International Journal of Humanities Social Science and Management (IJHSSM)

Volume 3, Issue 5, Sep.-Oct., 2023, pp: 322-336 www.ijhssm.org

Basic Concepts of Psychological Foundations of

Curriculum Development

Lutfiadji Agung Hidayat, Azam Syukur Rahmatullah, Muhammad Suyudi

1
Student, Universitas Muhmmadiyah Yogyakarta, Indonesia
2
Lecturer, Universitas Muhmmadiyah Yogyakarta, Indonesia
3
Lecturer, Univeritas Islam Negeri Sunan Ampel, Surabaya, Indonesia

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Date of Submission: 06-09-2023 Date of Acceptance: 18-09-2023
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ABSTRACT: This study aims to conduct an online literature review on the basic concepts of psychological
foundation in curriculum development. Curriculum development is a complex and essential process in
education, and an understanding of the psychological underpinnings becomes critical to designing effective and
appropriate curricula for students. The online literature review method is used to gather a variety of literature
sources, articles, and research relevant to this topic. This study investigates psychological theories related to
learning and curriculum development. This literature review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of how
students process information, build knowledge, and interact with their learning environment. The results of this
study suggest that understanding the basic concepts of psychological foundations is essential in developing an
effective and student-oriented curriculum. The integration of learning theories and an understanding of the
psychological aspects of students can help create a more meaningful, motivating, and relevant learning
environment for students.

KEYWORDS: Psychological Foundation, Curriculum Development, Learning Theory.

Therefore, a solid
I. INTRODUCTION psychological foundation is needed in
Curriculum is a term used in education to refer to designing the ideal curriculum. The foundation of
the quantity and quality of learning students psychology has a significant role in curriculum
receive. It can generally be reviewed as a learning development. This is because psychology studies
plan or program designed to organize and organize human behavior and mental processes, including in
the educational process in an institution or the context of education. By considering the
educational institution and includes explicitly principles of psychology in curriculum
learning goals and objectives, subject matter development, the curriculum will be more effective
content, teaching methods, and evaluation of in achieving learning goals and objectives and
learning outcomes (Kelly, 2004, p. 3). Ideally, the meeting the needs of students (Kelly, 2004, p. 95).
curriculum is designed considering the needs, Although it looks good and sturdy in
goals, and characteristics of learners as well as the design, in implementation, there are still many
social and cultural environment in which the holes, especially in Indonesia. For example, in the
educational institution is located, with the primary case of curriculum implementation, educational
objective of ensuring that educational goals and institutions have yet to conduct large-scale research
objectives can be achieved. Learners can acquire to determine whether the dynamics in which new
the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to knowledge is incorporated into teaching materials
deal with an increasingly complex and rapidly and classroom practices align with curriculum
changing world. Therefore, curriculum demands. In addition, many teachers still rely on
development should be done carefully and based analytical activities when designing lesson plans,
on a deep understanding of the needs of learners modeling instruction, and refining instructional
(Adams & Adams, 2003, p. 31). approaches to incorporate into the teaching and
learning process. In addition, a sharp awareness on

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 International Journal of Humanities Social Science and Management (IJHSSM)
Volume 3, Issue 5, Sep.-Oct., 2023, pp: 322-336 www.ijhssm.org

the part of educational institutions about the the race. The term curriculum was first used in
importance of teacher and parent collaboration pedagogical circles in 1576 in a posthumously
(through school committees and others) in the published by University of Paris professor Petrus
actual implementation of the curriculum is also Ramus entitled Professio Regia (Hamilton, 2013, p.
considered low ( Salabi, 2020). 55). Allegedly, the term curriculum comes from the
Meanwhile, from the side of the teachers efforts of Calvinists, or adherents of the school of
or teaching staff themselves, Indonesian teachers' John Calvin, in the 16th century to build a larger
understanding of psychology is generally still and broader order in education by involving various
limited and needs to be improved. This is due to the parties, ranging from government, educational
need for more psychology material in the teacher institutions, educators, to the community in general.
education curriculum and the lack of psychological The purpose of developing an educational order is
training and debriefing for prospective teachers to improve the quality of education and meet
when attending education. In the sphere of students' needs in changing times. (Hamilton, 2013,
education, psychology is very important as a p. 43).
foundation for curriculum development and Thus, it can be defined that a curriculum is a
practical learning. However, awareness of the set of plans or guidelines designed to direct the
importance of understanding psychology among learning process in an educational institution, be it a
teachers still needs to be improved. For example, school, college, or other educational institution. The
some teachers may need more clarification on the curriculum aims to determine learning objectives,
basic principles of psychology, such as learning material content, teaching methods, evaluation of
theory and children's cognitive development, which learning outcomes, and organization of learning
can help them in designing effective and efficient environments by the goals and vision of the
learning (Kristiantari, 2015). educational institution. The curriculum also serves
Therefore, efforts are needed to improve as an instrument that assists teachers and educators
teachers' understanding of psychology through in designing and implementing effective and
training and professional development, as well as efficient learning processes for students. A good
the integration of psychology materials into the curriculum must be prepared based on various
teacher education curriculum. This will help considerations, such as the community's needs,
teachers understand students' characteristics and national education goals, the development of
choose effective learning methods. By science and technology, and student's individual
understanding psychology, teachers can improve the needs.
quality of learning and optimize students' potential. In the history of Indonesian education, the
Thus, the formulation of the problem raised in this national education curriculum has undergone many
study only focuses on the study and meaning of the changes, namely in 1947, 1952, 1964, 1968, 1975,
basic concepts of curriculum psychology. 1984, 1994, 2004, 2006, 2013, and most recently,
the independent curriculum in 2022. Such changes
II. METHOD are a logical consequence of political, social,
This study uses a quantitative approach cultural, economic, and scientific changes. All
with the Literature Review technique, where national curricula are designed based on the same
researchers collect and synthesize data from various principles, Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution; the
concepts and published publications. Theories and difference is the emphasis on the objectives of
concepts are quoted from books that discuss the primary education and the approach to its
basic concepts of psychology curriculum implementation (Setiana &; Nuryadi, 2020).
development and are refined using analysis with
online articles, both from within and outside the B. Curriculum According to Experts
country. According to Wiles (2009, p. 2), the
curriculum needs to be generally defined. However,
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. several definitions are considered to influence the
Etymology and History of the psychological foundation of curriculum
Curriculum development majorly. These experts combine
various elements to describe the curriculum as
The word "curriculum" is taken from the
follows:
Latin "currere," which means race or the course of
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 International Journal of Humanities Social Science and Management (IJHSSM)
Volume 3, Issue 5, Sep.-Oct., 2023, pp: 322-336 www.ijhssm.org

