.510
5 0.443•

1. The minimum cement content shall be not less than five bags per cubic
yard (a bag weighing not less than 94 pounds) unless the mix is
designed specifically for the project.

2. Including free surface moisture on aggregates.

3. Reduce water content for air-entrained concrete.

(e) When the structural design is based on a 28 day compressive

strength in excess of 2,500 psi (by 6" x 12' cylinder)
proportioning and mixing shall be approved by, and placing shall
be under the competent supervision of an engineer, recognized by
the Minister.

(f) Concrete that will be exposed to sulfate-containing or other

chemi cally aggressive solutions shall be proportioned in
accordance with the concrete proportions given in the Standards
listed in Appen dix A.

2206 MIXING AND PLACING

2206.1 FORMS AND EQUIPMENT:

(a) Before placing concrete, all equipment for mixing and transport
ing the concrete shall be cleaned, all debris removed from the spaces
to be occupied by the concrete, forms shall be thoroughly wetted
or oiled, masonry filler units that will be in contact with concrete
shall be well drenched, and the reinforcement shall be thoroughly
cleaned.

(b) Water shall be removed from place of deposit before concrete is

placed unless otherwise permitted by the BCO.
22-5
2206.2 MIXING OF CONCRETE:
(a) Unless otherwise authorised by the BCO, the mixing of concrete
shall be done in a batch mixer of approved type.

(b) All concrete shall be mixed until there is a uniform. distribution

of the materials and shall be discharged completely before the
mixer is recharged.

(c) For job mixed concrete, the mixer shall be rotated at a speed rec
ommended by the manufacturer and mixing shall be continued
for at least 1-1/ 2 minutes after all materials are in the drum. For
batches larger than one cubic yard, mixing time shall be
increased 15 seconds for each additional cubic yard or fraction
thereof.

(d) Ready-mixed concrete shall be mixed and delivered in

accordance with the requirements set forth in the Standards
adopted in the Appendices to this Code.

(e) Retempering concrete with the addition of water after the

concrete has taken an initial set shall not be permitted.

(f) No concrete shall be deposited in forms or used more than 1-1/2

hours after the mixing of that particular batch has been commenced,
or after water has been added to the batch. The BCO has the right
to reject all such concrete or order any such mobile equipment off
the job site, if in his opinion, mixing has taken place longer than 1-
1 / 2 hours.

2206.3 (a) SUPERPLASTICIZERS: Shall only be used where specified and

supervised by an engineer recognised by the Minister.

(b) The concrete shall exhibit a slump of approximately 2-1/ 2" prior
to the addition of the superplasticizing agent and approximately
8" after: Such concrete shall not exhibit excess bleeding or segrega
tion, abnormal retardation and air entrapment shall also be
absent.

(c) All concrete to which a superplasticizer been added shall be

placed within (30) minutes.

2206.4 CONVEYING:
(a) Concrete shall be conveyed from the mixer to the place of final
deposit by methods which will prevent separation or loss of the
materials.

22-6
 (b) Equipment for chuting, pumping and pneumatically conveying
concrete shall be of such size and design as to insure a practically
continuous flow of concrete at the delivery end without separa
tion of the materials.

2206.5 DEPOSITING:
(a) Concrete shall be deposited as nearly as practicable in its final po
sition to avoid segregation due to rehandling or flowing. The con
creting shall be carried on at such a rate that the concrete is at all
times plastic and flows readily into the spaces between the bars.
No concrete that has been contaminated by foreign materials shall
be deposited in the structure.

(b) When concreting is once started, it shall be carried on as a continu

ous operation until the placing of the panel or section is completed.

(c) All concrete shall be thoroughly consolidated by suitable means

during placement, and shall be thoroughly worked around the re
inforcement and embedded fixtures and into the corners of the
forms. Where concrete is placed in columns or walls, the placing
shall be so conducted that the concrete will not pass
reinforcement for more than 8 feet. Separate lifts shall be
thoroughly compacted. Vibrators may be used to aid in the
placement of the concrete, pro vided that they are used under
experienced supervision, that the forms are designed to withstand
their action, and that their action is not directed to bars any part of
which is in contact with concrete which started to take its initial
set.

(d) Where conditions make consolidation difficult, or where

reinforce ment is congested, batches of mortar containing the
same propor tions of cement to sand as used in the concrete, shall
first be depos ited in the forms to a depth of at least 1 inch.

2206.6 CURING: In all concrete structures, concrete made with normal Portland
cement shall be maintained in a moist condition for at least the first
seven days after placing and high-early-strength concrete shall be so
maintained for at least the first three days. Other curing periods or
methods of curing may be used if the specified strengths are obtained.

2206.7 BONDING:
(a) Before new concrete is deposited on or against concrete which
has set, the forms shall be retightened, the surface of the set
concrete shall be cleaned of all foreign matter and laitance, and
wetted. The cleaned and wetted surfaces of the hardened concrete
shall first be slushed with a coating of neat cement against which
the new con crete shall be placed before the mortar has attained
22-7
its initial set.

22-8
 (b) Where bonding of fresh to hardened concrete is necessary, constrnc
tion joints and joints between footings and walls or columns and
beams or floors they support, and joints in unexposed walls shall
be accomplished by reinforcement, dowels, adhesives,
mechanical connectors, or other approved methods. Hardened
concrete at joints shall be dampened, but not saturated,
immediately prior to the placement of fresh concrete.

2206.8 HOT WEATHER: During hot weather (temperature in excess of 851F.),

steps shall be taken to reduce concrete temperature and water evapora
tion by proper attention to ingredients, production methods, handling,
placing, protection and curing.

2207 FORMS AND DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION

2207.1 DESIGN OF FORMS:

(a) Forms shall conform to the shape, lines and dimensions of the
members as called for on the plans, and shall be substantial and
sufficiently tight to prevent leakage of mortar. Forms shall be
prop erly braced or tied together so as to maintain position and
shape. Temporary openings at the bottom of columns shall be
provided to facilitate cleaning and inspection before depositing
concrete. When the concrete has attained sufficient strength,
forms shall be removed from at least two faces of all reinforced
members, other than where placed in contact with the soil or for
slabs or joists, to facilitate inspection of placing operations.
Temporary openings shall be provided at the base of column and
wall forms to facilitate cleaning and inspection.

(b) Design of formwork shall include consideration of the following

factors:

(1) Rate and method of placing concrete.

(2) Loads, including live, dead, lateral and impact.
(3) Selection of materials and stresses.
(4) Deflection, camber, eccentricity and uplift.
(5) Horizontal and diagonal shore bracing.
(6) Shore splices.
(7) Cross grain compression.
(8) Loads on ground or on previously placed structure.

(c) The Buildings Control Officer may require that formwork

systems for reinforced concrete structures shall be designed and
the system examined and approved by an engineer recognised by
the Minis ter before concrete is placed therein.

22-9
2207.2 (a) REMOVAL OF FORMS: The removal of forms shall be carried out
in such a manner as to insure the complete safety of the structure.
Vertical forms may be removed in 24 hours, provided that the
con crete has hardened sufficiently so that it is not injured. 14
days; except that where tests indicate that the concrete has
attained Bot tom forms and shoring for slabs, beams and girders
shall not be removed in less than sufficient strength to safely
support itself and any imposed loads in less time, adjustments in
the above waiting periods may be made by the BCO in
conformance with the results obtained.

(b) No construction loads exceeding the combination of superimposed

dead load plus specified live load shall be supported on any
unshored portion of the structure under construction, unless
analy sis indicates adequate strength to support such additional
loads.

2207.3 PLACING AND REINFORCEMENT: Metal reinforcement and welded

wire fabric shall be accurately placed and adequately secured in position
by concrete or metal chairs or spacers or other acceptable methods. The
minimum clear distance between parallel bars, except in columns, shall
be equal to the nominal diameter of the bars. In no case shall the clear
distance between bars be less than one inch, nor less than one and one
third times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. When reinforce
ment in beams or girders is placed in two or more layers, the clear dis
tance between layers shall not be less than one inch nor less than the di
ameter of the bars, and the bars in the upper layers shall be placed di
rectly above those in the bottom layer.

2207.4 SPLICES IN REINFORCEMENT: In slabs, beams, and girders, splices in

reinforcement at points of maximum stress shall be avoided wherever
possible. Such splices where used shall be welded, lapped or otherwise
fully developed, but in any case, shall transfer the entire stress from bar to
bar without exceeding the allowable bond and shear stresses. The mini mum
overlap for a lapped splice shall be 24 bar diameters, but not less than 12
inches for bars. The clear distance between bars shall also apply to the
clear distance from a contact splice and adjacent splices or bars.

2207.5 CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT:

(a) The reinforcement of footings and other principal structural mem
bers in which the concrete is deposited against the ground shall
have not less than 3 inches of concrete between it and the ground
contact surface. If concrete surfaces after removal of the forms
are to be exposed to the weather or be in contact with the ground,
the reinforcement shall be protected with not less than 2 inches of
con crete.

22-10
 (b) The concrete protective covering for reinforcement at surfaces not
exposed directly to the ground or weather shall be not less than 3 /
4 inch for slabs and walls; and not less than 1-1/ 2 inches for
beams, girders and columns. In concrete ribbed or joist floors in
which the clear distance between ribs or joists is not more than
thirty inches, the protection of reinforcement shall be at least 3 / 4
inch. Cover is to main bars.

(c) Concrete cover for reinforcement shall in all cases be at least

equal to the diameter of round bars, and one and one-half times
the side dimension of square bars.

(d) Exposed reinforcement bars intended for bonding with future ex

tensions shall be protected from corrosion by concrete or other
adequate covering.

(e) The above protective coverings are minimums but protection

shall not be less than elsewhere set forth for required fire-resistive
rat ings.

(f) For structures located in corrosive atmospheres such as along the

coastal shore line, slab reinforcement shall be epoxy-coated in ac
cordance with the standard specification for Epoxy-Coated Rein
forcing Steel Bars, ASTM A775.

(g) Exposed reinforcement,inserts and plates intended for bonding with

future extensions shall be protected from corrosion.

2207.6 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS:

(a) Joints not indicated on the plans shall be so made and located as
to least impair the strength of the structure. Where a joint is to be
made, the surface of the concrete shall be thoroughly cleaned and
all laitance removed. Vertical joints shall be thoroughly wetted,
and slushed with a coat of neat cement grout immediately before
plac ing of new concrete.

(b) A delay of at least one day must occur in columns or walls before
concreting beams, girders, or slabs supported thereon. Beams,
gird ers, brackets, column capitals, and haunches shall be
considered as part of the floor system and shall be placed
monolithically there with.

(c) Construction joints in floors shall be located near the middle of

the spans of slabs, beams, or girders unless a beam intersects a
girder at this point, in which case the joints in the girders shall be
offset a distance equal to twice the width of the beam. Provision
shall be
22-11
 made for transfer of shear and other forces through the construc
tion joint.

2208 PRECAST CONCRETE FLOOR AND ROOF UNITS

2208.1 GENERAL:
(a) Precast concrete units shall comply with the minimum requirements
set forth in this Chapter, and the Standards set forth in the Appen
dices.

(b) All precast structural items shall be designed by an engineer rec

ognized by the Minister.

(c) Only the material cast monolithically with the units at the time of
manufacture shall be used in computing stresses unless adequate
and approved mechanical shear transfer is provided.

(d) The BCO may require tests to be made by an approved testing

labo ratory, as he may consider necessary to insure compliance
with this Code or uniformity of the products produced. The
quantity of tests shall be based on consideration of safety or
volume of output.

(e) The BCO shall have free access to the plant of any producer at all
hours of normal operation, and failure to permit such access shall
be cause for revocation of approval.

(f) Failure of any product to satisfy in every respect the quality pre
scribed, or failure to conform with plans and specifications, shall
be cause for rejection of the products.

2208.2 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE: Concrete for precast structural units made

of crushed stone or other heavy aggregate shall have a compressive
strength of not less than 2500 psi at 28 days based on 6 x 12 inch
standard cylinder.

2208.3 WORKMANSHIP:
(a) The mix, the gradation of the aggregate and the workability shall
be such as to insure complete filling of the form and continuous
intimate bond between the concrete and all steel.

(b) The use of precast structural units not complying with the Stand
ards listed in the Appendices, or having visible cracks, honey comb,
exposed reinforcing except at ends or, with a compressive section
dimension more than one-eighth inch less than specified
dimension shall not be permitted.

22-12
2208.4 IDENTIFICATION AND MARKING: All joists, beams, girders, and
other units shall show some mark plainly indicating the top of the unit
and its location and orientation in the structure. Identification marks
shall be re produced from the placing plans. This mark or symbol shall
also indicate the manufacturer, the date of the manufacture and the
length, size and type of reinforcing.

2208.5 CUTTING OF HOLES: No openings not provided for in the structural

design shall be made on the job without the specific approval of the rec
ognized engineer and in accordance with his written, detailed instruc
tions covering such work.

2208.6 ANCHORAGE: Anchorage of all precast concrete units shall be

designed, based on rational analysis to transmit loads and other forces to
the struc tural frame.

2208.7 BRIDGING: Joists shall be secured against lateral displacement by cast

in-place bridging, and such bridging shall be spaced not to exceed 32 times
the width of the compression flange of the joist except that for roof sys
tems, cast-in-place Portland-cement concrete slabs embedding the top
flanges not less than 1 / 2 inch, or steel inserts cast in the joist heads to
which bulb-tees supporting gypsum decks are welded, shall be accepted
in lieu of bridging.

2208.8 CONNECTIONS: All joints and connections will perform their function
at all stages of loading without overstress and with proper safety factors
against failure due to overload. Loading conditions to be considered in
the design of joints and connections are service loads, including wind
forces, volume changes due to shrinkage, creep, and temperature change,
erection loads, and loading encountered in stripping forms, shoring and
removal of shores, storage, and transportation of members.

2208.9 TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND ERECTION:

(a) Units shall be so stored, transported, and placed that they will not
be overstressed or damaged.

(b) Precast concrete units shall be adequately braced and supported

during erection to insure proper alignment and safety and such
bracing or support shall be maintained until there are adequate
permanent connections.

22-13
2209 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

2209.1 GENERAL:
(a) The term "prestressed concrete" refers to pretensioned concrete in
which the reinforcing is tensioned before hardening of the con
crete; or to post-tensioned concrete in which the reinforcing is
tensioned after hardening of the concrete; or combinations of both
pre-tensioning and post-tensioning. The internal stresses intro
duced are of such magnitude and distribution to counteract the
stresses resulting from service loads.

(b) All prestressed structural items shall be designed by an engineer

recognized by the Minister. Openings not provided for in the
struc tural design shall not be made on the job without the
specific ap proval of the recognized engineer.

(c) Allowable stresses, temporary, and at design loads, shall not ex

ceed the allowable stresses set forth in the Standards listed in Ap
pendix A. Stresses and ultimate strength shall be investigated at
service conditions and at all load stages that may be critical
during the life of the structure from the time prestress is first
applied.

(d) The BCO may require tests to be made by an approved testing

labo ratory, as he may consider necessary to insure compliance
with these Standards or uniformity of the products produced.

(e) The BCO shall have free access to the plant of any producer at all
hours of normal operation, and failure to permit such access shall
be cause for revocation of approval.

(f) Failure of any product to satisfy the quality prescribed or failure

to conform with plans and specifications shall be cause for
rejection of the product.

2209.2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION:

(a) Deflection under live load shall not exceed L/240 and where plas ter
ceilings are to be applied shall not exceed L/ 360, where L = the
span length of the member.

