Research Methodology Past Papers Solved Long

Questions

Past Paper 2014

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Differentiate between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Paradigms?

A: 1 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Paradigms: Qualitative

and quantitative research paradigms represent distinct approaches to
conducting research, each with its own set of characteristics, methodologies,
and underlying assumptions.

Quantitative Research Paradigm:

Nature of Data: Quantitative research deals with numerical data and

statistics, focusing on measurable variables and objective observations.

Objective Truths: It presupposes objective truths and a singular,

unequivocal reality, aiming to establish generalizable patterns and
relationships.
Research Approach: The approach is typically deductive, involving the
testing of hypotheses through structured data collection and statistical
analysis.

Data Collection: It often involves the use of surveys, experiments, and

structured observations to gather data with specific answer options.

Analysis: Quantitative research is characterized by rigorous statistical

analysis to identify patterns, correlations, and causal relationships within the
data.

Qualitative Research Paradigm:

Nature of Data: Qualitative research deals with non-numerical data,

focusing on words, narratives, and subjective experiences.

Subjective Approach: It follows a subjective approach, emphasizing the

researcher's intimate involvement and interpretation of the data.

Presuppositions: Qualitative research presupposes a world that is complex,

subjective, and context-dependent, aiming to understand and interpret the
meanings and experiences of individuals.

Research Approach: The approach is typically inductive, involving the

exploration and interpretation of data to generate theories and understand
social phenomena.
Data Collection: It often involves methods such as in-depth interviews,
focus groups, and participant observation to gather rich, detailed insights and
perspectives.

Analysis: Qualitative research involves in-depth, interpretive analysis to

identify themes, patterns, and underlying meanings within the data.

Comparison:

Nature of Data: Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics,

while qualitative research deals with words and narratives.

Presuppositions: Quantitative research presupposes objective truths and a

singular, unequivocal reality, while qualitative research presupposes a world
that is complex, subjective, and context-dependent.

Research Approach: Quantitative research is more deductive, focusing on

hypothesis testing and generalizable patterns, while qualitative research is
more inductive, focusing on exploration and interpretation of data.

Data Collection: Quantitative research often uses structured surveys and

experiments, while qualitative research often uses in-depth interviews and
participant observation to gather detailed insights.

Analysis: Quantitative research involves rigorous statistical analysis, while

qualitative research involves in-depth interpretive analysis to uncover
underlying meanings.
Q: 2 What ethical consideration will you keep in mind while doing research?

A: 2 Followings are ethical consideration that you should keep in mind while
doing research:

1. Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the

study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits before giving their voluntary

consent. Researchers must provide understandable information, allowing

participants to make informed decisions.

2. Voluntary Participation: Participants should participate willingly

without coercion. They must have the freedom to withdraw from the study at

any point without facing negative consequences.

3. Privacy and Confidentiality: Researchers must protect participants'

privacy by ensuring confidentiality. This involves safeguarding the identity of

participants and the information they provide, unless they provide explicit

consent to share certain details.

4. Beneficence: Researchers should aim to maximize benefits and minimize

potential harm to participants. The potential benefits of the research should

outweigh any risks involved.

5. Justice and Fairness: Researchers must ensure that the distribution of

benefits and burdens is fair. This includes selecting participants fairly and

avoiding the exploitation of vulnerable populations.

6. Researcher Integrity: Researchers must maintain honesty and integrity

throughout the research process. This involves accurately reporting findings,

avoiding biases, and conducting research in a transparent manner.

7. Respect for Participants: Researchers must treat participants with

respect and consideration, acknowledging their autonomy and avoiding any

form of discrimination or stigmatization.

8. Debriefing: Researchers should provide participants with a debriefing

after the study, explaining the purpose, addressing any misconceptions, and

offering resources for further information or support.

9. Conflict of Interest: Researchers should disclose any potential conflicts

of interest that might compromise the objectivity or integrity of the research.

10. Compliance with Regulations: Researchers must adhere to ethical

guidelines, standards, and regulations set by institutional review boards

(IRBs) or ethical review committees overseeing research.

Q: 3 What are the major components of a Research Report?

A: 3 Major Components of a Research Report: When preparing a

research report, several key components are typically included to ensure a
comprehensive and structured presentation of the research findings. These
components are essential for providing context, methodology, results, and
discussion of the research study. Here are the major components of a research
report:

1. Title Page: The title page includes the title of the research report, the
author's name, institutional affiliation, and sometimes additional information
such as the date of publication.

2. Abstract: The abstract provides a concise summary of the research study,

including the research objectives, methodology, key findings, and conclusions.
It serves as a brief overview of the entire report.

3. Introduction: The introduction outlines the background and context of

the research, presents the research problem or question, and provides a
rationale for the study. It also includes a review of relevant literature and
establishes the significance of the research topic.
4. Methods: The methods section details the research design, data collection
methods, materials used, and any procedures followed during the study. It
provides a clear description of how the research was conducted.

5. Results: The results section presents the findings of the research, often
through the use of tables, figures, and statistical analysis. It provides an
objective presentation of the data collected during the study.

6. Discussion: The discussion section interprets the results, explores their

implications, and relates them to the research objectives. It also addresses the
study's limitations and suggests areas for future research.
 Past Paper 2015

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Discuss the significance of literature review in research?