stage to facilitate the teaching and learning

1. John Dewey process and improve the quality of education.
An explicit curriculum is often associated
As a philosopher and educator, John Dewey
with a teacher-centered learning approach,
is considered very influential in education. He
where the teacher is essential in preparing
views education as a social process that involves
learning materials and directing students to
interaction between students, teachers, and the
achieve predetermined goals. However,
environment. Dewey also viewed curriculum as an
explicit curricula can also be developed with a
essential aspect of the educational process.
more student-centered learning approach,
According to Dewey (1998, p. 212), the
where students are directed to understand
curriculum is about what should be taught and how
learning objectives and materials
to teach it. He argues that curricula should be
independently and actively.
designed to meet students' needs and interests and
b. Implicit Curriculum: Implicit curriculum refers
prepare them to live in a complex and evolving
to learning not explicitly listed in the official
society. Dewey also emphasized the importance of
curriculum but learned through students' daily
experiential learning. Dewey saw that students
experiences and social interactions inside and
should learn through hands-on experiences, such as
outside the school environment. Learning that
conducting experiments, participating in projects, or
occurs implicitly can affect students' values,
visiting places relevant to the studied topic.
attitudes, and social skills.
Through the experience, students will be able to
Learning that occurs implicitly is only
develop a deeper understanding of the material
sometimes planned or organized systematically
being studied and how it relates to everyday life.
by teachers or educational institutions. Instead,
In addition, Dewey also emphasized the
this learning occurs unconsciously through
importance of a holistic and integrative curriculum,
students' social interactions inside and outside
which covers various aspects of life, such as
the school environment, such as extracurricular
academic skills, social skills, and practical skills.
activities, informal study groups, and
He also stressed the importance of integrating
interactions with parents or peers.
classroom learning with students' daily lives, so
Examples of learning that occur implicitly are
students can see how what they learn in class can be
social skills, such as the ability to
applied in real life. Overall, John Dewey's view of
communicate, collaborate, and teamwork. It is
the curriculum is that it should be designed to meet
learned through interaction with others in
students' needs and interests and prepare them to
everyday life and needs to be covered in the
live in a complex and evolving society through
official curriculum. Learning that occurs
experiential, holistic learning.
implicitly can also affect students' values and
According to Kelly (2004, pp. 2–7), Dewey
attitudes, such as tolerance, honesty, and
at least classifies curriculum into four types, which
cooperation.
are widely used as references or inspiration for
c. Hidden Curriculum: Hidden or implied
curriculum preparation around the world:
curriculum refers to learning not explicitly and
a. Explicit Curriculum: Explicit curriculum is a
implicitly listed in the official curriculum but
curriculum that contains in detail what must be
learned through students' daily experiences and
learned by students at each level and level of
social interactions inside and outside the school
education. The objectives, learning materials,
environment. The hidden curriculum usually
and achievement indicators that students must
includes values, norms, and social attitudes not
master have been determined and structured.
listed in the official curriculum but learned
The government or authorized educational
through social interaction and experience in the
institutions usually prepare explicit curricula
school environment.
that are normative. In the explicit curriculum,
Examples of hidden curricula are values such
the knowledge and skills taught to students are
as ethics, morals, and social responsibility.
outlined in detail according to the grade level
Students can learn these values through
and subjects taught. The purpose of an explicit
interaction with teachers, staff, and other
curriculum is for students to clearly understand
students at the school. In addition, the hidden
what they must learn and reach each learning
curriculum can also include social norms and