(b) Calcium chloride shall not be used in concrete for prestressed mem
bers.

2209.3 HANDLING AND INSTALLATION: Prestressed members must be

main tained in an upright position at all times and must be picked up
from points near the ends as shown on the approved plans or as
approved by the recognized engineer. (Note: Disregard of this
22-14
requirement may lead to collapse of the member.)

22-15
2210 PNEUMATICALLY PLACED CONCRETE

2210.1 (a) Pneumatically placed concrete is a proportioned combination of

fine aggregate, Portland cement and water which, after mixing, is
pneumatically projected by air directly on to the surface to which
it is to be applied.

(b) Pneumatically placed concrete shall be proportioned and applied

as set forth herein.

2210.2 MATERIALS:
(a) Portland cement shall comply with the Standard Specifications
for Portland Cement, as set forth in Appendix A.

(b) (1) Aggregate shall comply with the Standard Recommended

for Shotcreting, as set forth in Appendix A.

(c) All reinforcement shall be clean and free of loose rust or other
coat ings harmful to bond. Only round bars or wire mesh shall be
used.

2210.3 PROPORTIONS:
(a) Unless otherwise specified, all pneumatically placed concrete
shall be mixed in the proportions of one part of cement to four
and one half parts of sand based on loose, dry volume.

(b) (1) The Building Control Officer may require that core tests shall
be made to determine the strength of the material placed.

(2) Not less than two test cylinders shall be made of each
day's operation.

(3) Test cylinder shall be furnished by the person or company

doing or causing the work to be done, and shall be six
inches in diameter and 12 inches in height.

(4) Forms for cylinders shall be of one quarter inch hardware

cloth, shall be shot with the same air pressure, nozzle tip
and hydration as the mortar in the structure and the
hardware cloth form shall be removed in 24 hours.

(5) Cylinders shall be cured and tested in accordance with the

Standard Method of Test for Compression Strength of Molded
Concrete Cylinders, as set forth in Appendix A.

(6) One cylinder shall be tested at seven days and shall develop
a compressive strength of not less than 2400 p.s.i. and one
22-16
 cylinder shall be tested at 28 days and shall develop the speci
fied strength but not less than 3000 p.s.i. based on 1:4-1/2
mix.

2210.4 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS: Construction joints shall be sloped to a thin

edge. No square joints will be allowed.

2210.5 CURING: A light spray of water shall be applied as soon as possible

with out damage to the surface and the surface shall be kept moist for a
period of not less than five days.

2210.6 FORMS: Forms shall be true to line and level, shall be substantially
braced to avoid excessive vibration and shall be adequately supported to
avoid deflection. Forms for columns shall, where practicable, be on two
sides only. Forms for beams shall be a soffit and one side or may be a
soffit only with vertical backing of fine wire mesh near the centre.
Forms shall be clean and thoroughly wetted before application of mortar.

2210.7 PREPARATION OF SURFACES:

(a) Old concrete or masonry surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned by
sand blasting. Sand blasting shall be done using approved equip
ment and sand shall be clean, sharp, hard and uniform.

(b) All concrete and masonry surfaces shall be cleaned of dust and
loose particles by compressed air and water and shall be
thoroughly wetted and surface damp before application of mortar.

(c) Steel surfaces shall be cleaned free of substances that will prevent
bond and shall be sand blasted where necessary.

(d) Earth surfaces shall be thoroughly compacted, neatly trimmed to

line and grade, and shall be wetted and without free surface water
before application of mortar.

2210.8 PLACING OR MORTAR:

(a) A uniform water pressure, not less than 15 pounds per square
inch above the air pressure, shall be maintained at the nozzle.

(b) For lengths of hose up to 100 feet, pneumatic pressure at the

gun shall be 45 pounds per square inch or more. Where length
exceeds 100 feet pressure shall be increased five pounds per square
inch for each additional 50 feet of hose required. Steady
pressure shall be maintained.

(c) The nozzle shall be held at right angles to the surface and at a dis
tance of two and one-half to three and one-half feet.

22-17
(d) When enclosing reinforcing steel, the nozzle shall be held to
direct the material behind the bars. Each side of individual bars
shall be shot separately.

(e) When enclosing reinforcing steel, an air blow-out jet shall

precede the nozzlemen to blow out all rebound or sand which
may have lodged behind the bars.

(f) Mortar shall emerge from the nozzle in a steady uninterrupted

flow and when the flow becomes intermittent, the nozzle shall be
di verted from the work. Hydration shall be thorough and
uniform.

(g) In shooting walls and columns, application shall begin at the bot
tom and the first coat shall completely embed the reinforcement
to the form.

(h) In shooting beams, application shall begin at the bottom and a

sur face at right angles to the nozzle shall be maintained.

(i) In shooting slabs, the nozzle shall be held at a slight angle to the
work so that rebound is blown on to the finished portion where it
shall be removed. The limit of material in one layer shall be the
appearance of excess moisture on the surface.

(j) Before placing succeeding layers, all loose material rebound,

laitance, rebound pockets, sags or other imperfections harmful to
bond or strength shall be removed or carefully cut out and the sur
face shall be damp. Sufficient time shall be allowed between
layers for the material to set.

(k) Finishing of surfaces may be by any method not harmful to the

strength of the material. Afinish coat may be applied starting
from the top and working down.

22-18
CHAPTER23
STEEL AND IRON

2301 GENERAL
2302 MATERIALS
2303 DESIGN LOADS
2304 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
2305 CONNECTIONS AND WELDING
2306 TUBULAR COLUMNS
2307 PROTECTION OF METAL
2308 OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS
2309 LIGHT-GAGE STEEL CONSTRUCTION

2301 GENERAL

2301.1 DESIGN: Steel and iron members and structures shall be designed by
methods admitting of rational analysis according to established princi
ples of mechanics, and in accordance with the Standards adopted by this
Code and set forth in Appendix A.

2301.2 SCOPE: The design, fabrication and erection of steel and iron for build
ings and other structures shall be as set forth in this Chapter and as set
forth in Appendix A.

2301.3 STANDARDS:The standards listed in Appendix A are hereby adopted as

a part of this Code and supplement, but do not supersede, the specific
requirements as set forth herein.

2302 MATERIALS

2302.1 STEEL: Steel shall conform to the physical requirements set forth in the
Standards, adopted as a part of this Code.

2302.2 HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL BOLTS: High-strength steel bolts shall conform

to the requirements set forth in the Standards adopted as a part of this
Code.

2302.3 RIBBED BOLTS: Ribbed bolts shall be made from a carbon manganese
steel with a minimum tensile strength of 70,000 psi.

2302.4 IDENTIFICATION: Where structural steel is furnished to a specified

minimum yield point greater than 36,000 pounds per square inch, the
structural steel shall be properly identified.

23-1
 Where light gauge (gage) steel structural members are furnished to a speci
fied minimum yield point greater than 33,000 pounds per square inch,
the grade and the specification designation shall be indicated by paint
ing, decal, tagging or other suitable means on each lift or bundle of
fabri cated elements. In the case of members having a yield point in
excess of 33,000 pounds per square inch obtained through additional
treatment, the resulting minimum yield point shall be indicated in
addition to the specification designation.

Unidentified stock material, if free from surface imperfections, may be

used for short sections of minor importance, or for small unimportant
details, where the precise physical properties of the material would not
affect the safety of the structure.

2302.5 USED AND DAMAGED MATERIAL: All steel shall be straight and
true, and any section damaged so as to be out of shape shall not be used.
Steel previously used or fabricated for use or fabricated in error shall not
be used except with the approval of the BCO. Filled holes or welds shall
not be concealed. Straightened or retempered fire-burned steel shall not
be used except with the approval of the BCO.

2302.6 TESTS: The BCO may require tests and/ or mill records to determine the
quality of materials.

2303 DESIGN LOADS

2303.1 Design shall be based on the dead, live, wind and other loads set forth in
the Chapter on Live and Dead Loads (Chapter 20) and the additional
stress considerations set forth in this Chapter.

2303.2 Designs of arches and rigid frames shall include provisions for
resistance of lateral thrust at the support by means of tie rods,
abutments, founda tions, or other adequate measures. When the
superstructure is designed separately from the foundation, the
magnitude of the vertical and hori zontal reactions shall be made
available to the foundation designer and shall be shown on the plans.

2304 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

The minimum thickness of exterior structural steel exposed to frequent rain, or

located within 100 yards of the High Water Mark and interior structural steel
subject to corrosive exposures shall be as set forth in the Standards contained in
Appendix A but shall not be less than:

23-2
 (a) 5 /16-inch for columns; lintels; girders; beams exterior trusses and exte
rior bracing members;

(b) 3 / 16-inch for purling, girts, trusses and bracing members sheltered
from exposure to rain or located more than 100 yards from the High
Water Mark.

The controlling thickness of rolled shapes shall be taken as the mean

thick ness of their flanges, regardless of web thickness.

2305 CONNECTIONS AND WELDING

2305.1 CONNECTIONS: Connections shall conform to the detailed

requirements of the Standards as set forth in Appendix A.

2305.2 WELDING:
(a) Welding in the shop or field shall be done only by persons who
have been tested and certified for the welds to be performed.

(b) Surfaces to be welded shall be free from loose scale, slag, rust, paint,
grease or other foreign matter.

(c) Surfaces which are to be welded after erection preferably shall

not receive any shop paint. If painted before erection, any shop
paint on surfaces adjacent to joints to be field welded shall be
wire brushed to reduce the paint film to a minimum.

(d) Steel construction which is to be welded shall be held in the

correct position by bolts, clamps, wedges, guy lines, struts, or
other suit able devices or by tack welds until welding has been
completed.

(e) Nothing in this Code shall prohibit arc or gas cutting in steel con
struction; provided that arc or gas cutting shall not be done on a
member while it is under substantial stress.

(f) Cut edges shall be smooth and regular in contour, and when used
in the preparation of base metal parts for welding, special care
shall be taken to assure a surface suitable for welding.

(g) The cutting of holes shall not be permitted in structural members

unless such cutting is clearly shown on the permit drawings.

23-3
2306 TUBULAR COLUMNS

2306.1 (a) Tubular columns and other primary compression members, shall
have a minimum least dimension of 2-1/ 2 inches and a minimum
wall thickness of 3 / 16 of an inch.

(b) Secondary post and struts, not subject to bending, and whose de
sign load does not exceed 2000 pounds may be exempted the
mini mum dimension set out in (a) above.

2306.2 Tubular members when filled with concrete shall have one-quarter inch
diameter pressure relief holes drilled through the shell, within 6 inches
of the top and bottom of the exposed length of the member, and one
hole at mid height.

2306.3 Concrete fill in tubular members shall not be assumed to carry any of the
load except for compression members having a least dimension of 8
inches or greater and having a one-inch inspection hole in the plate at
each end.

2307 PROTECTION OF METAL

2307.1 All field rivets, bolts, welds and abrasions to the shop coat shall be spot
painted or treated with the material used for the shop coat, or an equiva
lent comparable to the shop coat, after removal of all objectionable
mate rials.

2307.2 Primary structural steel members, except where intended to be encased

in concrete, shall have one shop coat of paint and if exposed to the
atmos phere in the completed building or structure shall receive a second
shop coat of paint or be field painted in addition to the initial shop coat
with lead, graphite, asphalt paint or other approved coating compatible
with the shop coat, except as herein provided. Surfaces of members in
contact with, but not encased in concrete or masonry shall be asphalt
coated or otherwise effectively coated where the thickness of the metal
is 3 / 16 inch or less.

2307.3 Members having a corrosion-resistive metallic or other equivalent ap

proved coating are not required to have the shop and field painting.

2307.4 Where structural steel members are exposed to: -

(a) corrosive industrial fumes or gases: or

(b) fresh or salt water spray (this includes all such members located
within 100 yards of the High Water Mark): or
23-4
 (c) any other corrosive agent,

such members shall be effectively protected with a corrosion-resis

tive metallic or other equivalent approved coating.

2307.5 Where structural members are exposed to industrial fumes, fresh and/ or
salt water, salt water spray, and other corrosive agents, such members
shall be effectively protected with a corrosion-resistive metallic or other
equivalent approved coating.

2307.6 Corrosion-resistant steels with or without painting or coating may be ap

proved where sufficient test or other factual data establishing the satis
factory performance under the particular exposure conditions or usage is
submitted to and approved by the BCO.

2307.7 Floor or roof construction which extends into an exterior wall shall be
adequately waterproofed and protected from the weather to prevent cor
rosion.

2308 OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS

2308.1 STANDARDS: Open web steel joists shall comply with the Standards
set forth in Appendix A.

2308.2 (a) DESIGN: Open web steel joist systems shall be designed to ac
commodate the loads and forces set forth in the Chapter 20.

(b) Where the net uplift force is equal to or greater than the gravity
load of construction, all web and bottom chord members shall
com ply with slenderness ratio requirements for top chord and for
com pression members other than top chord as provided for in the
stand ards set forth in Appendix A.

(c) The top chord for superimposed dead and live loads shall be con
sidered to be stayed laterally if:

(1) A poured-in-place concrete slab is in direct contact with the

top chord.

(2) A light gage steel deck complying with Section 2309

hereinbelow is fastened to the top chord.

(3) Any other approved deck system such that attachments of

the top chord to the deck are capable of resisting a
lateral force specified in the standard set forth in
Appendix A' and the spacing of the fasteners does not
exceed 36" along the chord.
23-5
 (d) When the bottom chord under net uplift loads is in compression,
the bottom chord shall be stayed laterally by a bracing system
adequately anchored at each end.

2308.3 CONNECTIONS: The joints and connections of members of steel joists

shall be made by welding, riveting or other approved methods.

2308.4 BRIDGING:
(a) Lateral bracing shall be provided at intervals suitable for intended
use and not greater than given in the following table:

Cliar pan

bp to f4roet Orte row near cent!:

14 Ito 21 feet wo r01....- at ppro:i( fl:alely 1 /3
pomtsof, - M
21 t 32 fue-t 'Ru rov.rs at app imat, y 1 / 4
_points o: • pn
01. !11' rows a\1- a 1,/.C... :
·pr-.ox .n"EL'I. 1•
'

• l of sp
40 to 4 £ t hr il:'Q'IW5- at apprmd.t't'ii .ti.!l 1 /6
poin of $f!<'J.i'I.

(b) All bridging and anchors shall be completely installed before ap

plication of any construction loads. Bridging shall be connected
to the chords of the joists by welding, bolting or other positive
mechanical means. Each attachment shall be capable of resisting
a horizontal force specified in the Standards set forth in Appendix
A. All bridging shall extend and be securely fixed into the end walls.

(c) Bridging members shall be of material having a thickness not less

than

01. 1/2" inch diameter for round members

02. 1 / 8 inch for not-rolled sections
03. 0.0598 inches thick for cold-formed sections.

2308.5 END SUPPORTS AND ANCHORAGE:

(a) Joists shall not bear directly on unit masomy.

(b) The ends of every joist shall be bolted, welded or embedded at

each bearing to provide not less resistance in any direction than
50% of the rated end reaction.

23-6
 (c) The ends of joists shall have a minimum bearing, on reinforced
concrete and steel supports as specified in the Standards set forth
in Appendix A.

2308.6 SHOP STANDARDS: The BCO may require that shop drawings,
prepared by a recognized engineer, showing stress diagrams, sizes of
members and sizes of welds, be submitted for approval before erection
of open-web steel joists and that the designer make inspection of the
joists in place and certify that the fabrication and placing conforms to
the design.