A: 1 Significance of Literature Review in Research: The literature

review plays a crucial role in the research process, serving as a comprehensive
examination of existing scholarship and knowledge related to the research
topic. Its significance can be understood through several key aspects:

1. Establishing Context and Rationale: The literature review provides a

thorough overview of the current state of knowledge and research on the
topic, establishing the context within which the new research study will be
conducted.

It helps to identify gaps, controversies, and areas of disagreement in the

existing literature, thus providing a rationale for the new research study.

2. Informing Research Questions and Objectives: By synthesizing and

analyzing existing literature, the review helps researchers refine their
research questions and objectives, ensuring that the study addresses relevant
and significant issues within the field.
3. Identifying Methodological Approaches: The literature review
exposes researchers to various methodological approaches and research
designs used in previous studies, helping them make informed decisions about
the most suitable methods for their own research.

4. Supporting Theoretical Frameworks: It assists in the development of

theoretical frameworks by providing a foundation of established theories,
concepts, and models relevant to the research topic.

5. Avoiding Redundancy and Replication: Through a comprehensive

review of existing literature, researchers can avoid duplicating previous
studies and ensure that their research contributes new and valuable insights
to the field.

6. Enhancing Credibility and Validity: A well-conducted literature

review enhances the credibility and validity of the research study by
demonstrating the researcher's familiarity with and understanding of the
existing body of knowledge.

7. Guiding Data Collection and Analysis: It guides the selection of

appropriate data collection methods and analysis techniques, providing
insights into how similar research studies have approached data collection
and analysis.
8. Contributing to Knowledge Synthesis: By synthesizing and analyzing
a wide range of literature, the review contributes to knowledge synthesis
within the field, helping to build a coherent and integrated understanding of
the research topic.
Q: 2 Differentiate between Referencing and Citation?

A: 2 Differentiating Referencing and Citation in Research:

Referencing in Research: Referencing in research involves the detailed

acknowledgment of the sources used in a scholarly work. It typically includes
the full bibliographic details of each source, such as the author's name, title,
publication date, and other relevant information. The purpose of referencing
is to provide readers with the necessary information to locate the original
source material. It also serves to give credit to the original authors and to
demonstrate the depth and breadth of the research conducted by the author.
Referencing is commonly presented in a separate section at the end of the
document, such as a bibliography or reference list.

Citation in Research: Citation, on the other hand, refers to the specific

mention of a source within the body of the text. It serves to attribute a
particular idea, concept, or piece of information to its original source.
Citations are typically included within the text, either in parentheses or as
footnotes, and they provide brief details such as the author's name and the
publication year. The primary purpose of citations is to support the author's
arguments, provide evidence for claims, and enable readers to locate the full
reference in the bibliography or reference list. Citations are integrated within
the body of the text to point readers to the full reference.
Comparison:

Purpose: Referencing serves the purpose of acknowledging and providing

full bibliographic details of the sources used, while citation serves the purpose
of attributing specific ideas or information to their original sources within the
text.

Location: Referencing is typically found in a separate section at the end of

the document (e.g., bibliography or reference list), while citations are
integrated within the body of the text.

Content: Referencing includes comprehensive bibliographic details, such as

the author's name, title, publication date, and other relevant information,
while citations provide brief details, often just the author's name and
publication year, to point readers to the full reference.
Q: 3 Discuss in detail the sampling techniques which can be used by a
researcher?

A: 3 Sampling techniques in research refer to the methods used to select a

subset of individuals or elements from a larger population for study. The goal

of sampling is to draw conclusions about the population based on the

characteristics of the sampled group. Choosing the right sampling technique is

crucial to ensure the research results are representative and applicable to the

larger population. Here are some common sampling techniques:

1. Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected. Simple random sampling involves using random

number generators or a randomization process.

2. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups or strata

based on certain characteristics. Samples are then randomly selected from

each stratum in proportion to the population.

3. Systematic Sampling: Every nth member of the population is selected

after an initial random start. For example, if a population has 1,000

individuals and a sample size of 100 is desired, every 10th individual could be

selected.

4. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and then

clusters are randomly selected. All members within the selected clusters are

included in the sample.

5. Convenience Sampling: Participants are chosen based on their easy

accessibility or availability. This method is often quick and convenient but

may lack representativeness.

6. Quota Sampling: Researchers select a specific number of participants

from different subgroups until a predetermined quota is met. Unlike stratified

sampling, the selection within each subgroup is not necessarily random.

7. Snowball Sampling: Existing participants refer or recruit new

participants. This method is often used when the population is hard to reach

or identify.
8. Purposive Sampling: Researchers purposefully select individuals based

on specific characteristics or criteria. This method is common in qualitative

research where the focus is on specific traits or experiences.

9. Multistage Sampling: Involves combining two or more sampling

methods. For example, using cluster sampling to select clusters and then using

random sampling to select individuals within those clusters. The choice of

sampling technique depends on the research question, the characteristics of

the population, available resources, and the goals of the study. Each method

has its strengths and limitations, and researchers need to carefully consider

these factors to ensure the validity and generalizability of their findings.

 Past Paper 2017

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Discuss mixed method approach as a third pragmatic approach in

research in research paradigm. What are the kinds of research tools that the
researchers use for data interpretation in this approach?