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Volume 3, Issue 5, Sep.-Oct., 2023, pp: 322-336 www.ijhssm.org

behaviors, such as how to speak, dress, and God's Caliph to prosper the earth and preserve
interact with others. the environment. By nature, education is a
Hidden curriculum can affect students' deliberate and planned action to develop the
character and attitude, both positively and potential of learners brought from birth.
negatively. Therefore, educational institutions c. Cultural Principle: The principle of culture
need to pay attention to the development of rests on the natural belief that man is a
hidden curriculum and integrate it into the cultured being. That is, humans experience
official curriculum to help shape the character evolutive dynamics in the treasures of
and personality of better students. selfformation into ethical persons, for it is
d. Excluded Curriculum: Excludedcurriculum with that culture that Man finds his true soul.
refers to learning not included in the official For Ki Hajar Dewantara, education and
curriculum or curriculum that is supposed to be culture are flesh and blood for advancing
taught but is still essential for students to learn. human dignity and dignity. Culture is the spirit
Learning included in the excluded curriculum that unites and animates. Without culture, a
is usually related to social, cultural, and nation will be drowned by foreign nations.
environmental issues. d. National Principle: The principle of freedom
For example, the official curriculum should include affirms that one must feel one with one's
environmental issues such as waste reduction, nation and, in that sense, of oneness, must not
recycling, and conservation. However, this is an conflict with humanity. Moreover, only
essential issue for students to study to understand nationality will be the glue of sovereignty,
the importance of protecting the environment and without the spirit of nationality that grows in
ways to do so. In addition, social and cultural the soul of every nation's child. Indonesia is
issues can also be included in the excluded just a mirage. Nationality unites rather than
curriculum. For example, learning about cultural divorces. The reason for different tribes and
diversity and different values worldwide is only religions is diversity.
sometimes included in the official curriculum, but it e. Humanitarian Principle: The principle of
is an essential issue for students to learn to humanity emphasizes the importance of
understand differences and promote inclusion and respecting human dignity and interests above
tolerance. material interests. This principle is taught
about ethics, morals, and good personality in
2. Ki Hajar Dewantara education.
Ki Hajar Dewantara, with the concept of According to Ki Hajar Dewantara, the
"Pancadarma Perguruan Taman Siswa," was curriculum must be based on educational
compiled in 1947. This concept is also called the principles that follow the Indonesian people's
"1922 Principle". Based on this concept, Ki Hajar needs and culture. The curriculum should focus
Dewantara revealed that efforts to educate the on developing students' abilities and creativity
nation's life must have a strong foundation. The and considering cultural and environmental
principle of Pancadarma is the core of character factors. Ki Hajar Dewantara also emphasized the
education in Indonesia which is the core of importance of character or moral education,
curriculum development itself (Pelu, 2020). The which means the curriculum must include
five principles are (UNJ MFI Creative Team, 2011, ethical and moral values to help students
pp. 78–79): become good individuals and valuable to
a. Principle of Liberty: The principle of society. In addition, Ki Hajar Dewantara also
nationality teaches that every individual teaches the concept of an "open curriculum,"
should love and fight for the interests of his or which allows students to choose and determine
her nation. Education is done by raising their learning path. This concept was considered
national awareness through learning history, revolutionary in its time because it differed from
culture, language, and art. the authoritarian education system implemented
b. Natural Nature Principle: The natural nature by the Dutch colonizers at that time. In Ki Hajar
principle implies that human nature is part of Dewantara's view, the curriculum must continue
the universe. In nature, man is God's creature to develop and adapt to the needs and
who maintains the universe's balance. Become development of the times. A rigid and outdated

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curriculum will not be able to achieve the g. Step 7: Determination of what, how, and
expected educational goals (Wiryopranoto, evaluation tools.
Herlina, Marihandono, &; Tangkilisan, 2017).
Overall, Ki Hajar Dewantara's view of 4. Cecilia Braslavsky
the curriculum is that the curriculum must be According to Braslavsky (2005), a
adapted to the culture and environment of curriculum is a document or plan that determines
society, consider character education, adopt the educational goals, content, methods, and evaluation.
concept of an open curriculum, and continue to However, he stressed that the curriculum cannot be
evolve to meet the needs of the times. separated from its social and political context. The
curriculum is always linked to specific social and
3. Mark Smith political goals that society wants to achieve. In
addition, Braslavsky also emphasized the
According to Smith (1996), syllabi will
importance of a curriculum that is holistic and
generally not indicate the relative importance of
integrates different aspects of life. He argues that
topics or the order in which they should be
the curriculum should include values, skills, and
studied. If people still equate curriculum with
practical knowledge relevant to students' daily lives.
syllabus, they tend to limit their planning to
Braslavsky also highlights the importance of
consideration of the content or set of knowledge
curricula responsive to student's needs and their
they want to impart.
local context. The curriculum must pay attention to
Thus, according to him, the curriculum can be
the diversity of students' cultures, languages, and
understood from several perspectives, namely:
backgrounds. It also means that the curriculum must
a. Curriculum as a Learning Plan and Guide: In
be tested and evaluated continuously to remain
this perspective, the curriculum is considered
relevant and practical.
a plan or guide to organize learning in the
Overall, Cecilia Braslavsky's view of the
classroom. This includes program design,
curriculum should involve a social and political
learning objectives, and teaching methods.
context, include holistic aspects of life, be
b. Curriculum as a Learning Experience: In this
responsive to student needs, and be constantly
perspective, the curriculum is considered an
tested and evaluated.
actual learning experience. The curriculum
Thus, the curriculum is a plan or guide
includes all learning activities inside and
designed to organize and develop school learning
outside the classroom, including social,
activities. The curriculum is essential in directing
emotional, and cognitive experiences that
educational goals and helping students reach their
students experience.
maximum potential. According to experts such as
c. Curriculum as Social Action: In this
John Dewey, Ki Hajar Dewantara, and Cecilia
perspective, curriculum is considered a social
Braslavsky, the curriculum should place students at
action that affects students' thinking and
the center of learning and be oriented toward social,
acting. The curriculum is considered a form of
humanitarian, national, and spiritual interests.
selecting values and goals that reflect the
Meanwhile, Mark Smith suggests that curriculum
interests of the existing society and culture.
can be understood from several perspectives:
According to Smith, these three perspectives learning plans, learning experiences, and social
are interrelated and influence each other. Therefore, actions.
educators must consider these three perspectives in
designing an effective curriculum. In addition, C. Foundation of Curriculum Development
according to Smith, there are seven steps to shaping In its development, the curriculum must
the curriculum into a procedure: a. Step 1: Diagnose constantly adjust to the times and the community's
needs. needs. An effective curriculum should cover various
b. Step 2: Goal formulation. aspects of learning, such as cognitive, affective, and
c. Step 3: Content selection. psychomotor, and pay attention to the social,
d. Step 4: Content organization. cultural, and economic context surrounding
e. Step 5: Learning experience selection. students. The curriculum is considered a critical
f. Step 6: Organization of the learning experience. factor in education and human development. A good
curriculum can help students acquire the

