UNIT-IV

STATIC RELAYS
Static Relays – Advantages And Disadvantages – Definite Time, Inverse Time & IDMT Static Relays –
Comparators – Amplitude & Phase Comparators - Microprocessor Based Relays – Advantages &
Disadvantages – Block Diagrams For Over Current Relay (Definite, Inverse And IDMT) & Distance Relays &
Flow Charts.
Introduction: A static relay employ solid state components like transistors, diodes, ICs and other electronic
components etc for the measurement or comparison of electrical quantities and gives a signal to close the trip
circuit when threshold condition is reached. The tripping device may be of electronic or electromagnetic. This
static relays consist of comparator circuit which compares two or more currents or voltages and gives and output
signal to a slave relay or a thyristor circuit. The slave relay is an electromagnetic relay which finally closes the
contacts of the trip circuit. The static relay that consists of slave relay are called as Semi – static relays. The relays
employing Thyristor circuit are pure Static relays.
Advantages of Static relays:
1. Long life.
2. High resistance to shock and vibration.
3. Burden on C.T.s and P.T.s. is reduced as they consume less power and in most cases they draw power from the
auxiliary DC supply.
4. Fast response.
5. Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings.
6. Frequent operations cause no deterioration.
7. Quick resetting and absence of overshoot.
8. Compact size.
9. Greater sensitivity as amplification can be provided easily.
10. Logic circuits can be used for complex protective schemes. As they take decisions to operate under specified
conditions.
11. Complex relaying characteristics can easily be obtained.
Disadvantages of static relays:
1. Sensitive to temperature: their characteristics may vary with variation in temperature. To avoid effect of
temperature thermistors and digital techniques etc are used.
2. Sensitive to voltage transients: the semiconductor components may get damage due to voltage spikes. To avoid
the effect of voltage transients filters and shielding are employed.
3. Need of auxiliary power supply. This can be supplied by a battery or a stabilized power supply.
Types of static relays:
Definite time static relay:
The detailed circuit for the definite time over current relay is as shown.

The time of operation definite time over current relay is constant and doesn’t depend upon the severity of
fault. The function of the input current is only to initiate the charging of a capacitor and there after the circuit’s
acts by itself till the breaker is tripped.
Operation:
The potentiometers P1 is to adjust the pickup value of the relay and P2 to adjust the operating time of the
relay. Under normal operating conditions the transistor T1 is conducting due to the bias voltage applied from the
supply voltage VC through resistor R3. There by the capacitor C is short circuited due to the conduction of the
transistor T1.Whenever fault current exceeds the pickup value set by the potentiometer P1, the rectified voltage is
applied to the base emitter junction of T1 through resistance R2 which thereby is reverse biased and therefore,
T1 is switched off. The capacitor C starts charging from the supply voltage VC through resistance R4. Since the
supply voltage is of constant magnitude, the capacitor C is charged through R4 to a certain voltage in a fixed time
which exceeds the emitter settings of transistor T2 fixed by the potentiometer P2. Transistor T2 starts conducting
which forces transistor T3 to conduct, thereby the trip coil of the breaker is energized and the breaker operates.
When healthy conditions are restored the transistor T1 starts conducting, thus short circuiting the capacitor C and
the relay will reset.
Note:
The input current in case of definite overcurrelay controls only the pickup level.
Inverse time static relay:
In inverse time over current relay the input current controls not only the pickup level but also the charging
voltage level of the capacitor. So that the time of operation depends on the level of input current. The circuit for an
inverse time over current relay is as shown.

