Chapter

Introduction to History:
Definition,Issues, Sources,
and Methodology

Learning Objectives:
as an academic discipline
of history
To understand the meaning
philosophy and metho
and to be familiar with the underlying
dology of the discipline.
and philosophy
To apply the knowledge in historical methodology
existing historical narratives.
in assessing and analyzing
the value of historical evidences
To examine and assess critically
and sources.
of history in the social
and national
To appreciate the importance
life of the Philippines.
and as a narrative. It
This chapter introduces history as
a discipline

which transcends thecommon definition

presents the definition of the history,
T'his chapter also discusses several isSues
of historvy as the study of the past.
aspects of the
in history that consequently opens up for the theoretical
discipline. The distinction between primary and secondary sources is also
discussed in relationto the historical subject matter being studied and the
historical methodology employed by the historian.Ultimately, this chapter
also tackles the task of the historian as the arbiter of facts and evidences in
making his interpretation and forming historical narrative.
Definition and Subject Matter
of
of the past. Students
been known as the study
History has always them
dread the subject for its notoriety in requiring
general education often Jow
and events from distant eras. This
places, names,
to memorize dates,
understanding
appreciation of the discipline
may be rooted from the shallow
While
to their lives and to
their respective contexts.
of history's relevance it does
the study of the past is not wrong,
the popular definitionof history as
to human
of the subject and its importance
not givejusticeto the complexity
civilization.

the Greek word historia which means

History was derived from
as a
"knowledge acquired through inquiry or investigation." History
as mathematics and
discipline existed for around 2,400 years and is as old
to classical Latin where it acquired a
philosophy. This term was then adapted
new definition. Historia became known as the account of the past of a person
group of people through written documents and historical evidences.
or of a

That meaning stuck until the early parts of the twentieth century. History
to
became an important academic discipline. It became the historian's duty
write about the lives of important individuals like monarchs, heroes, saints,
and nobilities. History was also focused on writing about wars, revolutions,

and other important breakthroughs. It is thus important to ask: What counts

as history? Traditional historians lived with the mantra of "no document,
no history." Itmeans that unless a written document can prove a certain
historicalevent, then it cannot be considered as a historical fact.

But as any other academic disciplines, history progressed and opened

up tothe possibility of valid historical sources, which were not limited
to written documents, like government records, chroniclers' accounts,

or personal letters. Giving premium to written documents essentially

invalidates the history of other civilizations that do not keep written

records. Some were keener on passing their history by word of mouth.
Others got their historical documents burned or destroyed in the events of
war or colonization. Restricting historical evidence as exclusively written

is also discrimination against other social classes who were not

recorded in
paper. Nobilities, monarchs, the elite, and even the middle class would have
their birth, education, marriage, and death as matters of government and
historical record.But what of peasant families or indigenous groups who

2 Readings in Philippine History

were not given much thought about being registered to government records?

Does the absence of written documents about them mean that they were
people of no history or past? Did they even exist?

This loophole was recognized by historians who started using other

kinds of historical sources, which may not be in written form but were just as
valid. A few of these examples are oraltraditions in forms of epicsand songs,

artifacts, architecture, and memory. History thus became more inclusive

and started collaborating with other disciplines as its auxiliary disciplines.

With the aid of archaeologists, historians can use artifacts from a bygone era
tostudy ancient civilizations that were formerly ignored in history because
of lack of documents. Linguists can also be helpful in tracing historical
evolutions, past connections among different groups, and flow of cultural
influence by studying language and the changes that it has undergone. Even
scientistslike biologists and biochemists can help with the study of the past

through analyzing genetic and DNA patterns of human societies.

Questions and Issues in History

a discipline has already turned into a complex and

Indeed, history as
dynamic inquiry.This dynamism inevitably produced various perspectives
on the discipline regarding different questions like: What is history? Why
study history? And history for whom? These questions can be answered
by

historiography. In simple terms, historiography is the history of history.

other. The
History and historiography should not be confused with each
former's object of study is the past, the events that happened in the past,
and the causes of such events. The latter's object of study, on the other hand,

is history itself (i.e., How was a certain historical text written? Whowrote it?