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knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to role of education in shaping a better society. Some
become competitive individuals and contribute of the foundations of sociology in curriculum
positively to society. According to Robert S. Zais development are:
and Ralph W. Tyler (1988, 2016), three prominent a. Fungsionalism: landasan sosiologi ini
aspects become the foundation or basis, focus, menekankan pada pentingnya pendidikan
foundation in developing a curriculum, namely dalam membentuk individu yang dapat
philosophical, sociological, and psychological memenuhi kebutuhan dan tuntutan sosial,
(Masykur, 2019, pp. 44–50): serta menciptakan stabilitas sosial dalam
masyarakat.
1. Philosophical Foundations b. Conflict: landasan sosiologi ini menekankan
pada pentingnya pendidikan sebagai alat
The philosophical foundation in curriculum
untuk mengatasi ketimpangan sosial dan
development focuses on understanding the concept
meredakan konflik dalam masyarakat.
of education, educational objectives, and the values
c. Symbolic Interactionism: This foundation of
and principles that are the basis for curriculum
sociology emphasizes the importance of
development. Some philosophical foundations in
education in shaping individual identity
curriculum development are:
through social interaction and the meaning
a. Essentialism: This philosophical foundation
given by society to the world around it.
emphasizes the need to teach essential
knowledge and skills for students' future lives. In curriculum development, the foundation
b. Perennialism: This philosophical foundation of sociology can be used as a reference to determine
emphasizes the importance of learning educational goals to be achieved in a broader social
timeless and universal knowledge and skills context. Understanding sociology's foundation in
such as philosophy, curriculum development is expected to produce
literature, and mathematics. educational programs that can benefit society.
c. Progressivism: This philosophical foundation
emphasizes developing students' 3. Psychological Foundation
problemsolving and critical thinking abilities
through hands-on and contextual learning The psychological foundation in
experiences. curriculum development focuses on
d. Constructivism: landasan filosofis ini understanding individual development and
menekankan pada pentingnya memahami learning. Some psychological foundations in
bagaimana siswa belajar dan membangun curriculum development are:
pengetahuannya sendiri melalui interaksi a. Behaviorism: This psychological
sosial dan pengalaman belajar yang bermakna. foundation emphasizes understanding the
e. Humanism: This philosophical foundation relationship between stimuli and responses
emphasizes the importance of developing in learning. This approach assumes that
students' overall potential, including physical, individual behavior can be changed
intellectual, emotional, and social aspects. through the provision of appropriate
stimuli.
In curriculum development, the b. Cognitivism: This psychological
philosophical foundation can be used as a reference foundation emphasizes understanding
to determine the goals and values to be achieved individuals' cognitive processes (thoughts
through the designed educational program. and understanding) in learning. This
Understanding the philosophical foundations in approach assumes that learning occurs
curriculum development is expected to produce through the processing of information by
educational programs following the expected individuals, which is then stored in both
educational needs and goals. short-term and long-term memory.
c. Constructivism: This psychological
2. Sociological Foundation foundation emphasizes understanding the
active role of individuals in learning. This
The foundation of sociology in curriculum
approach considers that learning is not just
development focuses on understanding the
the receipt of information but a continuous
relationship between individuals and society and the
process of building knowledge and
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understanding through interaction between considers that behavior can be learned and
individuals and the environment. modified through experience and the
surrounding environment. Experts in behavior
In curriculum development, the analysis use the scientific method to study
psychological foundation can be used as a behavior, which includes observation,
reference to determine learning strategies measurement, and data analysis. In
appropriate to individual needs and the stage of educational contexts, behavior analysis is
development they face. Understanding the often applied to helping children with
psychological foundation in curriculum behavioral or learning problems who have
development is expected to produce educational difficulties (Phillips & Soltis, 2009, p. 22).
programs that can provide positive and In learning theory, behavior or behavior
beneficial learning experiences for individuals. analysis is positioned as one approach or
school in behaviorism. This approach views
D. Basic Concepts of Psychological that human and animal behavior can be
Foundations of Curriculum Development learned by objectively observing the behavior
As explained earlier, the psychological without regard to internal factors such as
foundation of curriculum development is on the thoughts, feelings, or motivations. According
individual or student himself, by paying to Skinner (1953), learning occurs when a
attention to the extent of cognitive, affective, person's behavior is changed or modified
and psychomotor development of students. through the experiences he experiences in his
Judging from the basic concepts, there will be environment. Desired behavior can be
educational, psychological theories, such as Jean reinforced or enhanced, while punishment can
Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, John Watson, Skinner, inhibit undesirable behavior.
and others, which are essential to be discussed Furthermore, according to Skinner
as a psychological foundation in developing the (1976),behavior analysis can be applied to
curriculum. Latas, why is educational design more effective and efficient learning
psychology used as a foundation? As Klausmier programs in the context of learning. Behavior
and Goodwin (1996, p. 3) argue, psychologists analysis-based learning strategies will pay
interested in discussing learning tend to uncover more attention to reinforcement through
ways of obtaining, memorizing, and transferring praise, rewards, or recognition of student
knowledge more efficiently and meaningfully. achievements. However, this approach is also
Some basic concepts of psychological faced with several criticisms, including paying
foundation in curriculum development include: less attention to internal or mental factors in
learning and ignoring individual differences
1. Learning Theory and learners' uniqueness. Therefore, the
behavior analysis approach in learning needs
Learning theory is a collection of concepts, to be combined with other approaches that are
principles, and views on how a person acquires more holistic and comprehensive.
knowledge, skills, and attitudes through the learning Some of the learning techniques used in
process. Learning theory also explains how students behavior analysis are as follows:
receive, process, and store knowledge during 1.) Learning and Condition: According to Pavlov,
learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental there are three types of conditioning and
influences, as well as previous experiences, all play learning: among them Classical conditioning,
a role in how understanding, or worldview, is in which behavior becomes a reflex response to
acquired or changed and knowledge and skills are an antecedent stimulus, Operant conditioning,
retained (Knud, 2004, p. 27). There are several in which preliminary stimuli result from the
learning theories put forward by experts, including: consequences that follow behavior through
reward (reinforcement) or punishment, and
a. Behavior Analysis Social learning theory, in which observation of
Behavior analysis or behavior analysis is behavior is followed by modeling (Myers,
a field of science that focuses on studying 2009, hlm. 223).
human and animal behavior. This field is 2.) Transfer of Learning: In behavioral analysis,
based on the principles of behaviorism, which transfer of knowledge or transfer of learning is
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considered a process in which individuals use One of the leading theories of cognitivism
knowledge and skills learned in one situation to is the Gestalt Theory. Gestalt theory is one of the
solve problems or tasks in different situations. psychological theories that posits that humans can
Transfer of learning can occur in several ways, perceive an object, not just part of it. That is,
among others (Harris, LoweryMoore, & humans can combine different information into a
Farrow, 2008): whole picture. Gestalt theory emphasizes that
a.) Positive transfer: when learning in one context humans can understand and organize their
facilitates learning in another. For example, if a experiences in a whole or "gestalt" form. This
person has learned how to operate a sewing gestalt concept has three main principles, namely
machine, he may find it easier to learn how to (Boeree, 2000):
operate another machine. 1) Law of similarity: Objects with something
b.) Negative transfer: When learning in one in common will be grouped.
context hinders learning in another. For 2) Law of continuation: Humans tend to see
example, if a person has learned how to drive a objects that form smooth lines or patterns.
car with a manual transmission, he will 3) Law of closure: Humans tend to see
probably have difficulty learning how to drive imperfect or incomplete objects as
a car with an automatic transmission. complete objects.
c.) Zero transfer: When learning in one context
does not affect learning in another. For c. Constructivism
example, if a person has learned how to draw, Founded by Jean Piaget, constructivism
the ability to cook food may remain the same. emphasizes the importance of the active
Transfer of learning can be improved by involvement of learners in constructing knowledge
considering the characteristics of the initial for themselves. Students are considered to use
learning situation and the desired learning background knowledge and concepts to assist them
situation, as well as by considering the skills in acquiring new information. When approaching
and knowledge that have been learned. In such new information, learners face a loss of
addition, the practice and application of skills balance with their previous understanding, which
in various situations can also facilitate the demands changes in cognitive structure. These
transfer of learning. changes effectively combine previous and new
b. Cognitivism information to form better cognitive schemas.
Cognitivism is one of the learning theories Constructivism can be both subjective and
that focus on processing information by the human contextual-based. Under the theory of radical
brain. This theory considers that learning involves constructivism proposed by Ernst von Glasersfeld,
the brain processing, organizing, and storing understanding relies on one's subjective
information. Cognitivism also considers that interpretation of experience as opposed to objective
learning involves using critical and reflective "reality." Similarly, William Cobern's idea of
thinking skills to gain a deeper understanding contextual constructivism includes the effects of
(Vandenbos, 2015, p. 201). culture and society on experience (Bodner,
According to Lilienfeld (2010, p. 22), Klobuchar, & Geelan, 2001).
individuals actively process the information According to Jean Piaget (1977),
received and store it in long-term memory. constructivism is a theory that says that the learning
Cognitive processes such as paying attention, process occurs through the construction of new
remembering, organizing, grouping, comparing, and knowledge built by individuals through experiences
interpreting information are part of learning. obtained from their environment. According to
Cognitivism also emphasizes the importance of Piaget, children actively build their understanding
understanding knowledge structures and developing of the world through interaction with their physical
a more profound understanding. This theory and social environment. It views individuals as
suggests using teaching strategies that activate and active knowledge makers, not passive information
engage students actively, such as cooperative recipients. This process involves the construction of
learning, problem-based learning, and project-based new knowledge through constant adjustment to
learning. In addition, the use of technology is also existing cognitive schemes. Piaget also stated that
considered an effective tool for improving learning. everyonecan understand and cope with the