2308.7 MATERIALS:
(a) Joists shall be manufactured of hot rolled or cold-formed sections
having a minimum thickness of 1 / 8 inch for shapes, flats and
formed sections, and 3/ 8 inch for round sections.

(b) Proof of the characteristics of the material may be required for

any steel for which a minimum yield point in excess of 36,000
pounds per square inch is used as the basis of design.

2308.8 SPACING: H and J Series joists shall be spaced a maximum of 24 inches

on centres in floor construction.

2309 LIGHT-GAUGE STEEL CONSTRUCTION

2309.1 SCOPE: Light-gauge steel construction shall include individual

structural members, structural decks or wall panels, cold formed to
shape from sheet or strip steel.

2309.2 STANDARDS: Light gauge steel construction shall conform to the

Stand ards set forth in the Appendices.

2309.3 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OTHER THAN DECKS: Design and fabrica

tion shall be as set forth in Sub-section 2309.2, except as follows:

(a) All connections shall be by welding, riveting, bolting or other

suit able approved fastening devices or methods providing
positive fastening and resistance to loosening under wind and live
loads. Welding of members shall be made on two sides or two
edges of each hearing in such a manner as to resist effectively the
stresses developed.

(b) Light gauge steel for the treads. risers, stringers and landings of
stairways shall have a minimum thickness of .1046 inches.

(c) (1) Light-gauge steel studs for bearing walls shall have a mini-
mum thickness of .0478 inches and, except where
23-7
specifically

23-8
 designed as columns, shall be spaced not more than 24
inches on centres. Provisions shall be made to resist
horizontal wind forces by diagonal members, diaphragm
panels or other com parable means.

(2) Light-gauge steel studs for non-bearing partitions shall have

a minimum thickness of .0478 inches for exterior or
exposed locations and .0149 inches for interior locations.

(d) Light-gauge steel joists, rafters, purlins, and girts shall have a
mini mum thickness of .0598 inches, minimum bearing of 4
inches on concrete, minimum bearing of 2-1/2 inches on steel and
each end shall be positively anchored to resist the loads set forth
in the Chap ter on Live and Dead Loads.

2309.4 STANDARDS: Light gauge steel construction shall conform to the

Stand ards set forth in Appendix A.

(a) Except as herein provided, no structural value shall be allowed

for any fill material used with deck systems. Light weight
concrete fill, when permitted to provide stability or diaphragm
action, shall be a minimum thickness of 2 inches and have initial
volume change and thermal expansion characteristics that prevent
objectionable cracking and loss of bond to the deck. Lightweight
concrete shall develop a minimum compressive strength at 28
days of 125 p.s.i. based on 6" x 12" cylinder strength, except
when acting as a dia phragm it shall conform with the
requirements set forth in the Chapter on Reinforced Concrete
(Chapter 22).

(b) (i) Decks and wall panels, where properly supported by and
attached to the building frame, may be considered to act as
a diaphragm in resisting lateral forces, where designed as
such by an engineer recognised by the Minister.

(ii) Unfilled decks and panels shall not be designed to act as

diaphragms except as redundant systems. Decks and panels
having an approved fill material may be designed as dia
phragms in accordance with Diaphragm Design Manual of
the Steel Deck Institute provided other limitations in this
Code are complied with.

(c) Where large openings occur, the perimeter of the opening shall be
framed with adequate supports for the panels. Openings 12 inches
and smaller shall be reinforced as required so that the allowable
stresses in the adjoining materials are not exceeded.

23-9
 (d) Positive attachment shall be provided as set forth in Paragraph
2309.3 (a). Maximum spacing of fastenings along each
supporting member is to be based on gravity, uplift, stress
reversal, and dia phragm requirements, but not to exceed 8 inches
nominal on cen tres at ends of sheets and 12 inches nominal on
centres at interme diate bearings. At perimeters, parallel to
direction of span, edges of sheets are to be so supported as to
provide for a maximum spac ing of fastenings of 12 inches on
centres. An adequate sidelock or other connection shall be made
to provide for the distribution of imposed loads. Where
continuous interlocking or lightweight con crete fill is not
provided, side edges shall be fastened together at intervals not
exceeding 12 inches where diaphragm action is re quired or 18
inches otherwise. Roof and floor panels having a con crete or
lightweight concrete fill mechanically connected to the structure
may utilize the properly designed fill in diaphragm ac tion, where
designed as such by an engineer recognized by the Minister.

(e) Bolts, rivets or other suitable, and approved fasteners at supports

shall be not less than three-sixteenths inch in diameter, under the
head.

(f) Structural sheet sections spanning between supports shall be de

signed to support the live and/ or wind loads without exceeding
the deflections set forth in the Chapter on Live and Dead Loads
(Chapter 20).

(g) The bending stress of metal siding and roof panels shall be de
signed utilizing a safety factor of not less than 2.5.

(h) Minimum roof decking uplift loads shall comply with UL 580 Class
90.

(i) Metal building siding and roof decking shall be designed without
an allowable increase in stresses of 1/3 due to wind load.

2309.5 ROOFING AND SIDING: Sheet-metal sections not suitable by rational

analysis for self-supporting structural sheets, as set forth in Sub-section
2309.4, shall be termed roofing and siding. Roofing and siding shall be
used only over solid wood sheathing and shall be as follows:

(a) The minimum thickness of sheet-metal roofing and siding shall be

.0120 inches.

(b) Attachment shall be as set forth in Paragraph 2309.4 (d) but not
less than 12 inches on centres each way; except that attachment

23-10
 may be by 8d nails, penetrating not less than three-fourths inch
into wood sheathing or by No. 6 screws.

2309.6 PROTECTION OF METAL: All members shall be treated with

protective paint coatings or equivalent protection except as follows:

(a) Where exposed to high humidity atmospheres, industrial fumes

fresh or salt water spray (including where located within 100
yards of the High Water Mark) or other corrosive agents or where
less than .0299 inches thick steel is used, the sheets shall be
protected by being galvanized or be of an approved alloy or be
otherwise coated to provide equal durability and protection.

(b) Abrasions to the protective coating shall be spot treated with a

material and in a manner compatible to the shop protective coat
ing.

2309.7 WELDING: Welding shall conform to the requirements of Sub-section

2305.2.

23-11
CHAPTER24
WOOD

2401 DESIGN
2402 STANDARDS
2403 DEFINITIONS
2404 QUALITY AND SIZES
2405 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES AND LOAD TABLES
2406 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
2407 HEAVY TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
2408 PROTECTION OF WOOD
2409 FIRE-RETARDANT TREATED WOOD
2410 MINISTRY OF WORKS LOW COST HOUSING PLANS

2401 DESIGN

Wood members used for structural purposes shall be designed by methods admitting of
rational analysis according to established principles of mechanics, and in accordance
with the Standards adopted by this Code and set forth in Appendix A.

2402 STANDARDS

The Standards listed in Appendix A are hereby adopted as a part of this Code and
supple ment, but do not supersede, the specific requirements as set forth herein.

2403 DEFINITIONS

The following words and terms shall for the purpose of this Code, have the meanings set
forth in this section:

GLUED-LAMINATED LUMBER, lumber composed of an assembly of wood lami

nations bonded with adhesives in which the laminations are too thick to be classed
as veneers. See definition of Structural Glued-laminated Lumber.

GLUED BUILT-UP MEMBERS, structural members, the sections of which are com
posed of built-up sawn lumber alone, plywood alone, or plywood in combination
with sawn or glued-laminated lumber; all parts bonded together with adhesives.

GRADE (Lumber), the classification of lumber in regard to strength and utility in

accordance with the Standards in Appendix A.

24-1
 GRADE-STRESS (Lumber), a lumber grade defined in such terms that a definite
working stress may be assigned to it as set forth in the Standards in Appendix A.

NOMINAL SIZE (Lumber), the commercial size designation of width, and depth,
in standard sawn lumber and glued-laminated lumber grades; somewhat larger
than the standard net size of dressed lumber, in accordance with the Standards in
Appendix A.

PLYWOOD-CONSTRUCTION AND INDUSTRIAL SOFTWOOD is a built-up

panel of laminated veneers conforming to the Standards given in Appendix A.

STRUCTURAL GLUED-LAMINATED LUMBER, any member comprising an as

sembly of laminations of lumber in which the grain of all laminations is approxi
mately parallel longitudinally; in which the laminations are bonded with adhe
sives; and which is fabricated in accordance with the Standards given in Appendix
A.

STRUCTURAL-USE PANEL:Is a panel product composed primarily of wood which,

in its commodity end use, is essentially dependent upon certain mechanical and or
physical properties for successful end-use performance in accordance with the
Standards in Appendix A.

2404 QUALITY AND SIZES

2404.1 QUALITY:
(a) All lumber used for joists, rafters, stringers and/or beams shall be
of a grade not less than 1200 psi extreme fiber stress in bending
and tension parallel to the grain.

(b) All lumber permanently incorporated into a building or structure

shall be air-dried or kiln-dried and shall contain not more than 19
percent moisture at the time of its use and/ or at the time of treat
ment with a wood preservative.

(c) The species and grade of all wood used for load-bearing purposes,
the design of which is based on stresses in excess of 1200 p.s.i. lum
ber, shall be shown on the plans submitted with applications for
building permits.

(d) All lumber used as structural members or sheathing shall be pres

sure treated against attack by termites and dampness.

2404.2 SIZES:
(a) Wood members shall be of sufficient size to carry the dead and
required live loads without exceeding the allowable deflections or
working stresses specified in this Code.

24-2
 (b) Sizes of wood members referred to by this Code are nominal
sizes. Nominal sizes may be shown on the plans. The minimum
accept able net sizes conforming to nominal sizes shall be within
2% of the minimum net sizes contained in the Standard specified
in Ap pendix A at 19% moisture content. Computations to
determine the required sizes of members shall be based on the net
sizes contained in the standard.

2404.3 IDENTIFICATION: All lumber and lumber products used structurally

shall be identified as follows: -

(a) Lumber, including end jointed lumber shall be identified by grade

mark and/ or a certificate of inspection, by an approved lumber
grading or inspection agency in accordance with the Standards in
Appendix A.

(b) All plywood used structurally, including siding, diaphragms,

built up members and all roof, wall and floor sheathing, shall be
identi fied for grade and glue types by an approved testing and
grading agency in accordance with the Standards in Appendix A.

(c) Fire rated wood shingles and/ or shakes shall be clearly identified
by bundle or certificate in accordance with the Standards in Ap
pendix A.

(d) All structural-use panels shall be identified for end use grade and
exposure durability classificationby the trade mark of an
approved testing and grading agency in accordance with the
Standards in Appendix A.

2404.4 PLYWOOD: Plywood permanently exposed in outdoor locations shall be

of exterior type and where used structurally for wall, floor or roof clad
ding (including that exposed to the outdoors on the underside only) or
for diaphragms shall be of a type made with exterior type glue.

2404.5 STRUCTURAL-USE PANELS: Structural-use panels, when

permanently exposed in outdoor locations shall be classified Exterior,
except that roof sheathing of Exposure I durability classifications may be
exposed to the outdoors on the underside.

24-3
2405 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES AND LOAD TABLES

2405.1 GENERAL:
(a) Wood joists and rafters may be of the sizes set forth in the follow
ing table without additional professional design or shall be de
signed based on the allowable unit stresses set forth in the Stand
ards in Appendix A. Where the design is based on allowable
work ing stresses higher than the lowest stress-grade for the
species, the design shall be supported by computations submitted
by an engi neer recognised by the Minister.

TABLE24-A
ALLOWABLE SPANS - FLOOR JOISTS, ROOF AND
CEILING JOISTS
(Based on 1200 psi fibre stress and L/360 deflection)

Maximum Allowable Span for Uniform Loading

$ize Spacing 67psf 57 psf 47psf 22 psf

37psf
inches) (inches) ,.
IZ x6 12 8'-9" 9'-5" 10'-4" 11'-8" 15'-1"
16 7'-6" 8'-1" 9,_9,, 10'-1" 13'-2"
24 6'-0" 6'-8" 7''-4"' 8'4" 10'-9"
Zx8 12 11'-6" 12'-5" 13'-8" 15'-4" 20'-0"
16 10'-0" 10'-9" 11'-10" 13'-4" 17'-4"
24 8'-1" 8'-9'' 9'-7" 1-'-11" 14"-1"

l X 10 12 14'-7" 15'-10" 17'-5" 19'-7" 25"-6"

16 12'-8" 13'-9" 15'-1" 17'-0" 22'-0"
24 10'-3" 11'-2" 12'-4" 13'-11" 18'-0"

l X 12 12 17'-9" 19'-2" 21'-2" 23'-10" --

16 9'-8" 16'-7'' 18'-4" 20'-'7" 26'-10"
24 12'-6'' 13'-7'' 15'-0" 16'-1'' 21'-10"

3x6 12 11'-2" 12'-2" 13'-3" 14'-0" 19'-1"

16 15'-4" 10'-6" 11'-6" 12'-9" 16'10"
24 8'-0" 8'-7" 9'-S"' 10'-8" 13'-9"
t3x8 12 14'-9" 16'-0" 17'-6" 18'-5" 25'10"
16 12'-9" 13'-10" 15'-2" 16'-9" 22'-3"
24 10'-6" 11'-3" 12'-5" 14'-0" 18'-2"
tJ X 10 12 18'10" 20'-4' 22'-6" 23'6" -
16 16'-4" 17'-8" 19'-6" 21'-4" -
3 X 12
24

12
13'-3"

23'-0"
14'-5"

24'-10"
15'-11"

27'-0"
-
18'-0"-
-23'-2"
16 19'-10" 21'-6" 23'-8" 26'-0" -
24 16'-3" 17'-6" 19'-3" 21'-9" --
4x6 12 13'-2' 14'-2.,, 15'-8" 15'-8" 22'-2"
16 11'-6" 12'-5" 13'-9" 14'-3" 20'-0"

4x8
24
12
9'-5'"

17'-4"
10'-1"

18'-9"
1'-2"

20'-7"
12'-5"
20'7"
-
16'-4"

16 15-1" 16'-5" 18-0" 18'-8" 26"5"

24 12'-5" 13'-4" 14'-9" 16'-4" 21'7"
4 X 10 12
16
22'-2"
19'-4"
24'-0"
20'-11"
26'-3"
23'-0"
26'-3"
24'-0" --
4 X 12
24
12
15'-9"
27'-0"
-
17'-0" 18'-10"
-
20'-10"
- -
16 23'-6" 25'5" - - -
24 19'-2" 20'-9" 13'-0" 25,_5,, -

Loadings given in the table in pounds per square foot co"espond to

these combinations of design, or working loadings:

24-4
 Loadings given in the table in pounds per
square foot correspond to these combinations
of design or working loadings:
67 psf: Floor joists with plaster below-SO psf live load and 17 psf dead
load.
57 psf: Floor joists with plaster below---40 psf live load and 17 psf dead
load, or roof rafters with a slope greater than 2-1 / 2 to 12 - 30 psf live
load and 27 psf dead load.
47 psf: Floor joists without plaster below---40 psf live load and 7 psf
dead load, or roof joists with plaster below-30 psf live load and 17 psf
dead load.
37 psf: Ceiling joists over living rooms and usable attic space-25 psf live
load and 12 psf dead load, or Roof joists without plaster under-30 psf
live load and 7 psf dead load.
22 psf: Ceiling joists without usable attic space-10 psf live load, and
12 psf dead load.