What was the context of its publication? What particular historical method
was employed? What were the sources used?). Thus, historiography lets the
students have a better understanding of history. They do not only get to learn
historical facts, but they are also provided with the understanding of the
facts' and the historian's contexts.
The methods employed by the historian
and the theory and perspective, which guided him, will also be analyzed.
Historiography is important for someone who studies history because it
teaches the student to be critical in the lessons of history presented to him.

History has played various roles in the past, States use history to unite
a nation. It can be used as a tool to legitimize regimes and forge a sense of

Chapter 1 |
Introduction to History: Definition, Issues, Sources, and Methodology
3
 collectiveidentity through collective memory. Lessons from the past can be
used to make sense of the present. Learning of past mistakes can help people
to keep
to not repeat themn. Being reminded of a great past can inspire people

their good practices to move forward.

Positivism the school of thought that emerged between the eighteenth

is

and nineteenth century. This thought requires empirical and observable

is true.
evidence before one can claim that a particular knowledge
Positivism also entails an objective means a conclusion. In
of arriving at

the discipline of history,the mantra "no document, no history' stems from

this very same truth, where historians were required to show written

primary documents in order to write a particular historical narrative.

Positivist historians are also expected to be objective and impartial not
just in their arguments but also on their conduct of historical research.

As a narrative, any history that has been taught and written is always

intended for a certain group of audience. When the ilustrados, like Jose Rizal.

Isabelo de los Reyes, and Pedro Paterno wrote history, they intended it for the

Spaniards so that they would realize that Filipinos are people of their own
intellectand culture. When American historians depicted the Filipino people
as uncivilized in their publications, they intended that narrative for their
fellow Americans to justify their colonization of the islands. They wanted
the colonization to appear not as a means of undermining the Philippines'
sovereignty, but as a civilizing mission to fulfill what they called as the
"white man's burden." The same is true for nations which prescribe official
versions of their history like North Korea,
the Nazi Germany during the war
period, and Thailand. The samewas
attempted by Marcos in the Philippines
during the 1970s.

Postcolonialism is a school of
thought that emerged in the early
twentieth century when formerly
colonized nations grappled with
the idea of creating their
identities and understanding
their societies
against the shadows of their
colonial past. Postcolonial
history looks at
two things in writing history: first is
to tell the history of their
that will highlight their nation
identity free from that of
colonial discourse and
knowledge, and second is to
criticize the methods,
effects, and idea of
colonialism. Postcolonial
history is therefore a
to the colonial history reaction andan
that colonial alternative
powers created and taught to
subjects. ther
 the accusation that the
by history is
One of the problems confronted
that the narrative of the
always written by victors. This connotes
history is more dominant
the bias of the powerful and
the
past is always written from
history of the Second World
War in the Philippines
player.For instance, the
as the hero and the Imperial Japanese
always depicts the United States
were
collaborated with the Japanese
Army as the oppressors. Filipinos who
However, a more thorough
lumped in the category of traitors or collaborators.
account of the history of
historical investigation will reveal a more nuanced
as a story of hero versus villain.
that period instead of a simplified narrative

History and the Historian

by the historian,
Ifhistory iswritten with agenda or is heavily influenced
truth? Is history an
is it possible to come up with an absolute historical
worthwhile to study history? These
not, is it still
objective discipline? If it is

generations. Indeed., an exact

questions have haunted historians for many
for the very simple reason
and accurate account of the past is impossible
that we cannot go back to the past.
We cannot access the past directly as
get to access representation of the past
our subject matter. Historians only
through historical sources and evidences.
evidences and
Therefore, the historian'sjob not just to seek historical
it is
for themselves."
facts. "Facts cannot speak
facts but also to interpret these
to give meaning to these facts and organize
It is the job of the historian
the
causes, and write history. Meanwhile,
them into a timeline, establish
mechanically interprets and analyzes
historian is not a blank paper who
is a person of his own who
is influenced by his own
present historical fact.He
others. In
education, and influences, among
context, environment, ideology,
historical fact is affeeted by his context
that sense, his interpretation of the
influence the process of
and circumstances. His subjectivity will inevitably
that he will use, the facts that he
his historical research: the methodology
shall select deem relevant, his interpretation, and even the form of his
and
way or another, history is always subjective. If that
writings. Thus, in one
is so, can history still be considered as an academic and scientificinguiry?