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problems he faces independently, but this also causality (cause-and-effect relationships). Children
depends on his level of cognitive development. at this stage tend to become selfish and have
difficulty understanding other people's perspectives.
2. Cognitive Development
b. Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
Cognitive development deals with how the
At this stage, the child begins to use
human mind develops from childhood to adulthood.
language and symbols. They can understand the
Understanding cognitive development is essential
world from their point of view and begin to develop
for developing a curriculum appropriate to students'
imagination and conceptual thinking. Children
abilities and developmental levels. Cognitive
begin to be able to use symbols to represent objects
development or cognitive development is one of the
and events in their world, such as words or pictures.
psychological foundations in curriculum
However, they are still limited in thinking logically
development. This theory suggests that children's
and concretely and still need to understand the
cognitive development develops gradually through
concept of conservation (the idea that objects
predetermined stages (Sellers, Machluf, &;
remain the same amount even if their shape or
Bjorklund, 2018).
appearance changes). Children at this stage tend to
In curriculum development, Cognitive
have an egocentric outlook, where they find it
Development can be applied by linking learning
difficult to understand other people's perspectives
material with the stages of children's cognitive
and tend to interpret the world from their point of
development. For example, in the sensorimotor
view.
stage, children better understand learning material
presented concretely and through direct experience.
In contrast, children can already understand abstract c. Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)
and logical concepts in the formal operational stage. At this stage, children understand the
By linking learning material with the stages of relationship between objects logically and can
children's cognitive development, the learning perform mental operations on concrete objects.
process is expected to be more effective and They also begin to understand the concept of
efficient in improving children's understanding and causality and understand the perspectives of others.
thinking skills (Schacter, 2011). Children begin to be able to think logically and
One of the leading figures in the theory of concretely about objects and events in the real
Cognitive Development is Jean Piaget, who divided world. Children can understand simple
children's cognitive development into four stages: mathematical concepts such as numbers, size, and
the sensorimotor stage, the pre-operational stage, sequence at this stage. They can also understand
the concrete operational stage, and the formal superficial cause-and-effect relationships and
operational stage. Each stage has distinctive causality and begin to develop the ability to solve
features and influences how the child perceives the problems.
world around him. The following stages of At this stage, children also begin to be able
development were initiated by Jean Piaget (Piaget, to perform a series of more complex tasks, such as
1977, pp. 103–117): sorting, classifying, and grouping objects based on
specific attributes. They also begin to understand
the concepts of space and time and can understand
a. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
the concepts of different perspectives. Although, at
At this stage, the child experiences the
this stage, children have been able to think more
world through the five senses and motor actions.
logically and systematically, they are still limited to
They learn about cause-and-effect relationships and
concrete thinking and are incapable of abstract
develop an initial understanding of permanent
thinking or complex hypotheses.
objects. At this stage, the child learns and
understands the world through his five senses and
physical movements. Children at this stage cannot d. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and
think conceptually or logically and cannot above)
understand that objects or objects still exist even Children understand abstract concepts,
though they are not visible. The child at this stage formal logic, and hypotheses at this stage. They can
can also not form mental representations about the do analytical and critical thinking and understand
world around him and does not yet understand justice and freedom. According to Jean Piaget's
theory, the formal operational stage is the last stage
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of cognitive development. Children can already basis for curriculum development in the motivation
think abstractly and logically at this stage without section:
depending on concrete objects or events. They can a. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
generate and test hypotheses, understand complex In this theory, Abraham Maslow (1943)
mathematics, science, and philosophy concepts, and argued that every individual has five basic
develop systematic thinking skills. needs that must be met: physiological,
Children can also understand the security, social, reward, and self-actualization.
difference between possibility and reality at this These needs are thought to influence an
stage and consider the consequences of the actions individual's motivation to achieve goals. This
taken. They can also consider other people's concept states that humans have five needs
perspectives and recognize that others may have that must be met gradually to achieve
different views. The Formal Operational Stage happiness and personal development. The five
begins at the age of about 12 years until adulthood. levels of need are:
At this stage, individuals can think abstractly and 1) Physiological Needs: Basic human needs
logically and apply their knowledge to new and include food, drink, air, shelter, and sexual
complex situations. fulfillment.
2) Security Needs: The need for security,
3. Motivation protection from danger, uncertainty,
physical or psychological threats, and
Motivation is an essential factor in learning.
order.
Understanding the factors that motivate students
3) Social Needs: The need for healthy and
can assist curriculum developers in developing
constructive social relationships, such as
effective learning strategies. Motivation is why
the need to be loved, accepted, and valued
humans and other animals start, continue, or end a
by others.
behavior at any given time. Motivational status is
generally understood as the forces at work within 4) Reward Need: The need to be recognized
the agent that creates the disposition to engage in by others and valued as a valuable and
goal-directed behavior. Different mental states often competent individual.
compete with each other, and only the most vital 5) Self-Actualization Needs: The need to
conditions determine behavior (Wasserman &; develop and reach maximum potential as
Wasserman, 2020, p. 93). an individual, pursue life goals, and have
This means that humans can be motivated to meaningful meaning in life.
do something without doing it. The paradigmatic According to Maslow (1954), higher-level
mental state that provides motivation is desire. But needs will only arise after lower-level needs are
a variety of other circumstances, such as beliefs met. He believed that the need for selfactualization
about what to do or one's intentions, can also is the goal of human beings and that reaching
provide motivation. Motivation comes from the maximum potential is the key to achieving true
word 'motive,' which indicates a person's need, happiness and life satisfaction.
want, desire, or drive. It is the process of motivating Maslow's concept of a hierarchy of needs has been
individuals to take action to achieve a goal. widely used in curriculum development to direct
Psychological elements that trigger people's attention to the needs of students and help them
behavior in the context of work goals may include reach their maximum potential.
the desire for money (Wasserman &; Wasserman,
2020, p. 100). b. Expectancy Theory
Motivation is one of the essential basic According to Victor Vroom, in
concepts in curriculum development because it Expectancy Theory, motivation is described as
plays a role in determining learning objectives and someone who will only be motivated to achieve a
designing effective learning strategies. specific performance if they believe that their
Understanding individual motivations can help efforts will result in a good performance and that
design learning strategies that fit students' needs good performance will result in desired rewards.
and provide learning experiences that motivate This theory emphasizes the importance of the
them to achieve learning goals. The following are relationship between effort, performance, and
theories from experts that are generally used as a reward in motivating individuals. According to this