(a) The deflection of wood members shall not exceed that set forth in
the Chapter on Live and Dead Loads.

(b) The span of roof rafters shall be measured horizontally from bearing
to bearing, and the horizontal distance from plate to ridge or other
support shall be the span.

(c) Where there is an accessible space having a clear vertical height

of 30 inches or more, ceiling joists shall be designed as having
usable attic space.

2405.2 PLYWOOD STRESSES:

(a) Plywood lumber structural assemblies shall not exceed the work
ing stresses set forth in the Standards in Appendix A.

(b) Working stresses of plywood other than those in the Standards

shall be determined according to the species.

(c) All plywood permanently exposed in outdoor locations shall be

of exterior type, and where used for roof or exterior wall
sheathing shall meet the standards for exterior type plywood in
Appendix A unless otherwise approved by the BCO.

(d) Walls or roof sheathed with plywood may be considered as dia

phragms to distribute horizontal forces subject to the approval of
the BCO, based on structural analysis and/ or tests; and where so
used plywood shall be bonded with an exterior adhesive meeting
standards for exterior type.

24-5
 (e) All plywood used structurally shall bear the identification of the
manufacturer as to type and grade, species of veneer used and
con formance with the appropriate commercial standard.

2405.3 GLUED-LAMINATED:
(a) Glued-laminated members shall comply with the Standards set
forth in Appendix A. Where deemed necessary by the Buildings
Control Officer, the use of trussed rafters or the equivalent may
be requested.

(b) The BCO may require tests to determine the strength,

permanence, effect of moisture and insect resistance of adhesives;
and only ap proved adhesives may be used.

(c) The BCO may limit or otherwise regulate the use of glued lami
nated members.

2405.4 PREFABRICATED ROOF TRUSSES:

Prefabricated Roof Truss - means an assembly of rafter joists and bracing
members forming a single structural unit, made in a plant or factory for
erection elsewhere.
(1) DESIGN:
(a) Prefabricated wood trusses shall be designed and
fabricated in accordance with the specifications set forth in
Appendix A.

(b) Where Prefabricated wood roof trusses are used the roof
framing plans which constitute part of the permit documents
shall be provided and shall be signed by the truss manuf ac
turer's Engineers who shall be an Engineer recognised by the
Minister. Such roof framing plans shall be reviewed and
approved by the Architect or Engineer of Record.

(c) Trusses shall be designed for uniformly distributed live,

dead and concentrated loads, and such loads shall be
indicated on the truss design drawings. Where a girder or
truss is sub jected to concentrated loads or any unusual
loading condi tion, or where truss members have been cut
or shifted to meet construction needs, drawings and
additional calculations signed by the Manufacturers'
Engineer, who shall be recog nized by the minister, shall be
submitted to the BCD for prior approval.

(d) Standard roof trusses shall be designed for a minimum live

load of30psf, a minimum dead load of15 psf on the top
chord, and a minimum dead load of 10 psf on the bottom
chord; or
24-6
 a minimum total load of 55 psf, with no allowable stress
increase for dead or live loads. Where the roof design is
such that water is not directed to the interior of the roof and
there are no parapets or other roof edge drainage
obstructions, roof trusses with slopes of 1-1/2:12 or greater
may be designed for a live load of 20 psf and a minimum
total load of 45 psf with a 10% allowable stress increase for
dead and live loads, and this design method shall be
considered and equivalent to designs using a 55 psf total
load with a 33 1/2% stress increase for dead and live loads.

(e) The allowable deflection under live load for trusses shall
not exceed span/360 for plastered ceilings span/240 for
unplastered.

(f) Truss design drawings shall indicate that provisions have

been made for support and bearing of the roof structural
sys tem, for the permanent cross/lateral bracing, for
bracing to transfer member buckling forces to the structure,
and for all bracing and anchor required to resist uplift and
lateral forces. Truss drawings shall be signed by an
Engineer recognised by the Minister.

(g) Flat roof trusses shall be designed for not less than the
loads set forth in Subparagraph 2405.4(1)(d)above,except
that the dead load on the top chord may be taken as 10 psf
in lieu of 15 psf, and the total load reduced to 50 psf. No
stress in crease for wind, live, or dead loading shall be
permitted for flat trusses.

(h) Gable end trusses shall be designed for a minimum live load
of 30 psf and a minimum dead load of 15 psf on the top chord.
The minimum load of 10 psf on the bottom chord may be
omitted where continuous support is provided.

In addition, the gable end trusses shall be designed to sus

tain a horizontal wind spare load of not less than 30 psf
perpendicular to the plane of the truss. Such trusses shall be
anchored to the sub-structure at intervals of not more than
6'- O".

(i) When girders exceed 2 members and when girder reactions

exceed the capacity of standard connectors or hangers,
these reactions shall be shown on the drawings and the
connec tion must be designed and signed by an Engineer
recognised by the Minister.

24-7
(2) MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS:
(a) Trusses shall be fabricated of Southern Yellow Pine, Doug
las Fir, Hem-Fir or Fir-Larch, applying the stress ratings
listed in the Standards set forth in forth in Appendix A.

EXEMPTION: The physical characteristics of Select Struc

tural or Dense Select Structural Southern Pine set forth in
the Standards shall not be used to determine the maximum
span of any truss unless the material is actually used in its
manufacture.

(b) Top and bottom chords shall have a minimum rating of

1000 psi (fb) before any allowable stress increase shall be
permit ted. Web members shall be of No.3 Grade Southern
Yellow Pine or better.

(c) For trusses spanning 20'-0" or less, the minimum

percentage of grade-marked members among top and
bottom chords shall be 50%.

(d) For trusses spanning more than 20'-0" the minimum

percent age of grade-marked members among top and
bottom chords shall be 70%, and there shall be a minimum
of1 marked web on each truss.

(e) All lumber shall be 2" x4" nominal or larger, and no 2"
nomi nal member shall be less in size than 11/2 ".

(f) The moisture content of all lumber used in wood truss fabri
cation shall not exceed 19%.

(g) Approved connector plates shall be not less than 20 gauge

galvanized steel meeting ASTM A446, and shall be identi
fied by the manufacturers stamp. The size and location of
all plates shall be shown on the truss design drawings.

(h) All connector plates shall bear the name, logo or other
mark ings which clearly identify the manufacturer. Semi-
annu ally, Plate manufacturers shall certify compliance with
the provisions of Section 202 of the TPI Design
Specification for Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses; with
respect to the grade of steel, thickness or gauge of material,
and galvaniz ing to ASTM G-60 as a minimum. This
certification require ment may be satisfied by submitting
certified mill reports or independent laboratory reports to
the Buildings Control Of ficer.

24-8
 (3) FABRICATION:
(a) Manufacturers and fabricators of prefabricated wood truss
assemblies shall obtain valid approval in accordance with
Section 317 of this Code.

(b) Each truss shall bear the fabricators stamp on a web mem
ber and 75% shall be placed so as to be clearly visible after
erection.

(c) Multiple member girder trusses shall be pre-drilled at the

truss plant for connection bolts only. Hanger bolt holes
shall be drilled on-site.

(4) TRUSS ERECTION:

(a) All trusses shall be erected in accordance with Truss
Plate Institute Manual Commentary and
Recommendations for Handling & Bracing Metal Plate
Connected Wood Trusses, HIB, in addition to any
requirements indicated on the ap proved permit
document.

(b) For trusses having an overall length of the bottom chord in

excess of 40'-0 erection shall be supervised by an Engineer
11

recognised by the Minister retained by the contractor.

(c) Furring of a ceiling in contract with supporting joists shall

be not less than 1 x 3 for spans to 24 inches, 2 x 2 for
11 11 11 11

spans to 36 inches, and for longer spans shall be designed

as joists.

2406 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

2406.1 COLUMNS OR POSTS:

(a) All wood columns and posts shall be framed to true-end bearings
and shall be securely anchored against lateral or vertical forces.

(b) All wood columns and posts shall have the bottom protected from
deterioration.

(c) Splicing of columns shall be done only in regions where lateral

support is adequately provided about both axes.

(d) No notching or cutting shall reduce the design dimensions of the

column.

2406.2 STUDS:
(a) SIZE: Studs shall be not less than 2"X 4" and, where supporting
24-9
 more than one floor and a roof, shall be not less than 2"x 6" or
3"x 4".

(b) HEIGHT: Maximum allowable height of 2"x4" and 3"x4"stud fram

ing shall be 14 feet, and of 2"x 6" stud framing shall be 20 feet,
unless the wall is otherwise laterally supported. Solid wood bridg
ing shall be placed at intervals of not over eight feet.

(c) SPACING: Studs shall be spaced not more than 16 inches on cen tres
when supporting floors. Vertical studs not more than 10 feet in
length may be spaced 24 inches on centres when supporting
roof and ceiling loads only.

(d) PLACED:Studs in exterior and bearing walls shall be placing

with the longest dimension perpendicular to the wall. Studbearing
walls shall, so far as is practicable, be carried directly to the
foundation or sills or beams at grade.

(e) PLATES: The top plate of stud-bearing walls shall be doubled

and lapped at each intersection with walls and partitions. Joints in
the upper and lower members of the top plate shall be lapped not
less than 4 feet. Double plates shall be used around entire exterior
walls.

(f) BASE PLATES: Stud walls resting on masonry shall have base
plates or sills of wood treated with an approved preservative.

Sills of interior bearing walls, resting on masonry foundation

walls where wood floor joists are to be used, and sills of exterior
stud walls shall be of not less than 3"X 6" dimension, bolted to
the ma sonry at the corners and at intervals of not more than 4
feet with 5 / 8-inch bolts embedded 7 inches into the masonry or,
in lieu thereof, a 2"X 4" base plate, and each such stud anchored
past the base plate to the masonry with a 1 / 8"x 1" steel strap or
equivalent.

Base plates of interior stud bearing walls resting on concrete slab

floors shall be effectively fastened thereto, and such plates shall
not be embedded in the concrete.

(g) CORNERS AND BRACING: Corners of stud walls or partitions

shall be framed solid by not less than three studs. Exterior stud
walls shall be effectively wind-braced with diagonal sheathing or
plywood.

(h) SPLICING: Bearing studs shall be spliced only at points where lat
eral support is provided.
24-10
 (i) NOTCHING: No notching or cutting whatsoever shall be permit
ted in studs which carry loads in excess of 75 percent of their ca
pacity.

Studs which carry 75 percent or less of their capacity or studs of

non-bearing partitions may be notched to a depth of 1 / 3 the
depth of the stud without limit of the number of consecutive
studs.

(j) PIPES IN WALLS: Stud partitions containing plumbing or other

pipes shall be so framed and the joists underneath so spaced as to
give proper clearance for the piping. Where a partition containing
such piping runs parallel to the floor joists, the joists shall be dou
bled and spaced to permit the passage of such pipes and shall be
bridged. Where plumbing or other pipes are placed in or partly in
a partition, necessitating the cutting of the plates, a metal tie not
less than 1 / 8 inch thick and 1-1/ 2 inches wide shall be fastened
to each side of the plate across the opening with 416d nails at
each end of each strap.

(k) HEADERS: All openings in bearing walls 4 feet or less in width

shall be provided with headers equivalent to double headers of
not less than 2-inch nominal thickness, placed on edge, securely
fastened together, and all openings more than 4 feet wide shall be
trussed or provided with headers or lintels.Such headers or trusses
shall have not less than 2-inch nominal solid bearing at each end
to the floor or bottom plate, unless other approved framing
methods or joint devices are used.

(1) STUDS JOINING MASONRY: Where stud walls or partitions

join masonry walls, such studs shall be secured against lateral
move ment by nailing or bolting to the masonry.

(m) INTERIOR PARTITIONS: Interior partitions shall be constructed,

framed and firestopped as specified for interior bearing walls, ex
cept that partitions may have a single top plate. In any occupancy,
interior partitions not more than 4 feet from a bearing wall and
not exceeding 9 feet in height may be of studs spaced 24 inches
on centres and placed flat in the wall.

2406.3 FIRESTOPS: Firestopping shall be provided to cut off all concealed draft
spaces both vertical and horizontal. Firestops shall form effective fire
bar riers between storeys and between a storey and roof space. Firestops
shall be provided in specific locations, as follows:

(a) In exterior or interior stud walls, at ceilings and floor levels.

24-11
 (b) In all stud walls and partitions, so placed that the maximum di
mensions of any concealed space is not over 8 feet.

(c) Between stair stringers at intervals not exceeding 7 feet of

vertical height and at top and bottom.

(d) Around sliding door pockets.

(e) Other locations not specifically mentioned such as holes for

pipes, shafting, behind furring strips and similar places which
could af ford a passage for flames.

(f) Firestops, when of wood, shall be of 2 inch nominal thickness in

direction of protection.

(g) Horizontal firestops of attic and ceiling plenums shall be provided

as specified in the Sub-sections under "Attic Spaces" given in the
Chapters under Types of Construction.

2406.4 JOISTS AND RAFTERS:

(a) SIZE: The minimum size of joists and rafters shall be as specified
in Section 2404 of this Chapter and shall be not less than 2"x 6"
nominal size, except that the BCO may approve 2"x 4" nominal
size rafters for spans and loadings not exceeding those given in
Section 2405 of this Chapter.

(b) SPACING: Maximum spacing of joists and rafters, where a

plaster ceiling is directly supported on the bottom of such
members, shall be 16 inches on centres.

(c) BEARING: Joists and rafters shall bear on wood plates and shall
not be directly in contact with masomy; except that joists and
raft ers, when more than 6 feet above grade and bearing on
concrete beams cast in masonry walls which extend above the
wood joists and rafters, may bear on such concrete beams
provided the ends shall be fire-cut and anchored as specified in
Paragraph (d) below.

Joists and rafters shall have not less than 4 inches of bearing, ex
cept as follows:

(1) Ceiling joists may butt into the web of a steel beam and be
neatly fitted to bear on not less than 3 inch wide bottom flange
of such beam.

(2) Joists and rafters bearing on top of a concrete tie beam

where no parapet is to be erected, shall bear on a wood,
24-12
wall plate

24-13
 secured to the concrete with anchor bolts or metal straps as
set forth below except as noted in (iii).

Where anchorage for the roof members is provided by:

(i) approved metal fasteners nailed to both the wall plate

and each rafter or joist; the wood plate shall not be less
than3"x 6".

(ii) 1 / 8"x 1" metal anchors embedded in the concrete tie

beam and secured directly to each rafter, or joist; the
wood plate should not be less than a 2"x 4".

(iii) channel-shaped metal saddles fastened directly to the

tie beam by a 1" x 1/8" metal anchors embedded in the
concrete, the wall plate may be omitted, provided each
joist, or rafter, in contact with the masonry is of an ap
proved durable species or pressure treated with an ap
proved preservative.

Any other form of anchor shall be submitted to the

Buildings Control Officer, for approval, prior to use.

(3) Floor joists may butt into a header beam if effectively

toenailed and if an approved saddle providing not less
than 3 inches of bearing transmits the vertical load to the
top of the header.

(d) ANCHORAGE:
(1) Joists fire-cut into a masonry wall shall be anchored to the
concrete beam on which they bear. Such anchors shall be
spaced not more than 4 feet apart and shall be placed at op
posite ends across the building on the same run of joists.

(2) All joists shall be nailed to the bearing plates, to each other
where they lap, and to the studs where such studs are adja
cent; and ceiling joists shall be nailed to roof rafters, if
practi cable.

(3) Every roof rafter and/ or roof joist shall be anchored to the
beam or studs on which they bear, and roof rafters
opposing at a ridge shall be anchored across the ridge.