Historical research requires rigor. Despite the fact that historians

cannot ascertain absolute objectivity,the study of history remains scientifie

because of the rigor of research and methodology that historians employ.
9Historical methodology comprises certain techniques and rules that

Chapter 1 |
Introduction to History: Definition, Issues, Source's, and MethodologY
5
 sources andhistorical evidences
in order to properlyutilize accounts in
historiansfollow in cases of conflicting
history. Certain rules apply accounts and ora)
in writing treat eyewitness
and on how to properly
different sources, claims done by
evidence. In doing so, historical
historical
sources as valid historicalwritings,
that they forward in their
arguments
historiansand the can still be validated
influenced by the historian's inclinations,
while may be meticulous historical
evidences and employing correct and
by using reliable
methodology.
born in France
School of History is a school of history
The Annales
of thought did away
the canons of history. This school
that challenged
always related
subjects that were almost
with the common historical like Lucien
monarchs. Annales scholars
to the conduct of states and
studied other
Braudel, and Jacques Le Goff
Febvre, Marc Bloch, Fernand
were concerned with social history
subjects in a historical manner. They
Annales scholars
and studied longer historicalperiods. For example,
the history of medicine, or even the
studied the history of peasantry,
history of environment. The history
from below was pioneered by the
samescholars. They advocated that the people and classes who were not
reflected the history of the society in the grand manner be provided
in
this, Annales thinkers
with space in the records of mankind. In doing
married history with other disciplines like geography, anthropology.
archaeology, and linguistics.

For example, if a historian chooses to use an oral account as his data

in studying the ethnic history of the Ifugaos in the Cordilleras during the
American Occupation, he needs to validate the claims of his informant
through comparing and corroborating it with written sources. Therefore,
while bias is inevitable, the historian can balance this out by relying to

evidences that back up hisclaim. In this sense, the historian need not let his

bias blind his judgment and such bias is only acceptable if he maintains his
rigor asa researcher.

Historical Sources

With the past as history's subject matter, the historian's most important
research tools are historical sources. In general, historical sources can be
classified between and secondary sources. The classification of
primary
sOurces between these two categories dependson the historical subjectbeing
 produced at the same time as the
studied. Primary sources are those sources

event, period,or subject being studied. For example, if a historian wishes

tostudy the Commonwealth Constitution Convention of 1935, his primary
sources can include the minutes of the convention, newspaper clippings,

Philippine Commission reports of the U.S. Commissioners, records of the

convention, the draft of the Constitution, and even photographs of the
event. Eyewitness accounts of convention delegates and their memoirs
can also be used as primary sources. The same goes with other subjects of
historicalstudy. Archival documents, artifacts, memorabilia, letters, census,
and government records, among others are the most common examples of
primary sources.

On the other hand, secondary sources are those sources, which were
produced by an author who used primary sources to produce the material. In
other words, secondary sources are historicalsources, which studied a certain
historical subject. For example, on the subject of the Philippine Revolution
of 1896, students can read Teodoro Agoncillo's Revolt of the Masses: The

Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan published originally in 1956. The

Philippine Revolution happened in the last years of the nineteenth century
while Agoncillo published his work in 1956, which makes the Revolt of the

Masses a secondary source. More than this, in writing the book, Agoncillo
used primary sources with his research like documents of the Katipunan,

interview with the veterans of the Revolution, and correspondence between

and among Katipuneros.

However, a student should not be confused about what counts as a
primary or a secondary source. As mentioned above, the classification
of

sources between primary and secondary depends not on the period when
of
the source was produced or the type of the source but on the subject

the historical research. For example, a textbook -is usually classified as a

secondary source, a tertiary source even. However, this classificationis usual

but not automatic. If a historian chooses to write the history of education in

the 1980s. he can utilize textbookS Used in that period as a primary source.