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theory, individual motivation depends on three Here are the types of MI according to Gardner
main factors (Condrey, 2005, p. 482): (1989, p. 6):
1) Expectations: An individual's belief that they
can achieve the expected performance. a. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
2) Value: The degree of importance of the reward Logical-mathematical intelligence
desired by the individual. recognizes patterns, relationships, and order among
3) Instrumentality: An individual's belief that their objects and ideas. People with this intelligence tend
performance will result in the desired reward. to think analytically, critically, and systematically
This theory is often used in organizational and and quickly solve mathematical or logical
management contexts but can also be applied in problems. They also usually have good verbal skills
educational contexts and curriculum development and can solve problems using logical reasoning.
to motivate students to achieve learning objectives. Examples of jobs suitable for people with this
intelligence are computer programmers,
c. Flow State mathematicians, scientists, or logicians.
Proposed by psychologist Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi (2018). According to this theory, b. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
flow or flow is a state in which a person is fully Verbal-linguistic intelligence refers to an
engaged and focused on an activity that is individual's ability to use spoken and written
considered challenging but can still be completed. language effectively. People with verbal-linguistic
In this theory, there are several characteristics of solid intelligence can express themselves well,
flow experience, including: articulate ideas and concepts clearly, and master
1) Clear goals various languages quickly. Verbal-linguistic
2) Live feedback intelligence is essential in various fields, such as
3) Adequate challenges education, journalism, law, literature, and more.
4) High concentration People with verbal-linguistic solid intelligence can
5) High control over the activity be influential writers, poets, lawyers, or teachers.
6) A pleasant and satisfying subjective
experience. c. Visual-Spatial Intelligence
Flow theory is often used in curriculum Visual-spatial intelligence is the ability of
development to create a fun and satisfying an individual to visualize and manipulate objects in
learning experience for students to increase his mind, as well as understand the relationship
their motivation and interest in learning. between these objects in space and time. People
with visual-spatial intelligence can draw, visualize
4. Multiple Intelligences complex ideas, solve visual problems, and create or
develop space-based or image-based strategies.
The concept of multiple intelligences, or Examples of jobs that people with this intelligence
MI, refers to humans having different types of can do include architects, artists, illustrators,
intelligence. Developing a curriculum covering photographers, and cartographers.
different intelligence types can help students
develop their full potential. Multiple Intelligences
d. Kinesthetic Intelligence
(MI) is a theory proposed by Howard Gardner
Kinesthetic intelligence refers to the ability
( 2011; 1989). According to this theory, intelligence
of an individual to use his body effectively and
is not only seen from academic abilities or
coordinatively. People with good kinesthetic
verballinguistic and logical-mathematical
intelligence tend to have good physical abilities,
intelligence but also from other abilities such as
including eye-hand coordination, body balance,
visual-spatial, body-kinesthetic, musical,
speed, dexterity, and physical strength. Individuals
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist
with high kinesthetic intelligence are often
intelligence. Gardner states that every individual
considered to have talents for sports, dance, martial
has intelligence in a different area or field, and
arts, or professions that require good physical and
these intelligence are unrelated. Therefore, effective
motor coordination, such as surgeons, firefighters,
learning must pay attention to students' multiple
and mechanics. However, kinesthetic intelligence
intelligences and adjust learning strategies
can also be applied in other fields, such as art,
according to the intelligence possessed by students.

