Module-5 Levelling and Contouring

Levelling

Levelling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is to establish or verify or measure the
height of specified points relative to a datum. Leveling is the general term applied to any of the
various processes by which elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined.

Principle of surveying

The principle of levelling is to obtain a horizontal line of sight at which the vertical distance of a
point above or below this line of sight is found.

Levelling Terms

 Datum or Mean Sea Level- The imaginary surface passing through the mean sea level of
Bombay High Sea throughout the interior of earth surface is called datum or mean sea level
or geoid. This is the surface that is arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero.
 Elevation- The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or
object.
 Benchmark (BM)- A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point
whose elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed.

 Station- A point where the leveling staff is kept.

 Levelling staff- It is a ruler having length 3 m/ 4 m/ 5 m used for recording elevation of any
point on earth’s surface.
 Vertical line- A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

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 Level surface- A curved surface that, at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line
(the direction in which gravity acts). Level surface is parallel to datum or means ea level.
 Level line- A line lying in a level surface is a level line. It is thus a curved line normal to the
plumb at all points. In field surveying, it is defined by the direction of a freely suspended
plumb-bob.
 Horizontal plane- A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane
surveying, it is a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.
 Horizontal line- A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to
the local vertical. It is tangential to the level surface.
 Height of instrument- It is the elevation of the plane of sight with respect to assumed
datum. It is also known as plane of collimation.
 Back sight (BS)- It is the sight taken on the level staff, of a known elevation with the
intention to obtain the elevation of plane of collimation. It is called PLUS sight because it is
added to elevation of that point to get height of instrument or plane of collimation.
 Intermediate sight (IS)- These are the sight taken after back sight and before sighting the
final point. These are subtracted from plane of collimation to find the reduced level of
different points.
 Fore sight (FS)- The last reading taken from the instrument. Change point(CP) or turning
point (TP) or temporary bench mark- The point at which both BS and FS are taken.
 Reduced level (RL)- The elevations of the points with respect to assumed datum.

Types of levelling

1. Simple levelling 4. Cross sectional levelling

2. Differential levelling 5. Fly levelling
3. Profile levelling 6. Reciprocal levelling
Simple Levelling

Figure 1 Simple levelling

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When the difference in the elevation of nearby points is required then simple levelling is
performed. This method is preferred for shorter distance and less undulation. In this method,
instrument is kept at a single point and RL of all the nearby points are determined as follows-

Assume the elevation of BM Rock is known to be 820.00 ft. The BS at BM Rock is 8.42ft. So HI
= (820 + 8.42)ft. Now the FS on “X” is 1.2ft. So the RL at “X” = HI – FS= 828.42ft. Note that
the RL of the instrument station will never comes in the calculation.

Differential Levelling

This method of levelling is performed for large distance and large undulation when simple
levelling is not sufficient to determine the RL of all the points from a single point of instrument.
When instrument position is changed, the point at which last reading is taken is called change
point or temporary bench mark.

We have to find RL at B. It is given that RL at A is 100m and BS at A is 2.45m. So, HI at

L1=(100+2.45)=102.45m. FS at CP1=2.41m • RL at CP1=(102.45-2.14)=100.31m. Now BS at
CP1=1.43m. HI at L2=(100.31+1.43)=101.74m. FS at CP2=2.18m. RL at CP2=(101.74-
2.18)=99.56m. BS at CP2=1.38m. HI at L3=(99.56+1.38)m=100.94m. FS at B=1.54m. RL at B=
(100.94-1.54)=99.4m.

Figure 2 Differential Levelling

Fly Levelling- Performed when the work site is very far away from the bench mark. The
surveyor starts by taking BS at BM and proceed towards worksite till he finds a suitable place for

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temporary BM. All works are done with respect to temporary BM. At the end of the day the
surveyor comes back to original BM. This is called fly levelling.

Profile Levelling- Profile leveling, which yields elevations at definite points along a reference
line, provides the needed data for designing facilities such as highways, railroads, transmission
lines. Reduced levels at various points at regular interval along the line is calculated. After
getting the RL of various points the profile is drawn. Normally vertical scale is much larger than
horizontal scale for the clear view of the profile.