(4) Anchors securing wood to concrete shall be of not less than

1 / 8" x 1" strap iron embedded in the concrete and nailed
to the stud or joist or rafter with not less than 3-16d
galvanized
24-14
 nails or shall be a commercial anchor approved by the
BCO, anchoring each member to a plate provided such
plate is not less than 3"x 4" and anchored to the concrete by
bolts spaced not more than 48 inches apart.

(5) Anchors securing wood to wood shall be of 1/8"x 1" strap,

nailed to each member with 3-16d galvanized nails, or shall
be a commercial anchor approved by the BCO, anchoring
each member.

(6) Any anchoring systems shall be continuous from the foun

dation to the roof and shall satisfy the uplift requirements
of the Chapter on Live and Dead Loads (Chapter 20).

(e) ANCHOR BOLTS:

(1) Where a wall plate is required to secure rafters, or joists to a
concrete tie beam, the plate shall be attached to the tie beam
with 5 / 8" diameter bolts set not more than 4'- 0" on
centres. Each bolt shall be of galvanised steel, at least 10" in
length and be provided with a nut and a 1 / 8" thick washer
of no less than 1-1/ 4" external diameter.

Hooked, 1/2" diameter galvanised anchor bolts 10" long ex

cluding the hook, may be substituted for the above,
provided they are set not more than 2'-0" on centres.

The projection of anchor bolts above the top of the tie beam
shall be such that the wall plates referred to in sub-section
(c) (2) of this section are securely bolted down without
reduction in thickness of the plate.

(2) METAL STRAPS: Where 1"x 1 / 8" metal straps are used
to secure rafters or joists to a wall plate, or to a metal
saddle, care shall be taken with their placement, bent over
or mis aligned straps shall not be considered acceptable.

(3) OTHER ANCHOR SYSTEMS: Any other anchor system shall

be submitted to the Building Control Officer for approval
prior to use on site.

(f) SPLICING: No horizontal members shall be spliced between points

of support; except that the BCO, in special cases, may approve prop
erly designed and bolted splices.

(g) FLOOR JOISTS: Floor joists under all walls parallel to any joists
shall be doubled. Such doubled joists may be separated not more

24-15
 than 6 inches by solid blocking spaced at 4-foot intervals.

(h) CEILING JOISTS:

(1) In buildings without parapet walls, the ceiling joists, where
practicable, shall be nailed to the rafters to act as a collar tie.

(2) Ceiling joists shall not be used to support rafter loads.

(i) ROOF JOISTS: Roof joists may cantilever over exterior walls as lim
ited by the allowable stress, but the length of such cantilever shall
not exceed the length of that portion of such joist inside the build
ing.

(j) ROOF RAFTERS:

(1) Hip rafters, valley rafters and ridges shall be required and
shall be not less in size than the largest rafter framing thereto
nor less not that required to support the loads.

(2) Collar ties shall be provided at each pair of rafters, unless other
means of resisting the thrust of the rafters is required and
provided and/ or the ridge is designed as a supporting
pbeam. Such collar ties shall be placed horizontally at or
below the upper-third point of the rafters, and shall be not
less than l"x 6" rough or 2"x 4" nominal size. Effectively
nailed ceiling joists may serve as collar ties.

(k) BRIDGING: Bridging of floor and roof joists shall be provided as

set forth in the Standards in Appendix A.

(1) MANUFACTURED ROOF TRUSSES:Shall be spaced, anchored and

provided with bearing, as set forth in subsections (b), (c), (d) and
(e) above.

2406.5 SUSPENDED OR FURRED CEILINGS:

(a) Joists or furring supporting a plaster ceiling shall be spaced not
more than 16 inches on centres.

(b) Joists of a suspended ceiling shall be not less than 2"x 4"
members, and wood hangers shall provide nailing and be not less
than the equivalent of 1"x 4" members.

(c) Furring of a ceiling in contact with supporting joists shall be

not less than 1"x 3" for spans to 24 inches, 2"x 2" for spans to 36
inches, and for longer spans shall be designed as joists.

24-16
2406.6 SHEATHING:
(1) FLOOR SHEATHING:
(a) Floor sheathing, where a part of a required fire-resistive
as sembly, shall comply with Chapter 32 of this Code.

(b) The finish floor shall be tongue-and-grooved not less than

nominal 1 lumber laid perpendicular to the joists with end
11

joints on the joists, or a sub-floor shall be provided as set

forth in Paragraphs (c)(d) (e)(g) and (i), tables B through D
below.

(c) Square-edged or spaced sub-flooring may be used under only

a finish floor having a strength equal to or greater than 1/2
11

tongue-and groove wood strip flooring; and under finish

floors of less strength, a tongue-and-groove or plywood sub
floor shall be required.

(d) (i) Lumber sub-flooring shall be laid diagonally, shall not

be less than 5/8 thick when joists are spaced no more
11

than 16 o/c nor less than 3/4 thick when joists shall
11 11

be staggered and parallel to the joists, and ends at

walls and similar places shall be supported by a
ribbon or by blocking.

(ii) Plywood sub-floors of C-D grade Underlayment grade

bonded to wood joist using adhesives meeting the re
quirements of AFG-01 shall be applied using nails
spaced 12 o/c. The maximum clear spans for
11

plywood/ lumber glued floor system shall comply with

those pub lished in the APA Design/Construction
Guide - Resi dential and Commercial.

(e) Plywood sub-flooring shall be continuous over 2 or more

spans with face grain perpendicular to the supports. The
allowable spans shall not exceed those set forth in Table
24- B hereinbelow.

(i) Plywood panels shall be nailed to supports with 6d

common nails when up to 1/2 thick, 8d common nails
11

when 19/32 to 3/4 thick, and 10d common nails or

11 11

8d ring shank nails when 1-1/8 thick.

11

(ii) Nail spacing shall be 6 o/c at panel edges and 10 o/c

11 11

at intermediate supports.

24-17
 TABLE 24-B
ALLOWABLE SPANS FOR SUB-FLOOR [1]
Pane] Maxim:Urm
ldlentific tfon"nd.ex[2] Plywoo.d pan :
[l]
36/M

42/20 20" [ ]

/21

[1] These values shall apply to Structural I and II C-O

Sheathing and C/ C grades only. Spans shall be
limited to values shown, based on possible effect of
concen trated loads.

[2] Identification Index appears on all panels in the con

struction grade listed in Footnote [1].

[3] Plywood edges shall have approved tongued-and

grooved joints or shall be supported with blocking un
less 1 / 4 inch minimum thickness underlay is installed
or unless the finished floor is one-inch nominal wood
strip.

Allowance uniform load based on deflection of 1 / 360

of span is 100 lbs. sq. ft.

[4] May be 24 inches if a nominal one inch wood strip fin

ished floor is laid at right angles to joists.

(f) Flooring shall be nailed with Bd common nails not less than
2 each board at each support.

(g) Floors for heavy timber buildings shall be sheathed as

specified for mill floors, Subsection 2407.2(/) hereinabove.

(h) Flooring shall not extend closer than 1/2" from masonry
walls.

(i) If resilient flooring is to be applied directly to a plywood

subfloor without separate underlayment, the plywood
shall have a top ply of C-plugged grade or better, and the
ply immediately under the face shall be as least C grade
unless the face ply is 1/6" or more in nominal thickness.
Plywood shall be continuous over 2 or more spans with

24-18
face grain

24-19
 perpendicular to supports. Maximum thickness and
maximum joist spacing shall comply with table 24-C below:

TABLE24-C

STRUCTURAL-USE PANEL FLOOR AND ROOF SHEATHING fl]

'Panel Panel Roof-Maximum Live Loads (psf) (2) Ploor [3]

"span Thick- 'Waximum
adng ness ';:pan (in)
Edges Edges Allowable Live Loads (psi)
(in) '15]
Support Unsupp r:11
ed[4] orted Spacing of supports (in.oc)

12 16 24 32 42 48

lz4/0 112 24 24 90 65 30 - - - 0
4/16
8124
112
314,7/8
24
48
24
36
13510040 - - - 16
24
210155100 65 50 35

[1] Spans shall be limited to values shown because of pos

sible effect of concentrated loads.

[2] 10 psf dead load assumed.

[3] All panels support 85 psf floor live load plus 10 psf dead
load at rated maximum span.

[4] Edges may be supported with lumber blocking or other

approved types of edge support.

[SJ Edges shall have approved tongued-and-grooved joints

or shall be supported by blocking unless 1/4" minimum
thickness underlayment or finished floor is 25/32" wood
strip.

(j) Underlayment Hardboard shall meet the property require

ments for 7/32" and 1/4" service hardboard and shall be
0.215"
+/- 0.005" thickness; when supported in sub-flooring.
Such sub-flooring shall comply with the requirements of
Para
graphs (3)and (4)or (S)above.

(k) Particleboard floor underlayment shall conform to Type 1-

B-1 of the Standard listed in Appendix A of this Code.
Underlayment shall be not less than 1/4" in thickness and
shall be installed in accordance with the installation
24-20
instruc tions of the National Particleboard Association.

24-21
(2) ROOF SHEATHING:
(1) Wood roof sheathing shall be boards, plywood or structural
use panels, except as may be otherwise approved by the
Buildings Control Officer.

(2) Tongued-and-grooved roof sheathing shall have a thickness

of not less than 3/4 inch when the span is not more than 28
in or 5/8 inch when the span is not more 24 inches. The
sheath ing shall have staggered joints and shall be nailed
with 8d common nails not less than two in each 6-inch
board or 3 in each 8-inch board at each support.

(3) Plywood roof sheathing shall be 19/32" inch minimum

thick ness and shall be continuous over two or more spans
with the face grain perpendicular to the supports. The
allowable spans shall not exceed the following:

TABLE24-D
ALLOWABLE SPANS FOR PLYWOOD ROOF SHEATHING [1]

Panel Identification Maximum Span if Maximum Span

Index Block or Other Edge without Edge Support
Supports
24/0 (9/16 or 5/8 only) 24" 24"
32116 32" 28"
36/16 36" 30"
48/24 48" 36"

[1] Values apply to Structural I and II C-D Interior and C

C Exterior grades.

[2] Identification Index appears on all panels listed in

Footnote [1]

(4) Plywood panels shall be nailed to supports with 6d

common nails, for 1 / 2 inch thickness and with 8d common
nails for 5I 8 inch, 3 / 4 inch and 7/ 8 inch thickness.

(5) Nail spacing in all applications shall be 6 inches on centres

at panel edges and at intermediate supports. Nail spacing
shall be 4" on centres at gable ends in all cases.

(6) Roof sheathing for heavy timber construction shall comply

with Sub-section 2407 of this chapter.

(7) Structural-use panels shall be 1 / 2 inch minimum thickness

and continuous over two or more spans with the long panel
dimension perpendicular to the supports unless otherwise

24-22
 recommended by the panel manufacturer. Nailing shall be
in accordance with sub-sections (c) (i) and (c) (ii) above.
Pan els may be used for the spacing of supports with live
loads not to exceed those given in the table in subsection
2406.6 (a) (10).

(b) STORM SHEATHING:

(1) Exterior stud walls shall be wind-braced with storm sheath
ing.

(2) Such storm sheathing shall be tightly fitted diagonally

placed, tongued-and-grooved sheathing, not less than 3/4 inch
thickness without tolerance, nailed with three 8d common
nails for 6 inch wide boards, and four 8d common nails for
8 inch wide boards to each support; or shall be the
maximum practicable size plywood panel, nailed with 6d
common nails for 3/8 inch and 1/2 inch thicknesses and 8d
common nails for 5/8 inch thickness and all such nails shall
be 6 inches on centres at edges of panel and 12 inches on
centres to interior panel supports.

(3) An effective water barrier shall be provided under all wood

exterior cladding between the cladding and the
supporting studs, and all openings shall be flashed.

(4) Plywood wall sheathing shall be applied utilizing maximum

stud spacing, minimum panel thickness and acceptable
Iden tification Indexes as shown in the following table:

TABLE24-E
WALL SHEATHING

Panel Minimum Maximum Stud

Identification Thickness Spacing (inches)
Index (inch) Exterior Covering
Nailed to:
Stud Sheathing
16/0,20/0,24/0 3/8 24 16

24/0,32/16 1/2 24 24

When plywood sheathing is used, building paper and di

agonal wall bracing can be omitted.

24-23
 (d) EXTERIOR WALL CLADDING:

(1) Plywood may serve for both sheathing and exterior

cladding provided:

(i) The panel thickness shall be not less than 3/8 inch ex
cept for 303 speciality siding panels and Texture 1-11
panels and the supporting studs shall be spaced not
more than 16 inches on centres.

(ii) Plywood not less than 1 / 2 inch shall be used on stud

spacings of 24 inches centres.

(2) All joints shall be backed solidly with nailing pieces or

studs not less than two inches in width or joints shall be
lapped horizontally or otherwise watertight.

(3) Where face plies are vertical, bridging pieces spaced not far
ther apart than three feet eight inches vertically shall be pro
vided for support of plywood for first storey installation and
not farther apart than two feet four inches for second storey
installations.

(4) Where storm sheathing is provided in accordance with sub

section 2406.6 (c), exterior cladding may be as permitted in
Chapter 31.

2406.7 FURRING: Where the interior of masonry walls are furred, such furring
shall be treated and firestopped as herein required and shall be securely
fastened to the masonry with not less than one cut nail in alternate
courses of block.

2406.8 CONNECTORS:
(a) The allowable loads on all types of connectors shall be as set
forth in the Standards listed in Appendix A.

(b) G-ring shank nails should be used for all roof sheathing.

(c) Nails, bolts and other metal connectors which are used in loca
tions exposed to the weather shall be galvanised or otherwise cor
rosion resistant.

(d) In general, nails shall penetrate the second member a distance

equal to the thickness of the member being nailed thereto. There
shall be not less than two nails in any connection.

24-24
 TABLE 24-F
(b) NUMBER OF NAILS REQUIRED FOR CONNECTING
WOOD MEMBERS:
Co:nne tion Con:u on
N;ari1s,
Joist to Sii.M or Gi:rder, toe :mt.it 6d 2
Br-idgi.m: g to Joist., 1toe ail 2eacil nd

Sd
1"x 6"' · t11b loor to Joist•, ac:
ail 8d 2
0 @r 1" 6" sub-' or to each 3 1 or each iz.
jr0i tr Fi;lce N H 8d inc ;ease
2"' ·ub filo u· to joist or ·ir,dc-r,
blind and fac :n il 16d 2
so·ll ph1t _. 1- t or ·1tiloc:king
·are nail 16dl 6" o aeiJre
fop OE' : ._1- . • t o $hl.d, ,end
1a.a1 d 16d
8dor J

tud to .·le pfa t,o. tllai.l 16d 2.

Doubloo studs, .mc:e n:ail 16d 24" O:til. t::mtlre
O.,,ubled top plait!:! 1 fac: •nail 16d 16" oo. t::,fil\ttt
Top . plates., laps nd
int£rs Hons, fuc:e naH 1-d 2
Con.tinuo s header, ·tw·o 16"' o/c .along , • h
p' 1·d edge
Cellin.g jote:s.IO plat, 1 toe·nail 16d 2
C tiru;i.ou ,h d,. r to, stud
roe nail 16d 3
. e.iJ.in.g: jois s I .ps . v ·r l" pl ,nb
p.artiitiorus (ace nail 1 6d .3
Ctiiiing j,o.ists 'to paraU I
:raJte:rs fa1;e nail 16d 3
Raft r to pb:t toe n ,.I 16d 3,
I " x 6" shea hin:g, to. ieai h
hearlng, faoo nail d
O · ,f.!• 1 "x ,6" shea-ahing·, to each
be cing,. fa nail d
'Built•up comer stud r fa(
ail lN!l.
Bi.ril -·ttp gird • and b,ms 20d

24-25
1
J. 1 or ea(:!h i.w
jru:: :as.