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music, or even business and management, where animal husbandry, environmental conservation, and
physical abilities are necessary to lead and inspire natural science. Howard Gardner introduced the
others. concept of naturalist intelligence in his theory of
multiple intelligences.
e. Musical Intelligence MI has been adopted and applied in
Musical intelligence is the ability to education, especially in the United States, as a basis
recognize, produce, and express musical patterns for developing a more holistic and inclusive
and appreciate different types of music. People with curriculum and teaching. However, this theory has
good musical intelligence can understand and also become controversial because it is considered
remember melodies, rhythms, and harmonies easily scientifically untestable and still sparks debate
and express emotions through music. People with among education experts (Geake, 2008).
high musical intelligence can also be excellent
musicians, singers, composers, or connoisseurs. 5. Lifelong Learning
Lifelong learning refers to the importance of
f. Interpersonal Intelligence continuous learning throughout life. Curriculum
Interpersonal intelligence or social development that considers lifelong learning can
intelligence refers to an individual's ability to help students become independent and sustainable
understand, feel, and act according to the feelings learners. Lifelonglearning is a learning process that
of others. This intelligence includes the ability to lasts throughout a person's life, not just limited to
understand the emotions, motivations, and desires the period of formal education in school or college.
of others as well as the ability to communicate, This concept describes that learning and
build interpersonal relationships, and solve selfdevelopment continue throughout a person's
problems socially. Individuals with high life, formally and informally, in various contexts
intelligence tend to form good interpersonal and life situations. Lifelong learning aims to
relationships, work together, lead, and influence develop one's abilities and knowledge to continue to
others. It is also required in various professions grow and develop personally, socially, and
that require social interaction, such as teachers, professionally throughout life (Dea, 2000, p. 25).
counselors, psychologists, and entrepreneurs. Lifelong learning focuses on holistic
education and has two dimensions, namely, lifelong
g. Intrapersonal Intelligence and broad learning options. It demonstrates learning
Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to that integrates traditional educational proposals and
understand and control oneself. People with good modern learning opportunities. Learning concepts
intrapersonal intelligence tend to have a good in Lifelong Learning include
understanding of their strengths and weaknesses (Qinhua, Dongming, Zhiying, &; Hao, 2016, pp.
and be able to regulate emotions and motivate 19–20):
themselves effectively. They are also able to
consider options wisely and make informed a. lifelong learning
decisions. Examples of professions that can demand As a main principle, learning occurs
good intrapersonal intelligence include throughout a person's life, from childhood to old
psychologists, counselors, spiritual leaders, and age. This concept illustrates the importance of
entrepreneurs. continuous learning and self-development for
personal and professional purposes. Lifelong
h. Naturalist Intelligence learning aims to improve the quality of life,
Naturalist intelligence or improve a person's knowledge, skills, and abilities,
natural intelligence is the ability to and increase their participation and contribution to
understand nature and living things and have an society. This concept also emphasizes learning as an
interest in and sensitivity to the surrounding ongoing and continuous process, not just a school
environment. People with naturalist intelligence activity or formal education.
tend to be sensitive to natural changes and can
respond quickly. They can also recognize patterns
b. Learning is a process, not just a result.
in natural life and are highly sensitive to the
The learning or teaching-learning process is
surrounding flora and fauna. Naturalist intelligence
a process that focuses on the result or learning
can help a person in fields such as agriculture,
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output, such as grades or certificates, and the f. Learning is directed at mastering