A: 1 Mixed Method Approach in Research Paradigm: The mixed

method approach in research represents a pragmatic stance that integrates
both qualitative and quantitative research methods to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the research problem. This approach
acknowledges the value of utilizing multiple methods to gain a more complete
and nuanced understanding of complex phenomena. It is particularly useful
when a single method may not fully capture the intricacies of the research
topic or when triangulation of data is desired to enhance the validity and
reliability of the findings.
Kinds of Research Tools for Data Interpretation in Mixed Method
Approach:

1. Qualitative Research Tools:

Thematic Analysis: This involves identifying, analyzing, and reporting

patterns within qualitative data. It helps in interpreting the underlying
meanings and patterns in the data.

Content Analysis: Researchers use this technique to systematically analyze

the content of qualitative data, such as text, images, or media, to identify
themes and patterns.

Narrative Analysis: This tool focuses on the stories and narratives within
the qualitative data, aiming to understand the experiences and perspectives of
the participants.

2. Quantitative Research Tools:

Statistical Analysis: Quantitative data interpretation often involves

statistical techniques such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and
multivariate analysis to identify patterns and relationships within the data.

Regression Analysis: This tool is used to understand the relationship

between variables and to make predictions based on the data.

Factor Analysis: Researchers use this technique to identify underlying

factors or dimensions within quantitative data.
3. Mixed Methods Integration Tools:

Data Triangulation: This involves comparing and contrasting findings

from qualitative and quantitative data to validate or corroborate the results.

Meta-Inference: Researchers use this technique to synthesize findings from

both qualitative and quantitative data to draw comprehensive conclusions.

The mixed method approach allows researchers to leverage the strengths of

both qualitative and quantitative methods, providing a more holistic
understanding of the research problem. By employing a diverse set of
research tools for data interpretation, researchers can effectively analyze and
interpret the complex data obtained through mixed methods research.
Q: 2 Explain the significance of Literature review in research? Demonstrate
the use of synthesis and analysis in Literature Review?

A: 2 Significance of Literature Review in Research: The literature

review plays a crucial role in the research process, serving as a comprehensive
examination of existing scholarship and knowledge related to the research
topic. Its significance can be understood through several key aspects:

1. Establishing Context and Rationale: The literature review provides a

thorough overview of the current state of knowledge and research on the
topic, establishing the context within which the new research study will be
conducted.

It helps to identify gaps, controversies, and areas of disagreement in the

existing literature, thus providing a rationale for the new research study.

2. Informing Research Questions and Objectives: By synthesizing and

analyzing existing literature, the review helps researchers refine their
research questions and objectives, ensuring that the study addresses relevant
and significant issues within the field.
3. Identifying Methodological Approaches: The literature review
exposes researchers to various methodological approaches and research
designs used in previous studies, helping them make informed decisions about
the most suitable methods for their own research.

4. Supporting Theoretical Frameworks: It assists in the development of

theoretical frameworks by providing a foundation of established theories,
concepts, and models relevant to the research topic.

5. Avoiding Redundancy and Replication: Through a comprehensive

review of existing literature, researchers can avoid duplicating previous
studies and ensure that their research contributes new and valuable insights
to the field.

6. Enhancing Credibility and Validity: A well-conducted literature

review enhances the credibility and validity of the research study by
demonstrating the researcher's familiarity with and understanding of the
existing body of knowledge.

7. Guiding Data Collection and Analysis: It guides the selection of

appropriate data collection methods and analysis techniques, providing
insights into how similar research studies have approached data collection
and analysis.
8. Contributing to Knowledge Synthesis: By synthesizing and analyzing
a wide range of literature, the review contributes to knowledge synthesis
within the field, helping to build a coherent and integrated understanding of
the research topic.

Synthesis and Analysis in Literature Review:

Synthesis: In the context of a literature review, synthesis involves the process

of bringing together information from various sources to create a cohesive
and integrated understanding of a particular topic or research question. It
goes beyond summarizing individual sources and aims to identify patterns,
themes, and connections across the literature. Synthesis in a literature review
involves integrating diverse perspectives and findings to develop a
comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

Analysis: On the other hand, analysis in a literature review entails the

critical examination and evaluation of individual sources to understand their
significance, strengths, weaknesses, and contributions to the overall body of
knowledge. It involves breaking down the content of the literature into its
constituent parts to gain insights into the underlying concepts, methodologies,
and arguments. Through analysis, researchers can identify gaps,
contradictions, and areas for further exploration within the existing literature.
Q: 3 How would you differentiate between the following set of pairs:

a. Qualitative Approach vs. Quantitative Approach

b. Probability Sampling vs. non-probability Sampling

c. MLA vs. APA

A: 3 Differentiating Between the Given Pairs:

a. Qualitative Approach vs. Quantitative Approach:

Qualitative Approach:

Definition: The qualitative approach involves the collection, analysis, and

interpretation of non-numeric data, such as words, images, and observations.

Data Collection: It often involves methods such as interviews, focus groups,

and observations to gather rich, in-depth insights.

Analysis: Qualitative data is analyzed thematically or through content

analysis to identify patterns, themes, and underlying meanings.

Purpose: It is used to explore complex phenomena, understand experiences,

and generate hypotheses for further research.
Quantitative Approach:

Definition: The quantitative approach involves the collection and analysis of

numerical data to quantify relationships, patterns, and trends.

Data Collection: It often involves surveys, experiments, and structured

observations to gather data that can be statistically analyzed.

Analysis: Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical methods to test

hypotheses, establish correlations, and make generalizations.