JO 'on c-entr-E
J2• ,on c ntr at top and bot't·om ari.d stagger
.d, 2 a:t ends and at e.acih spli.
2 each b a.ring

24-26
 (e) Except for plywood and other laminated members manufactured
under technical control and rigid inspection, gluing shall not be
considered an acceptable connector in lieu of the connectors
herein specified.

(f) Safe loads and design practice for types of connectors not men
tioned or fully covered herein shall be determined by the BCO
be fore approval.

2406.9 WOOD SUPPORTING MASONRY: No wood shall support masonry or

concrete except as follows:

(a) Wood foundation piles may be used to support concrete or ma

sonry.

(b) Wood joists may be used to support concrete and cement base tile
or terrazzo floor surfaces for bathrooms of less than 100 square
feet in area, having slabs not more than two and one-half inches
in thickness.

(c) There shall be an approved moisture vapor barrier between the

concrete or other cementitious materials and the wood.

(d) Wood members supporting concrete shall be preservative treated

in compliance with the Standards of AWPA and AWPB set forth
in Appendix A and Section 2408 of this chapter.

(e) Plywood decking shall be of C-D grade with exterior glue.

(f) Wood rafters may support concrete roof tile.

2407 HEAVY TIMBER CONSTRUCTION

2407.1 GENERAL: Heavy timber construction is that type in which fire resist
ance is attained by placing limitations on the minimum size, thickness,
or composition of all load-carrying wood members; by avoiding
concealed spaces under floors or roofs; by using approved fastenings,
construction details, and adhesives; and by providing the required
degree of fire-re sistance in exterior and interior walls.

2407.2 HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING:

(a) COLUMNS: Wood columns may be sawn or glued-laminated
and shall be not less than 8-inch nominal in depth when
supporting roof loads or floor loads.

24-27
 Columns shall be continuous or directly superimposed, one above
the other with no girders or bolsters between columns,
through out all storeys by means of reinforced concrete or metal
caps with brackets, or shall be connected by properly designed steel
or iron caps, with pintles and base plates, or by timber splice plates
affixed to the column by means of metal connectors housed
within the contact faces, or other approved methods.

(b) FLOORFRAMING:
(1) Beams, girders and joists may be sawn or glued-
laminated and shall be not less than 6 inch, nominal, in
width and 8 inch, nominal, in depth.

(2) Framed or glued laminated arches which spring from grade

or the floor line and support floor loads shall be not less
than 8 inch, nominal, in any dimension.

(3) Framed timber trusses supporting floor loads shall have

members of not less than 8 inch, nominal, in any dimension.

(c) ROOF FRAMING: Beams, girders and joists may be sawn or glued
laminated and shall be not less than 6 inch, nominal, in least di
mension. Framed members or glued laminated arches which
spring from the floor line and do not support floor loads shall
have mem bers of not less than 6 inch, nominal, in width and 6
inch, nominal, in depth for the lower half of the height and not
less than 6 inch, nominal, in any dimension for the upper half of
the height. Framed members or glued laminated arches which
spring from the top of walls or wall abutments. framed timber
trusses, and other roof fram ing which does not support floor loads,
shall have members not less than 4 inch nominal in width and 6
inch nominal in depth.

(d) CONSTRUCTION DETAILS: Wall plate boxes of self-releasing

type or approved hangers shall be provided where beams and
gird ers enter masonry. An air space of 1/2" inch shall be
provided at top, end, and sides of members unless approved
durable or treated wood is used. Girders and beams shall be
cross-tied to each other, or inter-tied by caps, to transfer
horizontal loads across the joint. Wood bolsters may be placed on
top of columns which support roof loads only. Intermediate beams
used to support floors shall rest on top of girders or be supported
on approved metal hangers which transmit the vertical load to the
top of the girder. Columns, beams, girders, arches and trusses of
material other than wood shall have a fire-resistive rating of not
less than one hour. Wood beams and girders supported by
masonry walls shall have not less than 4 inches of solid masonry
24-28
between their ends and the outside

24-29
 face of the wall. Roof anchors shall be provided as set forth in
this Chapter but not less than required to resist the uplift loads as
set forth in the Chapter on Live and Dead Loads (Chapter 20 ).

(e) CONCEALED SPACES: Floors and roof decks shall be without

concealed spaces, except that building service equipment may be
enclosed provided the spaces between the equipment and enclo
sures are fire-stopped or protected by other acceptable means.

(f) HEAVY TIMBER FLOORS: Floors may be of sawn or glued-lami

nated plank, splined or tongued-and-grooved of not less than 3
inch, nominal thickness, or square edged plank not less than 4
inch, nominal thickness, well spiked together. Planks shall be laid
so that a continuous line of joints will not occur except at points
of sup port. Planks shall be covered with 1 inch, nominal, tongued
and grooved flooring laid crosswise, or diagonally. Planks and
floor shall not extend closer than 1 / 2 inch to wall to provide an
expan sion joint and such expansion joint shall be covered at top
and bot tom.

(g) HEAVY TIMBER ROOF DECKS:Roof decks shall be sawn or

glued laminated, splined or tongued-and-grooved plank, not less
than 2 inch, nominal, in thickness or of square edge plank not less
than 3 inch, nominal, thickness well spiked together or of a
double thick ness of 1 inch nominal tongued and grooved boards
with staggered joints. Other types of decking may be used if
noncombustible when approved by the BCO as being equal.

(h) CAMBERING:Trusses and long span girders shall be designed with

sufficient camber or other provision shall be made to counteract
any possible deflection.

2408 PROTECTION OF WOOD

2408.1 PRESERVATIVE TREATED OR DURABLE SPECIES WOOD:

(a) All wood in areas where deterioration would affect structural
safety shall be treated in an approved method with an approved
preserva tive or shall be of durable species as approved by the
BCO.

(b) All wood in contact with, or less than 18 inches from the ground
shall be treated in an approved method with an approved
preserva tive or shall be of a durable species as approved by the
BCO.

(c) All wood in contact with concrete or masonry including sills,

sleep ers, plates, posts, columns, beams, girders and furring shall

24-30
be treated in an approved method with an approved preservative
or

24-31
 shall be of durable species as approved by the BCO, except that
the ends of joists not less than 8 feet above grade when in contact
with concrete or masonry, may be treated by dipping the ends in
an approved preservative for a period of not less than 5 minutes.

(d) Approval of the method and materials of treatment with a pre

servative shall be in accordance with the Standards set forth in the
Appendix A.

2408.2 VENTILATION: Attic space between ceiling joists and roof rafters shall
be effectively ventilated. Openings shall be located to provide effective
cross ventilation, and such openings shall be covered with a corrosion
resistant mesh with openings not greater than one-sixteenth inch.

2408.3 LIGHT AND VENTILATION:

(a) The space between the bottom of wood-floor joists and the
ground of any building, except such space as is occupied by a
basement or cellar, shall have ventilating openings through
foundation walls, and such openings shall be covered with a
corrosion-resistant wire mesh with openings not greater than one-
sixteenth inch. Where practicable, ventilating openings shall be
arranged on three sides. The minimum total area of ventilating
openings shall be 2 square feet for each 15 linear feet of exterior
wall. Such openings need not be placed in the front of the
building.

(b) Where wood-floor joists are used, there shall be not less than 18
inches distance between the bottom of such floor joists and the
grade beneath.

2409 FIRE-RETARDANT TREATED WOOD

2409.1 Fire-retardant treated wood shall be treated with fire-retardant chemicals

in accordance with the Standards set forth in the Appendices and shall
have a flame-spread rating of not higher than 25 with no evidence of
sig nificant progressive combustion when tested for 30 minutes duration
in accordance with ASTM Standard E84-61. (Standard Test Method For
Fire Hazard Classification of Building Materials.)

2409.2 Each member or piece of lumber receiving flame-retardant treatment

should be marked or identified by an underwriter's label.

2409.3 Fire-retardant treated wood shall have no greater fuel contributed than
30 nor smoke developed greater than 65 as tested in accordance with ASTM
Standard E84 (Standard Test Method for Fire Hazard Classification of
Building Materials.)

24-32
 2409.4 Fire retardant treated wood, where permitted and which may be exposed
to the weather, shall maintain required fire-retardant classification when
tested in accordance with the rain and weathering tests for durability of
fire-retardant treated wood of the Standard Test Methods for Fire-Resist
ance of Roof Covering materials; UL 790.

2410 MINISTRY OF WORKS LOW COST HOUSING PLANS

2410.1 The details of construction given on the Ministry of Works Low-cost

Tim ber House drawings shall be deemed to satisfy the requirements of
this Code.

24-33
NOTES

24-34
CHAPTER25
ALUMINIUM

2501 GENERAL
2502 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES
2503 DESIGN
2504 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
2505 FABRICATION AND ERECTION DETAILS
2506 DISSIMILAR MATERIALS

2501 GENERAL

2501.1 DESIGN: Structures in aluminium, and aluminium members shall be of

the materials and strength as set forth in this chapter and shall be de
signed by methods admitting of rational analysis according to
established principles of mechanics and in accordance with the
Standards adopted by this Code and set forth in Appendix A.

2501.2 STANDARDS:The Standards listed in Appendix A are hereby adopted as

a part of this Code and supplement, but do not supersede the specific
requirements as set forth herein.

2501.3 WORKMANSHIP: Aluminium construction shall be in conformance with

the tolerances, quality, and methods of construction as set forth in Sub
section 2501.2 here-in; and the American Welding Society's Structural
Welding Code; Aluminium (D1.2).

2502 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES

2502.1 The design, fabrication and assembly of aluminium members for build
ing and other structures shall conform to the Standard set forth in Sub
section 2501.2 herein and as otherwise set forth herein.

(a) The design, fabrication and assembly of aluminium members for

buildings and other structures shall conform to the standards set
forth in Subsection 2501.2 of this Chapter, Section 2502 of this
Chap ter, and as otherwise set forth in this Chapter and Code.

(b) The BCO may require that any structure using aluminium
primary or secondary members be designed by an engineer
recognised by the Minister.

25-1
 (c) Working stresses are given below for the three most commonly
used structural aluminium alloys: 6061-T6, 6063-T6, and 6063-
T5 (ASTM designations). Other aluminium alloys may be used
with allowable types of stress conforming to the types of stress
given below, in proportion to the yield strength, ultimate strength
and other properties of the aluminium alloy used.

2502.2 The use of aluminium alloys, other than those listed in the standard
shall provide performance not less than those required by the Standards
con tained in Appendix 'A'.

(a) Working stresses shall not exceed the stresses given below.

Exception:The working stresses for structural aluminium given in

this section may be increased by 33-1 / 3% when produced by
wind loads, acting alone or in combination with the design dead
and live loads, provided the resulting section computed on this
basis is not less than that required for the design dead and live
load and impact computed without the 33-1 / 3% increase.

(b) NON-WELDED STRUCTURAL ALUMINIUM MEMBERS AND

WELDED MEMBERS AT LOCATIONS FARTHER THAN ONE
INCH FROM ANY WELD WORKING STRESSES IN LBS. PER
SQUARE INCH.

(NOTE: These stresses may be increased by 33-1 / 3 for wind

stresses. See 2502.2 (a) above.)
(See Section 2502.4 regarding laterally unsupported sections.)
Ahnninium AU,o by
A5,T •
6061
IO ,. t l.15,000
.R f · • cfion 19,000 l:3-, 00
I: • C-
·tt_1rai • . taJi\gulaT rub ,.
s:iin:g:le-web built-up memlbt::!cs bent
about a:id •
!Portion. '· wnsi n. l ·,000 15 00 9,5(10
f',ofti n :ill rornpres.s on 211000 115 ,00 9, 0
• ·imd 01:' OV,llll b1)b(;!!;ii :M-,000. l .JJOO 11..500 1

tangular bar-s ai'Ld p]. tc:s and

t,•. , ' otUstandiiJTl,g fl n e of
sha n:t about• •axi!. 28,000 2!)))00 12,.5 0
ARIN
On riv ts and bo-' 34,00 2· . ow 116.,.00 ""
- ·ued mfa.ces rut.d pins 23.,000. l .000 rn.s 0
• HEAR, in webs cf beams. and
.•• m IZ()O 8,500 5,500
'bers -bj,eet • to io:n

25-2
*Ratio of edge distance to rivet or bolt diameter of two or greater. For
smaller ratios, multiply this working stress by the ratio:

edge distance
twice the rivet or bolt diameter

(c) WELDED STRUCTURAL ALUMINIUM MEMBERS ON SEC

TIONS WITHIN ONE INCH OF A WELD WORKING STRESSES
IN LBS. PER SQUARE INCH.

(NOTE: These stresses may be increased by 33 1/3% for wind

stresses. See 2502.2 (a) above.)
(See Section 2502.4 regarding laterally unsupported sections)

A]uminium Alfoy by
A . .

1 N. lON- aml,.net section

_ .Ji.olP.'S6]O · , a.rial gm:osi • 6, ·00
section.
ENDl1"4G, '"'e •nem • €:lb·rs,
structural •.• i ap ·, :I!' um :ula:r
tube , lngl.E -,veb buiU-u:p 11.,.000 6.500
m 11111:ie bent abO'l.!l,t X axi • Ii._-+"'

Round-ot o- tL'l•l - 13,SOCJ+lt ·.,ooo

Re. ngul r·lba aud pta.tles,.
nd t nsion in outst dmg
.flanges of shape b, about
Y-ax·
·EAKilNG 1 ·,-oo. . l. t - l3 ilol-*
On il:'ivets and boHs 9)100 ,000
On milled surfaces and iPifl ·
HEAR, in. webs fb am'. nd 3,90)) 3;900
memb !ISiuibj t t tOJf.sio:n.

** Compressive working stresses for columns, single-web members, rec

tangular tubes and box sections supported at both ends and welded at
the ends only. For cantilever columns or beams and for columns and beams
having welds at locations other than the ends, the working stresses shall
be determined in accordance with the provisions of Section 2501.2 of
this code.

25-3
*** Working stresses apply to all material welded with 5356 or 5556
filler alloy and to material 3 / 5 inches or less in thickness welded with
4043 filler alloy. For thicker material welded with 4043 filler alloy,
reduce these working stresses by multiplying them by 0.8.

edge distance
twice the rivet or bolt diameter

****Ratio of edge distance to rivet or bolt diameter of 2 or greater. For

smaller ratios, multiply this working stress by the ratio.

(d) If less than 15 percent of the area of a given cross section lies
within 1 inch of a weld, the effect of the weld may be neglected
and the working stresses for non-welded structural members may
be used. If the area of a cross section that lies within 1 inch of a
weld is between 15 percent and 100 percent of the total area of the
cross section, the working stress shall be calculated in accordance
with the provisions of Section 2502.2 (a) of this code.

(e) WORKING STRESSES IN SHEAR FOR ALUMINIUM RIVETS

AND BOLTS SHALL NOT EXCEED THE FOLLOWING
STRESS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.

(NOTE: These stresses may be increased by 33-1 / 3% for wind

stresses. See 2502.2 (a) above.)