process passed by individuals in acquiring the competencies.
desired knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The The concept of lifelong learning
teaching-learning process also includes various emphasizes the importance of developing abilities
experiences and interactions experienced by and skills in the world of work. Learning is not only
individuals during the learning process, such as oriented to theoretical knowledge but also to
interactions with teachers or instructors, classmates practical application in everyday life and work. The
or co-workers, and learning experiences through goal of learning is to achieve competencies that can
activities outside the classroom. improve individual performance and productivity in
Process-focused learning allows individuals the workplace. Therefore, lifelong learning should
to develop lifelong learning abilities to deal with focus on developing competencies relevant to the
changes that occur in the surrounding environment demands of an ever-evolving world of work.
more adaptively. That way, process-oriented
learning can assist individuals in acquiring new g. Learning that requires the support of
knowledge and skills that are relevant and up- institutions, organizations, and
todate, which is crucial in the face of ongoing communities.
changes in today's world. Lifelong learning also requires support
from various parties, including educational
c. Learning can happen in different places institutions, organizations, and society. Educational
and times. institutions can provide access to formal education
Learning occurs not only in the classroom programs, such as courses and degree programs,
or formal educational institutions but also in the while organizations can provide training and skills
surrounding environment, such as at home, work, or development for their employees. In addition, the
even in social activities. In addition, learning can community's support facilitates access to resources,
also occur at any time, not only during school hours such as libraries, training centers, and community
or working hours but also outside working hours or development programs. With the proper support,
on weekends. In today's digital era, learning can lifelong learning can be an initiative that can yield
happen online through e-learning platforms or other long-term benefits for individuals and communities.
learning applications.
h. Learning that is inclusive, respecting
d. Anyone can do learning. individual and cultural diversity.
The concept of lifelong learning views that Inclusive learning respects individual and
learning is limited to a certain age or status and can cultural diversity and provides equal opportunities
be done by anyone, anytime, and anywhere. In for learning for all without discrimination. This
addition, learning does not only occur in formal means that learning must be designed to meet
environments such as schools or colleges. However, different needs and learning styles and
it can also occur in non-formal or informal accommodate differences in culture, language,
environments such as at work, at home, or through religion, gender, and more. Inclusive learning also
daily life experiences. Thus, everyone has the same promotes a safe, relaxed, and open learning
opportunity to develop themselves and acquire new environment where everyone feels welcome and
knowledge and skills. valued.

e. The learning carried out is holistic. IV. CONCLUSION

Lifelong learning is holistic Understanding psychology as a
and integrated, covering physical, cornerstone of the curriculum is very important for
psychological, social, and spiritual aspects. It teachers because it will be beneficial in
recognizes the individual as a complex and diverse understanding how students learn. By
being, so continuous learning does not only focus understanding the psychological theories associated
on academic development alone but also on other with learning, teachers can identify effective
aspects that are important for individual success in teaching strategies and assist students in achieving
life. learning objectives. In addition, optimizing
students' potential. For example, by understanding
student characteristics, teachers can help optimize
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students' potential in learning and develop their [5]. Cox, C. (2005). Cecilia Braslavsky and the
competencies. In addition, by tailoring the Curriculum. PROSPECTS, 35(4), 415–427.
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students' psychological and developmental needs, [6]. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2018). Flow: The
teachers can tailor the curriculum to suit students' Psychology of Optimal Experience by
needs and abilities. Lastly, it can facilitate student Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. South Carolina:
welfare. Understanding student psychology can CreateSpace.
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