Operation:
Under normal condition the transistor T1 conducts due to the bias voltage applied from the supply voltage
VC, through resistor R4 and potentiometer P2 which results in short circuiting of capacitor C. Whenever fault
current exceeds the pickup value set by the potentiometer P2 and the transctor tap settings, the transistor T1 is
switched off. The capacitor C starts charging from the input current through the resister R3 and potentiometer P1
by the voltage developed across the resister R1. It is to be seen that the basic difference between definite time over
current relay and the inverse time current relay lies in the source of charging the capacitor. Whereas in case of
definite time over current relay, the charging takes place through a source of constant magnitude and hence the
capacitor requires a definite time to charge to a predetermined voltage level, in case of inverse time-over current
relay the charging takes place through a source of variable voltage magnitude and hence capacitor gets charged in
different times. When the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the value set by the potentiometer P3, transistor T2
conducts and thus forces output transistor T3 to conduct which in turn energizes the trip coil of the breaker and the
breaker operates. In this circuit the time multiplier settings is determined by the potentiometers P1 and P3 and plug
settings multiplier is determined by the tap position of the transctor and the potentiometer P2.
Inverse definite minimum time relay:
Comparators:
The part of the circuitry that compares two actuating quantities either in amplitude or phase is
known as comparator. The activating quantities i.e. voltage, current and phase angle between the voltage and
current may differ from those under healthy conditions, when a fault occur on a system. The static relay circuitry is
designed to recognize the changes and distinguish between the healthy and faulty conditions. The change in
magnitude or phase of the actuating quantities is measured and a trip signal is sent to CB to isolate the protected
zone. The comparators are mainly two types. They are
Amplitude comparators and phase comparators.
Amplitude comparators: The magnitude comparators compare the magnitude of two input quantities
irrespective of the angle between them. One of the inputs is operating quantity and other is restraining quantity.
The relay operates to send trip signal to CB when the amplitude of the operating quantity is greater than the
restraining quantity. The comparison of instantaneous values of sinusoidal inputs is difficult as they vary during
the cycle. There are several techniques where one of the signal or both the signals are rectified for comparison with
the other quantities. The methods of amplitude comparison are:
1) Circulating current type rectifier bridge operators.
2) Phase splitting type comparators.
3) Sampling comparators.
1) Circulating current type rectifier bridge comparators:
They are widely used for the realization of over current and distance relay characteristics. The operating
and restraining quantities are rectified and then applied to a slave relay or thyristor circuit. It consists of two full
wave rectifiers, one for the operating quantity and other for the restraining quantity. The outputs of these bridges
are applied to a dc polarized relay. When the operating quantity exceeds the restraining quantity, the relay
operates.
2) Phase-splitting type amplitude comparators:
The activating quantities i.e, voltage or current are first split and then rectified. The input is split into six
components each 600 apart, so that the rectified waveform will be a smooth wave with 5% ripple before they are
compared giving a continuous output signal. The operating time depends on the time constant and the speed of the
output device that is feeding the trip circuit.
3) sampling comparators:
One of the two activating quantities i.e, one of the inputs is rectified and it is compared with the other input
at a particular moment and the other input is sampled at a particular desired movement. They are widely used to
realize the characteristics of reactance and MHO relays.
Phase comparators:
Phase comparators compare the phases angles of two input quantities irrespective of their
magnitudes. They operate if the phase angle between them is ≤ 900. The phase comparison can be made in
different ways some of them are –
1) Vector product phase comparators
2) Coincidence type phase comparators
1) Vector product phase comparators:
The comparator compares the two signals and gives the output that is proportional to the vector product of
the two ac input signals.
2) Coincidence type phase comparators:
Duality b/w Amplitude and Phase Comparator:

An amplitude comparator can be converted to a phase comparator and vice-versa, if the input quantities to
the comparator are modified. The modified quantities are the sum and difference of the original input
quantities. Consider an amplitude comparator which has two input quantities “A and B” as shown in fig a.
It operates when the magnitude of A is greater than B. the input quantities to be compared by the comparator
are modified as (A+B) and (A-B) i.e. changing the input quantities to the comparator. It will operate when
A + B > A − B .This condition will be satisfied only when phase angle between “A and B” is less than 90 .
0

It means that comparator with modified inputs as now become phase comparator for the original input signals.