Sl11ea Olill
Del riptiolil. o!f Rivet Eff • U
01' &olt Sheaa!li' Ai!!', a
. IT53-Ti 1 ·v ts,· 8,500
6061-T4.3rivets1 dri'v,e-n
tem_pe:rawres.o-f fr.om 990,..to
at
10509 9))0.0
1-T6 ri,. , cold dri,nm 11,.000
606il.-Th ·pirns 11)100
2.024-T4 bolt l6,.000 26,000

25-4
 (f) WORKING STRESSES IN SHEAR FOR FILLET WELDS SHALL
NOT EXCEED THE FOLLOWING ALLOWABLE SHEAR
STRESS
* IN LBS. PER SQUARE INCH.

(NOTE: These stresses may be increased by 33-1/ 3% for wind stresses.

See 2502.2 (a) above.)

1' Sltctarin T.rms,verse :Shear in

·n Singh! f:illet Weld·.,or
Lo!lfl. • • •. ,. Doub] • fillet Weld·s
r
foy
6061-T 6063-:_13 or
6063-T6
0

.ooo, 7,000

* Shear stress is considered to be equal to the total load divided by the

throat area in square inches, regardless of the direction of loading.

** Single fillet welds in transverse shear may be treated as double fillet

welds in joints so designed as to prevent local bending of the parts adjacent
to the fillet weld.

*** These values are controlled by the shear strength of the parent mate
rial; all other values are controlled by the strength of the fillet metal.

2502.2 Aluminium members shall be limited by the deflections set forth in the
relevant Subsections of Chapter 20 of this Code.

2502.3 The working stresses for structural aluminium compression members

shall vary with the ratio of effective length to the corresponding radius
of gy ration (L/ r) of the section in accordance with the provisions of
Section 2501.2 of this code. For main compression members, the ratio of
120 shall not be exceeded, except as provided by the provisions of
Section 2501.2 of this code; for bracing and other secondary members in
compression, the ratio of 200 shall not be exceeded.

2502.4 In laterally unsupported structural aluminium bending members, the

working stress in compression elements shall be reduced in accordance
with the provisions of Section 2501.2 of this code.

25-5
 2502.5 The working stress in compression elements of columns and beams of
such proportions that local buckling controls the design shall be reduced
in accordance with the provisions of Section 2501.2 of this code.

2502.6 The working stress in shear in webs of beams shall vary with the ratio of
web height to thickness in accordance with the provisions of Section 2501.2
of this code.

2503 DESIGN

2503.1 The Buildings Control Officer may require that any structure using alu
minium primary or secondary members be designed by an Engineer
recog nised by the Minister.

2503.2 Increases in allowable unit stresses as set forth for wind loads in Chap
ter 20 of this Code shall be applicable to aluminium structural members
except that allowable unit stresses thus increased shall not exceed 75%
of the minimum yield strength.

2503.3 In addition to flexural and shearing stresses, the critical factors of buck
ling, fatigue, stress raisers such as notches or holes or shape re-entrant
corners, deflection and connections shall be considered and provided for
by proper design.

2504 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

2504.1 CONNECTIONS: Aluminium members shall be designed as set forth in

the standards in Subsection 2501.2 hereinabove.

2504.2 STRUCTURAL DECKING AND SIDING:

(a) Aluminium sections spanning between supports shall be limited
in span to satisfactorily support the positive and negative loads
set forth in Chapter 20 of this Code and the deflection of
decking shall not exceed that set forth in Chapter 20.

(b) Aluminium sheets used for roof decking or siding shall be not less
than 0.019 in thickness.
11

(c) Aluminium sheets shall be secured to the supports to adequately

resist positive and negative loads. Attachments shall be at inter
vals not exceeding 8-1/2 and shall be secured to each other at
11

side laps at intervals not exceeding 12 except that spacing of

11

attach ments may be greater if based on rational analysis and/or

tests.

25-6
 (d) Fasteners shall have a head, and/or be provided with washers not
less than 1/2" in diameter.

(e) Fasteners located at end laps shall be placed not more than 2" nor
less than 1"from the end of overlapping sheets.

(f) Where roof or wall cladding is of aluminium an approved mem

brane to protect against water intrusion to the interior shall be
provided or the aluminium cladding shall be designed and con
structed with an approved continuous edge-interlock, overlap or
seam to prevent water intrusion.

2504.3 NON-STRUCTURAL DECKING AND SIDING:

(a) Non-structural aluminium sheets shall be backed with cladding
as set forth in Chapter 3 of this Code.

(b) Non-structural aluminium sheets shall have a minimum thickness

of 0.019".

(c) An approved membrane to protect against water intrusion shall

be provided or the aluminium cladding shall be designed and con
structed with an approved continuous edge-interlock, overlap or
seam to prevent water intrusion.

(d) Non-structural decking and siding shall be attached as set forth in

Subsection 2504.2 hereinabove except that aluminium residential
siding shall be attached by means of 0.120" diameter aluminium
nails of sufficient length to penetrate studs 1". Nailing to studs
shall be maximum 24" on centre horizontally and not to exceed 8"
on centre vertically.

2505 FABRICATION AND ERECTION DETAILS

2505.1 OXYGEN CUTTING: Oxygen cutting of aluminium alloys shall not be

permitted.

2505.2 BOLTS: Bolts and other fasteners used with aluminium shall be alu
minium, stainless steel, aluminized, hot-dip galvanized or electro-gal
vanized steel.

2505.3 RIVETS: Rivets shall be driven hot or cold, as called for on the plans,
and shall fill the holes completely. Rivet heads shall be concentric with
rivet holes and shall be in proper contact with the surface of the metal.
Defec tive rivets shall be removed by drilling.

25-7
 2505.4 WELDING: Welding shall be accomplished by means of an arc of resist
ance welding process. No welding process that requires the use of a
weld ing flux shall be used.

2505.5 PAINTING: Except as prescribed in this section, painting or coating of

aluminium alloy parts shall be required only when called for on the
plans.

2505.6 ERECTION: During erection, structural aluminium shall be adequately

braced and fastened to resist dead, wind and erection loads.

2505.7 FIELD JOINTS: Field joints shall not be finally made up until that part
of the structure which will be stiffened thereby has been properly
aligned.

2505.8 WALL PANELS: Aluminium sheets used in wall panels shall have a thick
ness of not less than .032 inch.

2505.9 EXPANSION, CONTRACTION: Aluminium work shall be designed and

anchored so that the work will not be distorted nor the fasteners over
stressed from the expansion and contraction of the metal.

2506 DISSIMILAR MATERIALS

2506.1 Where aluminium surfaces come in contact with metals other than stain
less steel, zinc, white bronze of small area or other metals compatible
with aluminium, aluminium surfaces shall be kept from direct contact
with such parts by one of these methods:

(a) Painting the dissimilar metal with a prime coat of zinc-chromate

primer or other suitable primer, followed by one or two coats of
aluminium metal-and-masonry paint or other suitable protective
coating, excluding those containing lead pigmentation;
(b) Painting the dissimilar metal with a coating of a heavy-bodied
bituminous paint;
(c) A good quality caulking material placed between the
aluminium and the dissimilar metal;
(d) A non-absorptive tape or gasket;
(e) Steel members hot-dip galvanized or zinc plated after fabrication.

2506.2 Dissimilar metals shall be painted if used in locations where drainage

from them passes over aluminium.

2506.3 Aluminium surf aces in contact with lime mortar, concrete or other
ma sonry materials shall be protected with alkali-resistant coatings,
such as heavy-bodied bituminous paint or water-white methacrylate
25-8
lacquer.

25-9
2506.4 Aluminium in contact with wood or other absorptive materials which
may become repeatedly wet shall be painted with two coats of aluminium
metal-and-masonry paint or a coat of heavy-bodied bituminous paint,
or the wood or other absorptive material shall be painted with two coats
of aluminium house paint and joints shall be sealed with a good quality
caulking compound.

2506.5 Where aluminium is in contact with treated wood, such wood shall be
treated with pentachlorophenol,5 percent minimum concentration or
creo sote or zinc naphthanate, following the protective measures outlined
in Subsection 2506.4.

25-10
NOTES

25-11
CHAPTER26
REINFORCED GYPSUM CONCRETE

2601 DESIGN
2602 STANDARDS
2603 STRESSES
2604 TESTS
2605 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

2601 DESIGN

2601.1 DESIGN: Reinforced gypsum concrete shall be designed by methods ad

mitting of rational analysis based on established principles of mechanics.
The general assumptions and principles specified for reinforced concrete
in the Chapter on Reinforced Concrete shall be the basis of the design of
reinforced gypsum concrete so far as they are applicable.

2601.2 LIMITATIONS OF USE:

(a) Reinforced gypsum concrete used for roofs of occupancies produc
ing unusually high humidities shall be constructed with the use of
non-absorptive formboard.

(b) Reinforced gypsum concrete shall not be used:

(1) For floors.

(2) For direct support of concentrated loads, such as water tanks,

fan bases, cooling towers, flag poles and signs. Details must
provide for transmitting such loads directly to the walls or
the primary framing.

(3) For exterior locations other than roofs.

(4) For ceilings of structures not completely enclosed, unless

constructed with the use of non-absorptive formboard.

2601.3 WORKMANSHIP: Reinforced gypsum concrete shall be in conformance

with the tolerances, quality, and methods of construction as set forth in
Standards referenced in this Chapter.

26-1
2602 STANDARDS

The Standards listed in Appendix A are hereby adopted to supplement, but not super
sede, the specific requirements set forth herein.

2603 STRESSES

Allowable unit working stresses and ultimate compressive stresses for Reinforced Gyp
sum Concrete shall be as follows:

UNIT WORK,I G -R SS S
1

Qas,sA
Type of. Stress. P,otnds per I .Pound' per
S • uare s - !!la ' btch
• ru:h
Comp sion-flexu al 220
Compr -. sio:111.-B arin.g 125 1 5
Bond and She - 100 20
: odulus of Elas.tkity 10 600,000
200,000

NOTE: This table of working stresses is based on gypsum concrete developing a

minimum ultimate strength in compression as follows:

CLASS A: 500 psi

CLASS B:1000 psi

2604 TESTS

The BCO may require a reasonable number of tests of gypsum-concrete units or the mate
rials of gypsum-concrete construction to determine their quality.

2605 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

2605.1 POURED-IN-PLACE GYPSUM:

(a) Roof slabs of poured-in-place gypsum shall be solid and, for
spans not exceeding 33 inches, shall have a minimum thickness of 2
inches not including the formboard.
(b) Reinforcing fabric shall conform to ASTM Designation A185; shall
be galvanized with a zinc coating conforming to ASTM Designa
tion B6 and contain a minimum weight of coating of 0.30 ounces
per square foot of uncoated wire surface determined in accord
ance with ASTM Designation A90; shall have an effective cross

26-2
sectional area of not less than 0.026 square inches per foot of
width

26-3
 or No. 12 gauge wire spaced four inches on centres as principal
reinforcing nor less than 0.0075 square inches per foot of width or
No. 14 gauge wire spaced eight inches on centres as temperature
reinforcing, and shall be lapped not less than 16 inches at the
ends. Sides of fabric shall be butted or spaced not more than four
inches.

(c) Sub-purlin shall be designed to provide a mechanical lock or key

with the gypsum to resist uplift loads given in the Chapter on
Live and Dead Loads (Chapter 20).

(d) Sub-purlin shall be rigidly secured to the primary roof framing by

welding, riveting or bolting to the supporting members including
end supports, and where welded, such welding shall be not less
than 3/8 inch length on both sides of the sub-purlin. Sub-purlins
terminating at or on masonry walls shall be securely anchored to
the masonry by a continuous member. Supporting masonry run
ning parallel to the sub-purlin shall not be used in the installation
of sub-purlin on or adjacent to the masonry.

(e) Where sub-purlins are not used, resistance to uplift loads given in
the Chapter on Live and Dead Loads (Chapter 20) shall be other
wise provided by suitable design equivalent to the sub-purlin.

(f) Welding of sub-purlins to supporting members shall be done only

under the supervision of a recognized welding inspector and such
welding inspector shall submit certification in writing to the BCO
that the welding was properly placed; or the BCO may require
that the welds not be covered or concealed until inspection and
approval by him.

(g) Sub-purlins shall not be field-spliced between supports.

(h) Suspended ceilings shall not be hung from the gypsum. Such ceil
ings may be hung from the sub-purling where the sub-purling are
so designed.

(i) Roof coverings shall be applied as specified in the Chapter on

Roof Coverings.

2605.2 PRECAST GYPSUM UNITS:

(a) Precast gypsum-concrete units for roof construction shall be of
uniform thickness, solid or hollow or may be recessed on the un
derside. The span of precast gypsum concrete shall not exceed six
feet eight inches. For the purpose of this section any span over
three feet shall be called a long span.

26-4
(b) Except as otherwise provided in Section 2605.2 (c) of this
Chapter, precast gypsum-concrete units shall have not less than
the follow ing thicknesses:

(1) Solid units shall be not less than two inches thick; if a span
over three feet shall be not less than three inches thick.

(2) Hollow units shall be not less than three inches thick, nor
the shell in compression less than three-fourths inch thick;
in a long span (over three feet), the units shall be not less
than five inches thick nor the shell in compression less than
one and three-eighths inches thick.

(3) Recessed units shall be not less than five inches thick nor
the panel less than one and three-eighths inches thick.

(c) Precast solid reinforced gypsum-concrete units, not more than 15

inches wide and bound on the long edges with structural or
pressed steel of approved design anchored to the units, shall be
not less than two inches thick. If the length of units is not less
than one and one-half times the span and the steel binding on the
edges is de signed to interlock with adjoining units in the manner
of tongue and-grooved wooden plank and is of sufficient strength
to trans mit the load on one unit to adjoining units, the end joints
may be staggered at random not less than two feet, and the
construction may be designed as continuous.

(d) Precast gypsum-concrete units for roof construction shall be rein

forced, and unless the shape or marking of the unit is such as to
insure its being placed right side up, the reinforcing shall be sym
metrical so that the unit can support its load either side up.

(e) Precast gypsum concrete units shall be bolted, or the edge-

binding securely welded, to the supporting members. Clips or
other meth ods where lateral movement would reduce the
resistance to verti cal uplift shall not be permitted.

26-5
CHAPTER27
MASONRY

2701 DESIGN
2702 STANDARDS
2703 DEFINITIONS
2704 QUALITY, TESTS AND APPROVALS
2705 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES IN MASONRY
2706 CONSTRUCTION

2701 DESIGN

2701.1 Masonry in buildings or structures shall be of the materials, proportions,

strength and consistency as set forth in this Chapter and shall be
designed by methods admitting of rational analysis according to
established prin ciples of mechanics and in accordance with the
Standards adopted by this Code and set forth in the Appendix A.

2701.2 Buildings not exceeding three storeys or 30 feet in height shall be

designed as either wall-bearing or skeleton frame or a combination
thereof and all buildings more than three storeys or 30 feet in height
shall be designed as a skeleton frame. Refer to Section 2706.2 of this
Chapter for exterior wall requirements.

2702 STANDARDS

2702.1 The Standards listed in Appendix A are hereby adopted as a part of this
Code and supplement, but do not supersede the specific requirements as
set forth herein.