Purpose: It is used to measure and quantify phenomena, test hypotheses, and

make predictions based on numerical data.

b. Probability Sampling vs. Non-probability Sampling:

Probability Sampling:

Definition: Probability sampling involves selecting a sample from a

population using random selection methods, giving every member of the
population a known and non-zero chance of being included.

Types: Common types include simple random sampling, stratified sampling,

and cluster sampling.

Representativeness: It ensures that the sample is representative of the

population and allows for statistical inferences.
Non-probability Sampling:

Definition: Non-probability sampling involves selecting a sample from a

population using non-random methods, such as convenience sampling,
purposive sampling, or snowball sampling.

Representativeness: It may not ensure representativeness of the population

and limits the generalizability of findings.

c. MLA vs. APA:

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style:

Usage: Commonly used in the humanities, especially in language, literature,

and cultural studies.

Citation Format: It uses parenthetical in-text citations and a "Works

Cited" page for references.

Publication Information: It includes the author's name and page number

in the in-text citation for direct quotes.
APA (American Psychological Association) Style:

Usage: Widely used in the social sciences, education, and psychology.

Citation Format: It uses author-date in-text citations and a "References"

page for sources cited.

Publication Information: It includes the author's name and publication

year in the in-text citation for direct quotes.
 Past Paper 2018

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 What is meant by adapting data collection procedure(s)? Discuss the

various aspects of adaptation?

A: 1 Adapting Data Collection Procedures: Adapting data collection

procedures refers to the process of making modifications or adjustments to
the methods and techniques used to gather data in a research study. This
adaptation can be necessary to ensure the collection of accurate, relevant, and
comprehensive data, especially in situations where the initial procedures may
not be fully effective or suitable for the specific context or population of
interest.

Aspects of Adaptation:

1. Population Considerations: Adapting data collection procedures may

involve considering the unique characteristics and needs of the population
under study. This could include making adjustments to account for diverse
cultural backgrounds, language barriers, or specific accessibility
requirements.
2. Methodological Flexibility: Researchers may need to demonstrate
flexibility in their data collection methods, allowing for adjustments based on
real-time feedback and emerging insights. This flexibility can enhance the
responsiveness of the data collection process.

3. Accommodating Individual Needs: In the context of educational or

clinical research, adaptation may involve providing accommodations that
meet the unique needs of individual participants. This ensures that all
participants are able to fully engage in the data collection process.

4. Iterative Nature of Data Collection: Adapting data collection

procedures acknowledges the iterative nature of the process, where
adjustments may be made as the researcher gains a deeper understanding of
the field and the data being collected.

5. Cultural Adaptations: In studies involving cultural adaptations of

interventions, the data collection procedures may need to integrate both top-
down and bottom-up approaches to ensure that the data gathered is culturally
sensitive and relevant.
6. Systematic and Unbiased Data Collection: Methods used to ensure
unbiased and systematic data collection from all participants are crucial.
Adaptations may be made to ensure that the data collection process is fair and
inclusive.

7. Consideration of Method Selection: Researchers are advised to

carefully consider the selection of data collection methods, understanding that
a one-size-fits-all approach may not be suitable. This consideration may lead
to adaptations in the choice of methods or a combination of methods.

8. Adaptive Management Framework: In certain contexts, such as

environmental management, the adaptive management framework may be
used to accommodate the iterative, data-driven process of adapting data
collection procedures.
Q: 2 Discuss EITHER (a) the source for literature review OR (b) the different
uses of literature review?

A: 2 Sources for Literature Review: The sources for a literature review

encompass a wide range of materials that contribute to the understanding and
contextualization of a research topic. These sources can be categorized into
primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, each offering unique insights and
perspectives. Here are the key sources commonly used in literature reviews:

1. Primary Sources: Primary sources are original materials or firsthand

accounts of events or research findings. These may include:

 Original research articles published in peer-reviewed journals.

 Unpublished research reports, theses, and dissertations.
 Conference papers, abstracts, and presentations.
 Original data sets and experimental findings.

2. Secondary Sources: Secondary sources provide analysis, interpretation,

or commentary on primary sources. These may include:

 Review articles and literature reviews that synthesize and analyze

existing research.
 Books and book chapters that provide comprehensive discussions of
specific topics.
  Biographies, critical studies, and scholarly commentaries on original
works.

3. Tertiary Sources: Tertiary sources compile and summarize information

from primary and secondary sources. These may include:

 Encyclopedias, handbooks, and reference materials that provide

overviews of specific subjects.
 Databases and indexes that aggregate information from primary and
secondary sources.

4. Other Considerations: Scholarly articles from peer-reviewed journals

are highly valued for their rigor and academic credibility.

Government reports, statistical data, and official publications can provide

authoritative information on specific topics.

Creative works such as literature, poetry, and art may also be included in
literature reviews when relevant to the research topic.
Different Uses of Literature Review: A literature review serves several
important purposes in the research process, contributing to the development
of a strong theoretical foundation, the identification of gaps in existing
knowledge, and the contextualization of the research within the broader
academic discourse. Here are the different uses of a literature review:

1. Establishing Theoretical Framework: A literature review helps in

establishing the theoretical framework for the research by synthesizing
existing knowledge and theories related to the research topic. It provides a
comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge in the field.

2. Identifying Gaps and Contradictions: It allows researchers to identify

gaps, contradictions, or inconsistencies in the existing literature, which can
guide the formulation of research questions and hypotheses. By pinpointing
areas where further investigation is needed, it contributes to the advancement
of knowledge.