Consider a phase comparator which compares the phase of two inputs signals A and B. The comparator
0
operates if phase angle between A and B is less than 90 . Changing the input signals to (A+B) and (A-B) as
shown in figure. With this changed inputs the comparator will operate when the phase angle between (A+B)
and (A-B) that is angle φ less than 90 .This condition will be satisfied only when |A| > |B|. This is how the
0

phase comparator with changed input has now become an amplitude comparator for the original inputs A and
B. The phase angle between original input A and B is φ.Now the inputs to amplitude magnitude changed
(A+B) and (A-B) and its behavior is examined with the help of three vector diagrams. The three vector
diagrams with the phase angle φ .

0
When “ φ < 90 the magnitude of A+B > A-B and the relay operates to the modified inputs.
0 0
When φ =90 (or) φ >90 the relay does not operate the vector diagram shows that the magnitude of |A+B| >
0
|A-B| only when φ <90 .
0
The angle between |A+B| and |A-B| is λ .the angle “ λ ” becomes less than 90 only when |A| > |B|.
MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS
They use VLSI technology. The complexity in protecting the power system by using static relays is
reduced by using Microprocessor based relays. I.e. same interface can be used to achieve different characteristics
just by changing the program.
Advantages of Microprocessor based relays:
1) Fast operation: Their operation is fast compared to electromagnetic and static relays.
2) Sophisticated.
3) Low cost: a single circuit can be adapted protect several sections in a power system. Thus reducing the
cost in employing protective schemes.
4) More Accurate: As the operation is performed with the conversion of analog quantities to digital
quantities which are then used for manipulating the operation of relays. Which are more accurate
5) Reliable: as the complexity of the circuit is reduced ,this increases the reliability of the relay scheme.
6) Flexible: one circuit can be adopted for any type of protecting scheme just by changing the program, so
they are more flexible.
7) Compact: as the complexity of the relay scheme is reduced to a smaller size i.e. which makes the entire
arrangement is a compact structure.
8) Same interface can be adopted to obtain different relaying characteristics i.e., over current,
directional, impedance, reactance, mho etc .
9) Used in distance and differential protection.
Disadvantages of microprocessor based relays:
1. The relaying signals i.e. fault current and voltage contain harmonics and d.c. offset components
which require filtering before feeding them to the relay.
2. Microprocessor based relays assume the fault voltage and current as sinusoidal quantities so they
require analog band pass filters which pass 40 – 70 Hz signals.
3. At low frequencies the performance of analog filters is poor i.e. the relay operation will be slow.
Over current relay:
An over current relay is the simplest form of protective relay which operates when the current in any circuit
exceeds a certain predetermined value i.e. pick up value. It is mainly used for protection of distribution lines,
industrial motors etc. using multiplexer (MUX-AM3705), the microprocessor can sense the fault currents of a
number of circuits. If a fault current in any circuit exceeds the pick-up value, the microprocessor sends a tripping
signal to the circuit breaker of the faulty circuit. The current signal from CT is converted into voltage signal
proportional to current by Current to Voltage converter (CVT). This is because the microprocessor accepts signals
in voltage form, and this voltage signals are converted into digital form by Analog to Digital converter (ADC-
800). PPI-8255 is adopted to provide peripherals.
Block diagram:

The block diagram of the relay is shown and its working as flow chart representation is shown.
Operation: The current from CT is converted
to voltage signal using CVT and it is rectified
to obtain D.C. voltage proportional to the
load current by rectifier. The output of the
rectifier is fed to multiplexer. The
microprocessor sends a command to switch
on the desired channel of the multiplexer to
obtain the rectified voltage proportional to the
current in a particular circuit. The output of
the multiplexer is fed to the ADC to obtain
the signal in digital form. The microprocessor
sends a signal to the ADC for starting the
conversion and after the end of conversion
the microprocessor reads the signal to
examine whether the conversion is completed
or not. After the completion of conversion the
microprocessor reads the current signal in
digital form and then compares it with pick-
up value.
 • In case of instantaneous relay, the trip signal is
sent to open the circuit breaker contacts as soon as the
digital signal is greater than the pickup value.
• In Definite time over current relay, on comparing
the digital signal with pickup value, if it exceeds the
microcomputer sends the tripping signal to the circuit
breaker after a predetermined time delay.
• To obtain Inverse time characteristics, the
operating times for different values of currents are noted
for a particular characteristic, and these values are stored
in memory in a tabular form called look-up table. The
microprocessor first determines the fault current and
then selects the corresponding time of operation from
look-up table. A delay subroutine (program) is started
and trip signal is sent after desired time delay.
• The same program is adopted for IDMT relay
scheme by changing the data in the look up table.