2702.2 Masonry construction shall be in conformance with the tolerances, qual

ity, and methods of construction as set forth in standards referenced in
this Chapter; the Portland Cement Association Concrete Masonry
Hand book, ANSI A 4.1, A 41.2 and AWS Structural Welding Code:
Reinforcing Steel (Dl.4). The Buildings Control Officer shall be
contacted for any details beyond these standards

2703 DEFINITIONS

The following words and terms shall for the purpose of this Code, have the meanings set
forth in this Section:

27-1
 DIMENSIONS: Dimensions given are nominal; actual dimensions of unit
masonry may not be decreased by more than one half inch (1/ 2").

GROSS CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF HOLLOW UNITS, the total area including

cells of a section perpendicular to the direction of loading. Re-entrant spaces are
included in the gross area, unless these spaces are to be occupied in masonry by
portions of adjacent units.

MASONRY UNIT, any brick, stone, or block conforming to the requirements speci
fied in this Code.

HOLLOW MASONRY UNIT, a masonry unit whose cross-sectional area in any

plane parallel to the bearing surface is less than 75 percent of its gross cross-sec
tional area measured in the same plane.

SOLID MASONRY, masonry consisting of solid masonry units laid contiguously

in mortar, or consisting of plain concrete.

SOLID MASONRY UNIT, a masonry unit whose net cross-sectional area in

every plane parallel to the bearing surface is 75 percent or more of its gross cross-
sec tional area measured in the same plane.

2704 QUALITY, TESTS AND APPROVALS

2704.1 GENERAL:
(a) QUALITY: The quality of materials assembled into masonry and
the method and manner of their assembly shall conform to the re
quirements of this Chapter.
(b) OTHER MATERIALS: A material of masonry, other than set
forth herein, which is noncombustible and otherwise sufficiently
em bodies the characteristics and satisfies the requirements of one
of the materials herein may be approved by the BCO subject to
such tests as he may prescribe.
(c) TESTS: The BCO may require materials to be subjected to tests
to determine their quality whenever there is reason to believe the
materials used do not meet the requirements of this Code, and
may require any tests to be repeated if there is any reason to
believe that a material is no longer up to the standards on which
the approval was based. The cost of such tests shall be borne by
the person or persons proposing to use or continue the use of such
material or product. Concrete block strength shall not be less than
400 pounds per square inch.

Tests of materials shall be made in accordance with the Standards

given in Appendix A.

27-2
 (d) APPROVALS:
(1) Only such masonry units as bear the approval of the BCD
and are manufactured or fabricated by plants approved by
the BCD shall be considered acceptable for the
construction of buildings or other structures. Such approval
shall be for a period not exceeding 12 months.

(2) The provisions for tests for approval of masonry units shall
not be construed as a substitute for any tests otherwise re
quired under this Chapter.

(3) Failure of a manufacturer of masomy units to obtain

approval or to submit tests as required in this Chapter, or
such addi tional tests as the BCO may require, shall be
cause for rejec tion of such masonry units.

2704.2 BRICK:
(a) GENERAL: Brick shall include masonry units usually about two
and one-fourth inches thick, three and three-fourths inches wide,
and eight inches long, and not less than 75 percent solid.

(b) TESTS:Tests shall be made in accordance with the Standards

given in Appendix A.

(c) QUALITY:
(1) Burned clay or shale brick shall conform to the Standards
given in the Appendix A.

(2) Sand-lime brick shall conform to the Standards given in the

Appendix A.

(3) Concrete brick shall conform to the Standards given in Ap

pendix A.

2704.3 STONE: Stone for masonry shall be hard and durable.

2704.4 CAST STONE: Cast stone shall be made of Portland cement, aggregates
and water with or without admixtures. Cast stone for load-bearing ma
somy or where exposed to the weather shall have an average
compressive strength, at 28 days, of at least 3000 pounds per square inch
and shall have not more than seven percent water absorption by weight.

2704.5 CONCRETE BLOCKS:

(a) GENERAL:
(1) Concrete blocks shall be made of Portland cement, water
and approved aggregates. The materials shall conform to
the
27-3
 requirements for the materials of concrete specified in the
Chapter on Reinforced Concrete (Chapter 22), and the
finished units shall meet the requirements of this Section.

(2) Concrete blocks used for fire-resistive walls rated two hours
or more or used for load-bearing or exterior walls shall have
a minimum face-shell thickness of one and one-fourth inches,
a minimum web thickness of one inch, and shall have a net
cross-sectional area not less than 50 percent of the gross
sec tion.

(3) Concrete blocks for other purposes shall have wall and web
thicknesses of not less than three-fourths inch.

(4) Where masonry walls are required by this Code to be eight

inches in thickness, hollow concrete block units may be 7-5
/ 8"x 75 / 8"x 15-5 / 8" modular dimension with
corresponding widths for tie columns and tie beams.

(b) QUALITY: Standard Units of hollow concrete block shall

conform to the Standards given in Appendix A.

2704.6 STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE:

(a) LIMITATIONS: All hollow burned clay wall tile used for fire-resis
tive walls rated two hours or more, load-bearing or exterior walls
shall be load-bearing tile.

(b) TESTS:Tests shall be made in accordance with the Standards

given in Appendix A.

(c) QUALITY:
(1) Structural clay load-bearing wall tile shall conform to the
Standards given in Appendix A.

(2) Structural clay floor tile shall conform to the Standards

given in Appendix A.

(3) Structural clay non-load-bearing tile shall conform to the

Standards given in Appendix A.

2704.7 GYPSUM TILE:

(a) LIMITATIONS: Precast gypsum shall not be used in load-bearing
masonry or in any masonry which will be exposed to the weather.

(b) TESTS: Tests of gypsum tile shall conform to the Standards

given in Appendix A.

27-4
 (c) QUALITY: Gypsum partition tile or block shall conform to the
Standards given in Appendix A.

2704.8 PLAIN CONCRETE: Plain concrete is concrete cast in place and not
rein forced, or reinforced only for shrinkage or change of temperature.
Plain concrete shall be mixed, placed and cured as specified for concrete
in the Chapter on Reinforced Concrete (Chapter 22)., The minimum
strength of regular concrete shall be not less than 2000 psi in 28 days as
determined by 6"x 12" cylinders.

The minimum strength of light weight aggregate shall be not less than
500 psi in 28 days as determined by 6"x 12" cylinders.

2704.9 PLAIN GYPSUM CONCRETE: Plain gypsum concrete is gypsum con

crete cast in place and either unreinforced or reinforced for shrinkage.

2704.10 MORTAR:
(a) GENERAL: Except as otherwise set forth herein, all mortars and
the materials therein shall conform to the "Mortar of Masonry
Units," ASTM C 270.

(b) AGGREGATES:
(1) The gradation of aggregate for masonry mortar shall be
such that the fineness modulus is between 1.20 and 2.35
when de termined in accordance with "Aggregate for
Masonry Mor tar" ASTM C144 - 62T.

(2) Aggregates should be quarried or washed in fresh water and

should contain not more than one-twentieth of one percent
salt by weight.

(c) MORTAR:
(1) Mortar used to bond unit masonry shall be of Type M, S, N,
or O and shall comply with either the specifications set
forth hereinafter or the Specifications of the Standards set
forth in Paragraph 2704.10 (a).

J\\IORl> SJ:RENGTIJSP
Type
M 2500
1800
N : 0
W".JO

27-5
(2) The type of mortar based on consideration of the location
of the unit masonry construction shall be as follows:

U- orLo!i'.: llin'll

Below grade foun.da;ti ns andl waUs M

• wiron'fttng pi;"I . alls aud retaining
walls • M
ire .resisti.\ walls-ra . .2 how ,or
more Mars.
iderior walls mi Eo d beadng "lalls Mo:rS
Piem less than 3-2 incl-res ·wid MorS
hirtiti MsSro:rN
One
Solid Masomy uni s Clas.silicanon
less tb th
ab · r
Morrar or grout und · • • ·Ti - ,.trated
]oadA M
ences M,,,. · orO
C,ypsum ypsU!m.

(3) All solid unit masonry shall be laid in full beds with full
end joints. All hollow unit masonry shall be laid with full
mortar coverage of the face shells in both horizontal and
vertical joints.

MORTARP .OPORTl'O
(Parts by Volwne)

Miriiii'ium
•• y,;l.Mt d. Damp•
nJ,1 ndJ lmir o- Le
C1:mi!.-I.
Um tty Aggl,ep'.

s 2000 ] N lk-s.s>!lwli
N .so 1 l-V · _oo
L l,Miui:m:r;1 5{I l 'l:rorot\"

"b j 1 !han31im;es
0

27-6
2705 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES IN MASONRY

2705.1 COMPRESSION:
(a) Allowable working compressive stresses in masonry walls shall
not exceed the limits in pounds per square inch of gross area
given in the following table:

ypeN,orO l"n'-e M ,o:r, -,

M,omr Mort.ar
B.dc.!k 200 00
tone 40 600
Rl!lbble :200 300
·Sw:n@ 100 160
Concr-e lock 80 1(!0
Clay·nJ

(b) The maximum allowable working stress in plain concrete shall be

the following percentages of the ultimate strength of the concrete
in compression:

Compression 0.20 f' c

Shear and diagonal tension 0.02 f' c
where f' c represents the ultimate compressive strength.

2705.2 SHEAR: The shear in unit masonry shall not exceed one-tenth the allow
able compressive stress.

2705.3 TENSION: Unreinforced unit masonry shall be assumed to have no

value in resisting tension.

2705.4 CONCENTRATED LOADS: Walls of hollow masonry units shall not

di
rectly support concentrated loads.

2706 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

2706.1 GENERAL:
(a) Masonry walls of hollow or solid units or plain concrete shall be
constructed as specified in this Section.

(b) Designed reinforced concrete walls, columns and beams shall be

as specified in the Chapter on Reinforced Concrete (Chapter 22),
except that such designed columns and beams shall be not less
than the equivalent of the minimums herein set forth.

(c) Reinforced concrete required in this Section shall comply with the
27-7
Chapter on Reinforced Concrete (Chapter 22).

27-8
 (d) Reinforced unit masonry shall comply with Sub-section 2706.1
herein.

(e) Second-hand masonry units shall not be used unless they conform
to the requirements of this Code, are sound, and have been thor
oughly cleaned and are approved for use by the BCO.

(f) (i) Horizontal joint reinforcement shall be provided at the joint

next below the average window opening. Standard 9 gauge
ladder type for reinforced masonry and truss type for all
others shall be provided. This rein/orcement shall extend 4"
into tie columns or be tied to structural columns by approved
methods where structural columns replace the tie columns.

(ii) Where individual larger or smaller window openings occur,

the horizontal joint reinforcement shall extend into the ad
jacent masonry units a minimum o/16" each side of the
open ing. Where a tie or structural column occurs within 16"
of such opening the methods of tying the reinforcement shall
be as in (i) above.

2706.2 EXTERIOR WALLS:

(a) GENERAL:
(1) Exterior walls of unit masonry shall have a minimum
thick ness of eight inches except as otherwise specified in
Section 2706.2(b)(i) and Section 2704.S(a) and as
specified under Chapters covering Types of Construction
for heights of ma sonry walls.

No roof or other members shall be placed to develop direct

horizontal thrust on walls unless such walls are specifically
designed for such thrusts.

8 inch thick unreinforced masomy block load-bearing walls

shall be limited to 20 feet in height and 12 inch thick
umeinforced masomy block load-bearing walls shall be
lim ited to 30 feet in height.

12 inch masonry block load bearing walls may be used up

to the 1st storey above the ground floor, and 8 inch masonry
block load bearing walls may be used for the next 2 storeys.

The maximum area of wall panels of 8 inch thick unit ma

sonry, as measured between the concrete members which
frame the panel such as the beams and tie columns, shall
not exceed 240 square feet.

27-9
 Load bearing walls shall be analyzed and designed for
strength where floor loadings are 60 psf or more, or
where floors are of unusually long span.

Walls that are load bearing walls shall be so designated on

the plans.

(b) TIE COLUMNS:

(1) Concrete tie columns shall be required in all exterior walls
of unit masonry. Concrete tie columns shall be required at
all corners, and at intervals not to exceed 20 feet centre-to
centre of columns, adjacent to any corner opening
exceeding four feet in width, adjacent to any wall opening
exceeding eight feet in width, and at the end of free-
standing walls ex ceeding two feet in length. Where rough
openings are be tween 3'-0" and 8'-0" in width, such
openings shall have one #5 vertical reinforcing bar at each
side. Vertical bars shall be into footings and tie beams.
Structurally designed col umns may be substituted for the
tie columns herein required.

(2) Intermediate tie columns shall be not less than 12 inches in

width. Tie columns having an unbraced height not exceed
ing 15 feet shall be not less in thickness than the wall nor
less in thickness than a nominal 8 inches, and, where
exceeding 15 feet in unbraced height, shall be not less in
thickness than 12 inches.

(3) Corner tie columns shall be not less than 12 inches in width
on both sides of the corner, and not less in thickness than
the wall nor less than a nominal 8 inches. The unbraced
height shall be taken at the point of positive lateral support
in the direction of consideration or the column may be
designed to resist applicable lateral loads based on rational
analysis.

(4) Intermediate tie columns shall be reinforced with not less

than four No. 5 vertical rods, nor less than 0.0125 of the
gross cross-sectional area (whichever is greater), tied with
No. 2 (1/ 4") closed hoops spaced not more than 12 inches
apart. Vertical reinforcing shall have starter bars provided
in the footing and splices shall be lapped 24 bar diameters.
Starter bars are not required if the column steel is embedded
in the footing without splices at the bottom of the steel. For
No. 5 bars, a standard lap distance of 15" shall be used. If
high strength steels are used to provide a structurally
designed column, laps shall conform to the standards given
27-10
in the Chapter on Reinforced Concrete (Chapter 22).

27-11
(5) Corner tie columns shall be reinforced with not less than
five No. 5 vertical rods, nor less than 0.0125 of the gross
cross sectional area (whichever is greater), tied with No. 2
(1/ 4") closed hoops spaced not more than 12" apart,
staggered so that each longitudinal rod shall have lateral
support provided by the corner of a tie. Vertical reinforcing
shall have starter bars provided in the footing and splices
shall be lapped 24 bar diameters. Starter bars are not
required if the column steel is embedded in the footing
without splices at the bottom of the steel. For No. 5 bars, a
standard lap distance of 15" shall be used. If high strength
steels are used to provide a struc turally designed column,
laps shall conform to the stand ards given in the Chapter on
Reinforced Concrete (Chapter 22).

(6) The concrete tie columns set forth herein are a minimum to
limit masonry panel areas and provide an integrated frame
work for masonry. The spacing of concrete columns for
skel eton frame construction, designed as specified in the
Chap ter on Reinforced Concrete, may exceed the spacing
herein set forth provided the masonry panels have an area
of less than 240 square feet and provided the structural
system is designed to transmit horizontal wind loads to the
columns.

(7) Concrete tie columns designed to limit masonry panel areas

may be offset at tie beams or other horizontal members to
avoid openings, but the maximum spacing shall not be ex
ceeded.

(8) Concrete columns in load-bearing walls shall be poured

only after masonry units are in place. Where masonry walls
of skeleton frame construction are laid up after the frame
has been erected, lugs not less than one inch deep by three
inches wide, or some other similar form of construction as
approved by the Buildings Control Officer, shall be provided
in the con crete which forms the perimeter of such panels.
Where struc tural steel members are made fire resistive with
masonry units, the panel walls shall be bonded into the fire-
resistive materials.

(9) In the case of a low cost housing scheme, designated as

such by the Minister responsible for Housing, the tie
column re quirements set forth above may be relaxed
provided that:

(i) Acceptable design computations, for each model of

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building used in the scheme, which admit of a
rational

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