3. Informing Methodological Choices: The literature review informs the

selection of appropriate research methodologies and data collection
techniques by highlighting the methods used in previous studies and their
strengths and limitations. This ensures that the chosen methods are well-
suited to address the research questions.
4. Contextualizing the Research: It contextualizes the research within the
broader academic discourse, demonstrating the significance and relevance of
the study within the field. This contextualization is essential for justifying the
research's contribution to the existing body of knowledge.

5. Supporting Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: A literature

review provides support for the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used
in the research, demonstrating how the study builds upon and extends existing
theories or concepts.

6. Synthesizing Diverse Perspectives: It synthesizes diverse perspectives

and findings from multiple sources, allowing for a comprehensive
understanding of the topic and facilitating the integration of different
viewpoints.

7. Identifying Key Authors and Studies: It identifies key authors,

seminal studies, and influential works in the field, providing a foundation for
understanding the intellectual lineage of the research area.

8. Guiding the Direction of the Research: The literature review guides

the direction of the research, helping researchers to refine their focus, develop
research questions, and articulate the significance of their study within the
broader context of existing scholarship.
Q: 3 Demonstrate the use of synthesis and analysis in Literature Review?

A: 3 In a literature review, the processes of synthesis and analysis play crucial

roles in consolidating existing research, identifying patterns, and deriving
meaningful insights. Let's explore how these processes are utilized in the
context of a literature review:

Synthesis in Literature Review: Synthesis in a literature review involves

integrating information from diverse sources to construct a coherent and
comprehensive understanding of the research topic. This process entails:

1. Integrating Subtopics: The literature review requires the synthesis of

different subtopics to gain a holistic understanding of the state of knowledge
on a larger issue.

2. Organizing Information: Researchers use synthesis to organize and

structure the information gathered from various sources, allowing for a
systematic presentation of the existing literature.

3. Demonstrating Comprehension: Synthesis demonstrates the

researcher's comprehension of the literature, enabling the identification of
common themes, trends, and divergent viewpoints.
Analysis in Literature Review: Analysis in a literature review involves
critically evaluating and interpreting the information gathered from the
sources. This process includes:

1. Breaking Down Information: Analytical writing involves breaking

down and examining the components of the literature to identify key insights
and arguments.

2. Identifying Patterns and Gaps: Through analysis, researchers identify

patterns, contradictions, and gaps in the existing literature, which informs the
development of research questions and hypotheses.

3. Evaluation and Original Creation: Analysis in the literature review

demonstrates the researcher's ability to evaluate the literature and contribute
original insights to the field.
 Past Paper 2019

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 What is the significance of examining records documents in a research

study?

A: 1 Examining records and documents in a research study holds significant

importance across various fields and disciplines. Here's a detailed exploration
of the significance based on the provided search results:

Significance of Examining Records and Documents in Research:

1. Time Efficiency and Impact Studies: Research studies, such as those

examining the impact of electronic health records on time efficiency, rely on
the examination of records and documents to assess significant differences in
outcomes.
2. Historical Research and Declassified Records: Historical research, as
exemplified by the declassification of Project BLUE BOOK records on
unidentified flying objects, underscores the significance of examining records
for understanding past events and phenomena.

3. Document Analysis for Research: Document analysis is crucial for

researchers as it allows them to make sense of resources, select appropriate
pieces for their study, and derive meaningful insights from the examined
documents.

4. Auditing and Inspection: In auditing and inspection processes, the

examination of records and documents, whether in paper or electronic form,
is essential for ensuring compliance and accuracy.

5. Public Health and Epidemiological Studies: Data from surveys, such

as the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), are
used in epidemiological studies and health sciences research, highlighting the
role of examined records in informing public health policy and research.

6. Patent Examination and Research Datasets: Understanding patent

examination records is crucial for the proper analysis of patent research
datasets, emphasizing the significance of examined documents in intellectual
property research.
7. Document Analysis in Qualitative Research: Document analysis
serves as a qualitative research method, allowing researchers to give voice and
meaning around assessment topics by coding content into themes,
demonstrating the value of examined documents in qualitative analysis.

8. Data Source Examination: In qualitative research, examining more

than just the research findings is important, emphasizing the need to
thoroughly analyze and interpret the documents used as data sources.
Q: 2 What is Sampling technique? Discuss its various types?

A: 2 Sampling techniques in research refer to the methods used to select a

subset of individuals or elements from a larger population for study. The goal

of sampling is to draw conclusions about the population based on the

characteristics of the sampled group. Choosing the right sampling technique is

crucial to ensure the research results are representative and applicable to the

larger population. Here are some common sampling techniques:

1. Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected. Simple random sampling involves using random

number generators or a randomization process.

2. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups or strata

based on certain characteristics. Samples are then randomly selected from

each stratum in proportion to the population.

3. Systematic Sampling: Every nth member of the population is selected

after an initial random start. For example, if a population has 1,000

individuals and a sample size of 100 is desired, every 10th individual could be

selected.

4. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and then

clusters are randomly selected. All members within the selected clusters are

included in the sample.

5. Convenience Sampling: Participants are chosen based on their easy

accessibility or availability. This method is often quick and convenient but

may lack representativeness.

6. Quota Sampling: Researchers select a specific number of participants

from different subgroups until a predetermined quota is met. Unlike stratified

sampling, the selection within each subgroup is not necessarily random.