• In order to avoid false tripping of an over current

relay due to transients the program can be modified
slightly. When the fault current exceeds the pick-up
value, the fault current is measured once again by the
microprocessor to confirm whether it is a fault current or
transient. In case of transients which persist for a short
duration, the measured current above pick-up value will
not appear in the second measurement, but if there is an
actual fault, it will again appear in the second
measurement also, and then the microprocessor will
issue a tripping signal to disconnect the faulty part of the
system. This is represented using a flow chart.
DISTANCE RELAYS:
Impedance relay:
The characteristic of impedance is realized by comparing voltage and current at relay location. The ratio of
voltage (V) to current (I) gives the impedance of the line section between the relay location and the fault point .the
rectified voltage (V DC ) and rectified current (I dc ) are proportional V and I, respectively. Therefore, for

comparison V DC and I dc are used. The following condition should be satisfied for the operation of the relay.

K 1 V dc < K 2 I dc or <

Or <K

Or Z<K
Where K 1 ,k 2 and k are constants. The values of k for
different zones of protection are calculated and stored in the
memory as data to obtain the desired characteristic. The
characteristics of the three zone impedance relays are shown
in figure. Here Z1,Z2 and Z3 are the values of the impedance for 1,2and 3 zones of protection, respectively. As the
impedance relay is non directional, a directional unit is also incorporated to give a directional feature so that the
relay can operate for the fault in forward direction only. The block schematic diagram of the interface for the
impedance relay is shown in figure.
 The levels of the voltage and current signals are stepped down to the electric level by using PTs and CTs.
The current signal derived from the CT is converted into
proportional voltage signal using a current to the voltage converter
(CVT). The voltage and current signals are then rectified using
precision rectifiers to convert into DC. The rectified voltage and
current signals are fed to two different channels of the multiplexers
which are switched on sequentially by proper commands from the
micro computer. The output of the multiplexer is fed to the ADC
through a sample and hold circuit. The multiplexer (AM3705),
sample and hold (LF398) and an 8bit A/D converter ADC0800
from the data acquisition system (DAS). The DAS is interface to
the microprocessor using 8255A programmable peripheral interface
(PPI). A clock of 300KHZ for ADC0800 is obtained by dividing the
3MHZ clock for the microprocessor by ten using the IC
package7490. Suitable clock for ADC can also be obtained by

using programmable timers and counters. The control signals for all
the ICs are given by microcomputer. The microcomputer reads V dc

and I dc , calculates the impendence Z seen by relay and then

compares Z and Z 1 , i.e.; the predetermined value of impendence for

first zone of protection. If Z is less than Z 1 , the microcomputer

sends a tripping signal to the trip coil of the circuit breaker
instantaneously. If Z is greater than z 1 , the comparison is made with

z 2 .the value of impendence for the second zone of protection. If Z

is less than Z 2 the microcomputer takes up delay subroutine and

sends the trapping signal to the trip coil after predetermined delay.
If Z is greater than Z 2 but less than Z 3 ,a greater delay is provided

before that trapping signal is sent. If Z is more than Z 3 , the

microcomputer again reads the voltage and current signals and
proceeds according to its program. The assembly language program
for realization of impendence relay characteristic is given below
and the program flowchart is shown in figure.
Reactance relay:
The characteristics of a reactance relay are realized by comparing the instantaneous value of the voltage at
the moment of current zero against the rectified current. The instantaneous value of voltage at the moment of
current zero is V m sin ф, as shown in figure. For the operation of the relay, the condition to be satisfied is as

follows. V m sinф < K 1 I dc

V sinф/I < K (As V m and I dc are proportional

Z sinф < K to r.m.s values V and I, respectively)
X<K
The block schematic diagram of the interface for the realization of reactance relay is as shown.