If a historian wishes to study the historiography of the Filipino-American

War for example, he can use works of different authors on the topic as his

primary source as well.

Both primary and secondary sources are useful in writing and learning
history. However, historians and students of history need to thoroughly

Chapter 1|Introduction to History: 7

Definition, Issues, Sources, and Methodology
 and to come up with
these historical sources to avoid deception
sCrutinize an external and
truth. The historian should be able to conduct
the historical sources which can ago
criticism of the source, especially primary
internal
of verifying the authenticitw
criticism is the practice
in centuries. External
consistency with the
its physical characteristics;
of evidence by examining
and the materials
of the time when it was produced;
historical characteristic
examined when
of the things that will be
used for the evidence. Examples
of the paper.
of a document include the quality
conducting external criticism
and words used in the material, among
the type of the ink, and the language
others.

hand, the examination of the

Internal criticism, on the other is

content of the source and

truthfulness of the evidence. It looks at the
criticism looks at the
examines the circumstance of its production. Internal
at the author of the
truthfulness and factuality of the evidence by looking
creation, the knowledge which
source, its context, the agenda behind its

informed it, and its intended purpose, among others. For example, Japanese

reports and declarations during the period of the war should not be taken
as a historical fact hastily. Internal criticism entails that the historian
acknowledge and analyze how such reports can be manipulated to be used as
war propaganda. Validating historical sources is important because the use
of unverified,falsified, and untruthful historical sources can lead to equally

false conclusions. Without thorough criticisms of historical evidences,

historical deceptions and lies will be highly probable.

One of the most scandalous cases of deception in Philippine history is

the hoax Code of Kalantiaw. The code wasa set of rules contained in an epic,

Maragtas, which was allegedly written by a certain Datu Kalantiaw. The

document was sold to the National Library and was regarded asan important
precolonial document until 1968, when American historian William Henry
Scott debunked the authenticity of the code due to anachronism and lack of
evidence prove that the code existed in the precolonial Philippine
to
society.
Ferdinand Marcos also claimed that he wasa decorated World War II
soldier
who led a Ang Maharlika. This was widely believed
guerilla unit called
by students of history and Marcos had war medals to show. This
claim,
however, was disproven when historians counterchecked Marcos's claims
with the war records of the United States. These cases prove
how deceptions
can propagate without rigorous historical research.

8
Readings in Philippine History
 The task of the historian is to look at the available historical sources

and select the most relevant and meaningful for history and for the subject
matter that he is studying. History, like other academic discipline,has come
a long way but stillhas a lot of remaining tasks to do. It does not claim

to render absolute and exact judgment because as long as questions are

continuously asked, and as longas time unfolds, the study of history can never

be complete. The task of the historian is to organize the past that is being
ereated so that it can offer lessons for nations, societies, and civilization. It

is the historian's job to seek for the meaning of recovering the past to let the
people see the continuing relevance of provenance, memory, remembering.
and historicalunderstanding for both the present and the future.

Philippine historiography underwent several changes since the

precolonial period until the present. Ancient Filipinos narrated their
history through communal songs and epics that they passed orally from
a generation to another. When the Spaniards came, their chroniclers
started recording their observations through written accounts. The
perspective of historical writing and inquiry also shifted. The Spanish
colonizers narrated the history of their colony in a bipartite view.
They saw the age before colonization as a dark period in the history
of the islands, until they brought light through Western thought and
Christianity. Early nationalists refuted this perspective and
argued
as a luminous age
the tripartite view. They saw the precolonial society
that ended with darkness when the colonizers captured their freedom.
They believed that the light would come again once the colonizers were
evicted from the Philippines. Filipino historian Zeus Salazar introduced
the new guiding philosophy for writing and teaching history: pantayong
pananaw (for us-from us perspective). This perspective highlights the
importance of facilitating an internal conversation and discourse among
Filipinos about our own history, using the language that is understood
by everyone.

Chapter 1
|Introduction to History: Definition,
9
Issues, Sources, and Methodology