7. Snowball Sampling: Existing participants refer or recruit new

participants. This method is often used when the population is hard to reach

or identify.
8. Purposive Sampling: Researchers purposefully select individuals based

on specific characteristics or criteria. This method is common in qualitative

research where the focus is on specific traits or experiences.

9. Multistage Sampling: Involves combining two or more sampling

methods. For example, using cluster sampling to select clusters and then using

random sampling to select individuals within those clusters. The choice of

sampling technique depends on the research question, the characteristics of

the population, available resources, and the goals of the study. Each method

has its strengths and limitations, and researchers need to carefully consider

these factors to ensure the validity and generalizability of their findings.

Q: 3 Differentiate between Referencing and Citation?

A: 3 Differentiating Referencing and Citation in Research:

Referencing in Research: Referencing in research involves the detailed

acknowledgment of the sources used in a scholarly work. It typically includes
the full bibliographic details of each source, such as the author's name, title,
publication date, and other relevant information. The purpose of referencing
is to provide readers with the necessary information to locate the original
source material. It also serves to give credit to the original authors and to
demonstrate the depth and breadth of the research conducted by the author.
Referencing is commonly presented in a separate section at the end of the
document, such as a bibliography or reference list.

Citation in Research: Citation, on the other hand, refers to the specific

mention of a source within the body of the text. It serves to attribute a
particular idea, concept, or piece of information to its original source.
Citations are typically included within the text, either in parentheses or as
footnotes, and they provide brief details such as the author's name and the
publication year. The primary purpose of citations is to support the author's
arguments, provide evidence for claims, and enable readers to locate the full
reference in the bibliography or reference list. Citations are integrated within
the body of the text to point readers to the full reference.
Comparison:

Purpose: Referencing serves the purpose of acknowledging and providing

full bibliographic details of the sources used, while citation serves the purpose
of attributing specific ideas or information to their original sources within the
text.

Location: Referencing is typically found in a separate section at the end of

the document (e.g., bibliography or reference list), while citations are
integrated within the body of the text.

Content: Referencing includes comprehensive bibliographic details, such as

the author's name, title, publication date, and other relevant information,
while citations provide brief details, often just the author's name and
publication year, to point readers to the full reference.
 Past Paper 2020

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Define and explain the word ‘research’. Differentiate between the

qualitative and quantitative research?

A: 1 Research: Research can be defined as a systematic investigation,

including development, testing, and evaluation, designed to develop or
contribute to generalizable knowledge. It involves a meticulous and systematic
inquiry process designed to explore and unravel specific subjects or issues,
with the aim of creating new knowledge or using existing knowledge in a new
and creative way to generate new insights. Research entails the collection of
data, documentation of critical information, and the analysis and
interpretation of that data. It is a process of studious inquiry or examination,
especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
understanding of various subjects or issues. Good research follows a
systematic approach to capture accurate data and is based on logical
reasoning.

Additionally, research can involve obtaining information or bio-specimens

through intervention or interaction with individuals and using the findings in
a way that can be applied to populations or situations beyond those studied.
Q: 2 What ethical considerations must be observed in research process?

A: 2 Followings are ethical consideration that be observed in research

process:

1. Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the

study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits before giving their voluntary

consent. Researchers must provide understandable information, allowing

participants to make informed decisions.

2. Voluntary Participation: Participants should participate willingly

without coercion. They must have the freedom to withdraw from the study at

any point without facing negative consequences.

3. Privacy and Confidentiality: Researchers must protect participants'

privacy by ensuring confidentiality. This involves safeguarding the identity of

participants and the information they provide, unless they provide explicit

consent to share certain details.

4. Beneficence: Researchers should aim to maximize benefits and minimize

potential harm to participants. The potential benefits of the research should

outweigh any risks involved.

5. Justice and Fairness: Researchers must ensure that the distribution of

benefits and burdens is fair. This includes selecting participants fairly and

avoiding the exploitation of vulnerable populations.

6. Researcher Integrity: Researchers must maintain honesty and integrity

throughout the research process. This involves accurately reporting findings,

avoiding biases, and conducting research in a transparent manner.

7. Respect for Participants: Researchers must treat participants with

respect and consideration, acknowledging their autonomy and avoiding any

form of discrimination or stigmatization.

8. Debriefing: Researchers should provide participants with a debriefing

after the study, explaining the purpose, addressing any misconceptions, and

offering resources for further information or support.

9. Conflict of Interest: Researchers should disclose any potential conflicts

of interest that might compromise the objectivity or integrity of the research.

10. Compliance with Regulations: Researchers must adhere to ethical

guidelines, standards, and regulations set by institutional review boards

(IRBs) or ethical review committees overseeing research.

Q: 3 Write short notes on:

a. Citation.
b. Participant Observation.

A: 3 Citation: Citation refers to the practice of acknowledging and

referencing the sources of information used in academic or research work. It
serves several important purposes, including:

1. Acknowledgment of Sources: Citations give credit to the original

authors and creators of the information, ideas, or concepts used in a research
paper or academic work.

2. Supporting Claims: By citing relevant sources, researchers provide

evidence to support their arguments and claims, thereby enhancing the
credibility and reliability of their work.