The microcomputer reads the output of the zero crossing detectors to examine whether the current has crossed its
zero point. As soon as the current crosses its zero point, the microcomputer sends a command to the multiplexer to
switch on channel S5, and gets the instantaneous value of the voltage, i.e. V m sinф through the A/D converter.
Then the microcomputer sends a command to the multiplexer to switch on the channel S7 to get the rectified

current. Thereafter, the microcomputer calculates X, the reactance as seen by relay and compares it with X 1 ,

predetermine value of the reactance for the first zone of protection. the microcomputer sends a tripping signal
instantaneously, if measured value of X<X 1 .if X > X 1 , but less than X 2 ,tripping signal sent after predetermined

delay. If X is more than X 2 but lies within the protection zone of the directional unit which also acts as third unit
as shown in figure, that tripping signal is sent after a grater predetermine delay. As the reactance relay is non
directional relaying unit, directional relay is used in
conjunction with it to provide directional features. The
directional unit also serves the purpose of the third unit. the
directional unit used for reactance relays has the
characteristics of a mho relay passing through the origin. The
program of the directional unit is incorporated in the main
program of the reactance relaying protective scheme. if the
fault point lies within the protection zone of the directional
unit then only the reactance relay program is taken up to
cheek the position of the fault point i.e., whether it lies in the
I, II, III zone of protection. Depending up in the zone of
protection, the tripping signal is sent with or without delay.
The program flowchart is shown.
Admittance relay or MHO relay:
The characteristic of a mho relay is realized by comparing the instantaneous value of current at the moment of
voltage peak against the rectified voltage value of current at the moment of voltage peak is Im ∅, as shown In
figure. The condition to be satisfied for the operation of the relay is as follows. Copy from e-book.
By changing a mho characteristic can be shifted towards the R axis to increase its tolerance to arc
resistance, as shown in figure. Fig. from e-book.
the value of is not kept more than 750 to have a reasonable tolerance for arc resistances when a fault occurs near
the bus.

The block schematic diagram of the interface for realization of mho relay is shown in figure above.
The voltage signal is fed to the phase-shifter to get a phase-shift of 900. Then the output of the phase shifter is fed
to the zero-crossing detector to get the required pulse. The micro computer reads the output of the zero-crossing
detector and checks whether the voltage has crossed its peak value. After getting the pulse at the instant of voltage
peak, the microcomputer sends a command to the multiplexer to switch on the channel S2 to get the instantaneous
value of the current at the moment of peak voltage. This instantaneous value of the current which is equal to
Imcos ∅ is fed to an A/D converter. After the conversion is over, the digital output of the converter. After the
conversion is over, the digital output of the converter is stored in the memory .The microcomputer then gets the
rectified voltage Vdc through the multiplexer channel S5 and the a/d converter. This quantity is also stored in the
memory. After obtaining this data the microcomputer computes VIcos∅ which is proportional to vdc/Im cos∅ and is
equal to M. The calculated value of M is compared with the predetermined value of M1 which remain stored in the
memory. M 1,M2, and M3, are the predetermined value of M for I,II,III zones of protection respectively .If M is
greater than M1 but less than M2, the tripping signal is sent after a predetermined delay. If M is greater than M2 but
less than M3, a greater delay is provided to send the tripping signal. If M is greater than M3, the microcomputer
goes back to the starting point, starts reading the voltage and current signals and again proceeds according to the
program. The program flowchart is shown in the figure.