3. Avoiding Plagiarism: Proper citation helps to avoid plagiarism by

clearly distinguishing between the researcher's original contributions and the
ideas or information derived from other sources.
4. Facilitating Further Exploration: Citations provide readers with the
means to locate and explore the sources referenced in the work, allowing for
further study and verification of the information presented.

In academic writing, various citation styles such as APA, MLA, Chicago, and
Harvard are used to format citations according to specific guidelines. These
styles dictate the format of in-text citations, reference lists, and bibliographies,
ensuring consistency and clarity in acknowledging the sources used.

Participant Observation: Participant observation is a qualitative research

method that involves the researcher immersing themselves in the natural
environment or social setting of the subjects being studied. Key characteristics
of participant observation include:

1. Active Involvement: Researchers actively participate in the activities

and interactions of the group or community being studied, allowing for
firsthand experience and understanding.

2. Data Collection: Through observation and interaction, researchers

gather rich, detailed data, often supplemented by field notes, recordings, and
other documentation.
3. Insider Perspective: By becoming part of the social context under study,
researchers gain an insider's perspective, enabling them to understand the
nuances of behavior, culture, and social dynamics.

4. Ethnographic Research: Participant observation is commonly

associated with ethnographic research, particularly in anthropology and
sociology, where it is used to study cultural practices and social phenomena.

Participant observation is valued for its ability to provide in-depth,

contextually rich insights into the lives and behaviors of individuals and
communities, making it a valuable method for understanding complex social
and cultural dynamics.
 Past Paper 2022

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Describe One-to-One Interview and Focus Group Interview?

A: 1 One-to-One Interview: A one-to-one interview, also known as an

individual interview, is a qualitative research method where a researcher
conducts a structured, semi-structured, or unstructured interview with a
single participant at a time. This method allows for in-depth exploration of the
participant's perspectives, experiences, and opinions on a particular topic.
The interviewer can tailor the questions to the specific participant, allowing
for a more personalized and detailed understanding of their views. One-to-one
interviews are often used to gather rich, detailed data and can be particularly
useful for exploring sensitive or personal topics where participants may feel
more comfortable sharing their thoughts in a one-on-one setting. Additionally,
one-to-one interviews provide the opportunity for the researcher to probe
deeper into the participant's responses and follow up on interesting points
that arise during the interview.
Focus Group Interview: A focus group interview involves a small group of
participants, typically ranging from 6 to 10 individuals, who are brought
together to discuss a specific topic guided by a facilitator. This method allows
for the exploration of shared perspectives, group dynamics, and the
interaction of ideas among participants. Focus group interviews are
particularly useful for generating a range of opinions, ideas, and experiences
on a given topic, as participants can build on each other's responses and
engage in group discussions. The group setting can also stimulate new
thoughts and perspectives that may not have emerged in a one-to-one
interview. Additionally, focus group interviews can provide insights into social
norms, shared beliefs, and group consensus on particular issues. However, it's
important to note that focus group interviews may not be suitable for
exploring deeply personal or sensitive topics, as some participants may feel
uncomfortable sharing such information in a group setting.

In summary, while one-to-one interviews allow for personalized, in-depth

exploration of individual perspectives, focus group interviews facilitate the
generation of diverse opinions and group dynamics. The choice between these
methods depends on the research objectives, the nature of the topic being
explored, and the type of data required for the study.
Q: 2 State the Five Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data Collection?

A: 2 The five steps in the process of quantitative data collection are as follows:

1. Identify the Question(s) You Want to Answer: This initial step

involves defining the specific research questions or objectives that the
quantitative data collection aims to address.

2. Plan Your Data Collection: Once the research questions are identified,
the next step is to plan the data collection process. This may involve
determining the appropriate methods for data collection, such as surveys,
interviews, observations, or experimentation.

3. Collect Relevant Data and Information: This step involves the actual
collection of quantitative data using methods such as online questionnaires
that ask respondents yes/no questions or numerical data.

4. Data Cleaning: After the data is collected, it needs to be cleaned to

ensure accuracy and consistency. This process involves identifying and
correcting errors, inconsistencies, and outliers in the collected data.
5. Analyzing The Data and Interpreting The Results: The final step in
the process of quantitative data collection involves analyzing and interpreting
the collected data to draw meaningful conclusions. This step may include
statistical analysis and interpretation of the quantitative findings.

These steps form a structured approach to gathering, cleaning, analyzing, and

interpreting quantitative data to address specific research questions or
objectives.
Q: 3 What is the difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Problems?

A: 3 Quantitative Research Problems: In quantitative research, the

research questions typically focus on the relationships among variables being
investigated and are often framed at the start of the study. This type of
research seeks to understand causal or correlational relationships between
variables through testing hypotheses. Quantitative research tackles questions
from different angles compared to qualitative research, as it deals with
numbers and statistics, aiming to collect cold, hard facts. The questions in
quantitative research are designed to provide the numbers necessary to prove
the general point of the research, and the data collected is easier to analyze
with a survey platform due to its reliance on questions with specific answer
options that can be quantified.

Qualitative Research Problems: On the other hand, qualitative research

problems are more subjective in their results and interpretation compared to
quantitative studies. This type of research deals with words and narratives,
focusing on the details and depth of the data collected. Qualitative studies seek
to understand experiences, perspectives, and the subjective nature of human
behavior. The expertise and perspective of the researcher play a significant
role in qualitative research, as it involves more subjective interpretation of the
results. Qualitative research questions often delve into the subjective aspects
of a topic, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about
something, or how individuals perceive and interpret certain phenomena.
In summary, the key distinction between quantitative and qualitative research
problems lies in their approach to data collection and analysis. While
quantitative research focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis to
establish relationships between variables, qualitative research emphasizes
subjective interpretation and the exploration of experiences and perspectives
through narrative data.
 Past Paper 2023

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 How findings are interpreted in qualitative?

A: 1 Interpreting findings in qualitative research involves a detailed and

nuanced process of analyzing the collected data to uncover patterns, themes,
and meanings. Here's a detailed overview of how findings are interpreted in
qualitative research:

Data Immersion and Familiarization: Researchers start by immersing

themselves in the data, becoming familiar with the content and context of the
collected information. This involves reading and re-reading transcripts, field
notes, or other qualitative data sources to gain a deep understanding of the
material.

Coding and Categorization: The next step involves coding the data, which
entails identifying and labeling specific chunks of information with descriptive
or interpretive labels. These codes are then grouped into categories that
capture common themes or concepts that emerge from the data.
Theme Development: Once the initial coding and categorization are
complete, researchers work on developing themes. This process involves
identifying overarching patterns, recurring ideas, and interconnected
concepts within the data. Themes are the key findings that encapsulate the
most significant and meaningful aspects of the data.

Constant Comparison: Throughout the interpretation process, researchers

engage in constant comparison, where they compare segments of data to
identify similarities, differences, and variations. This iterative process helps
refine the emerging themes and ensures that the interpretation remains
grounded in the data.

Contextualization: Contextualization is crucial in qualitative research

interpretation. Researchers consider the broader social, cultural, and
historical context in which the data was collected. Understanding the context
helps in providing a deeper understanding of the findings and their
implications.

Reflexivity: Researchers engage in reflexivity, acknowledging their own

perspectives, biases, and preconceptions that may influence the interpretation.
Reflecting on their positionality helps researchers ensure that their
interpretations are rigorous and transparent.
Interpretive Frameworks: Qualitative researchers often use interpretive
frameworks, theories, or conceptual models to guide their interpretation.
These frameworks provide a lens through which the data can be analyzed and
help in making sense of the findings within a theoretical context.

Member Checking: Member checking involves sharing the emerging

findings with participants to validate or challenge the interpretation. This
process ensures that the findings accurately reflect the participants'
experiences and perspectives.

Rich Description: Finally, qualitative research interpretation emphasizes

rich description. Researchers aim to vividly describe the findings, providing
detailed accounts and illustrative examples to convey the depth and
complexity of the data.
Q: 2 What are the steps in the process of Qualitative data analysis?

A: 2 The process of qualitative data analysis involves several key steps to

systematically analyze and interpret the collected qualitative data. Based on
the search results, here are the steps in the process of qualitative data
analysis:

Step 1: Define Research Questions: The first step is to define the

qualitative research questions that will guide the analysis. This involves
clearly articulating the objectives and focus of the qualitative study.

Step 2: Gather and Organize Data: Once the research questions are
defined, the next step is to gather the qualitative data and organize it for
analysis. This may involve transcribing interviews, organizing field notes, or
compiling other qualitative data sources.

Step 3: Prepare and Review Data: The data is prepared for analysis by
reviewing and exploring its content. This step involves familiarizing oneself
with the data, identifying patterns, and gaining a comprehensive
understanding of the material.
Step 4: Coding: Coding is a fundamental step in qualitative data analysis. It
involves systematically labeling and categorizing segments of data with
descriptive or interpretive codes. This process helps in identifying themes and
patterns within the data.

Step 5: Review and Refine Codes: After creating initial codes, the next
step is to review and refine them. This iterative process ensures that the codes
accurately capture the nuances and meanings present in the data.

Step 6: Theme Development: Once the codes are refined, researchers

work on developing overarching themes that encapsulate the most significant
and meaningful aspects of the data. Themes are the key findings that emerge
from the qualitative analysis.

Step 7: Interpretation and Contextualization: The final step involves

interpreting the themes within the broader context of the research questions
and the social, cultural, or historical context in which the data was collected.
This step aims to provide a rich and nuanced interpretation of the qualitative
findings.
Q: 3 What are the five steps in conducting a Literature Review?

A: 3 The five steps in conducting a literature review are as follows:

Step 1: Define the Research Question: The first step involves defining
the specific research question or objective that the literature review aims to
address. This step sets the focus and scope of the review, guiding the
subsequent search and analysis of relevant literature.

Step 2: Search for Relevant Information and Findings: Conduct a

comprehensive search for relevant literature and findings related to the
research question. This may involve using databases, scholarly journals,
books, and other sources to gather a wide range of relevant materials.

Step 3: Evaluate and Select Sources: After gathering the literature,

carefully evaluate the sources to ensure their relevance and credibility. Select
the most relevant and high-quality sources that contribute to addressing the
research question.

Step 4: Summarize, Synthesize, and Analyze: Summarize and

synthesize the findings from the selected literature, identifying common
themes, debates, gaps, and key insights. This step involves critically analyzing
and interpreting the literature to extract meaningful information.
Step 5: Write the Literature Review: Finally, organize and write the
literature review, outlining the structure and presenting the synthesized
information in a coherent and meaningful manner. A well-crafted literature
review goes beyond summarizing sources and provides a critical analysis of
the literature, addressing the research question and contributing to the
existing body of knowledge.