Figure 3 Plan and sectional view of profile levelling

Cross Sectioning- In many projects not only profile along the line is required but also profile of
Cross- section at a regular interval is required. (here 20m). Levels are taken at every 3m distance
(till 9m i.e. 3 readings on one side) to left and right of the line AB and BC for cross section
profile.

Reciprocal Levelling

We have found by the principle of equalizing backsight and foresight distances that if
the level is placed exactly midway between two points and staff reading are taken to
determine the difference of level, then the errors (due to inclined of collimation line,
curvature and refraction) are automatically eliminated. But in the case of a river or
valley, it is not possible to set up the level midway between the two points on opposite
banks. In such case the method of reciprocal levelling is adopted, which involves
reciprocal observation both banks of the river or valley. In reciprocal leveling, the level

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is set up on the both banks of the river or valley and two sets of staff readings are taken
by holding the staff on both banks. In this case, it is found that the errors are completely
eliminated and true difference of level is equal to the mean of the true apparent
differences of level.

Figure 4 Cross sectioning levelling

Figure 5 Reciprocal levelling

Reduced Level Calculation

(A) Height of Instrument Method :- The basic equations are :- Height of instrument for the
first setting= RL of BM + BS(at BM). Subtract the IS and FS from HI to get RL of intermediate
stations and change points. Checking: ∑BS - ∑FS = Last RL – First RL. This is –ve for FALL
and +ve for RISE.

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(B) Rise and Fall method :- In this method the difference of the present staff reading is
subtracted from the previous staff reading. Previous reading – present staff reading = +ve,
denotes RISE • Previous reading – present staff reading = -ve, denotes FALL • Checking: ∑BS -
∑FS = Last RL – First RL= ∑Rise - ∑Fall

We have to find RL at B. It is given that RL at A is 100m and BS at A is 2.45m. So, HI at

L1=(100+2.45)=102.45m. FS at CP1=2.41m • RL at CP1=(102.45-2.14)=100.31m. Now BS at
CP1=1.43m. HI at L2=(100.31+1.43)=101.74m. FS at CP2=2.18m. RL at CP2=(101.74-
2.18)=99.56m. BS at CP2=1.38m. HI at L3=(99.56+1.38)m=100.94m. FS at B=1.54m. RL at B=
(100.94-1.54)=99.4m.

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Levelling Instrument

A Level is an instrument with a telescope that can be leveled with a spirit bubble. A level is
basically a telescope attached to an accurate levelling device, set upon a tripod so that it can
rotate horizontally through 360°. The optical line of sight forms a horizontal plane, which is at
the same elevation as the telescope crosshair. By reading a graduated rod held vertically on a
point of known elevation (Bench Mark) a difference in elevation can be measured and a height of
instrument (H.I.) calculated by adding the rod reading to the elevation of the bench mark. Once
the height of instrument is established, rod readings can be taken on subsequent points and their
elevations calculated by simply subtracting the readings from the height of instrument.

(a) Dumpy levels - These are more basic levels often used in construction work. The telescope is
rigidly attached to a single bubble and the assembly is adjusted either by means of a screwed
ball-joint or by foot screws which are adjusted first in one direction, then at 90°.

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 (b) Automatic levels - This more modern type of level is now in general use. It has a
compensator which consists of an arrangement of three prisms. The two outer ones are attached
to the barrel of the telescope. • The middle prism is suspended by fine wiring and reacts to
gravity. The instrument is first levelled approximately with a circular bubble; the compensator
will then deviate the line of sight by the amount that the telescope is out of level.

Figure 6 Auto level

Adjustment of level

There are two types of adjustment of level- temporary adjustment and permanent adjustment.

Temporary adjustment

The temporary adjustment of a dumpy level consists of (1)Setting (2)Leveling and (3) Focusing

During Setting, the tripod stand is set up at a convenient height having its head horizontal
(through eye estimation). The instrument is then fixed on the head by rotating the lower part of
the instrument with right hand and holding firmly the upper part with left hand. The bubble in
bubble tube is then brought to the centre by adjusting the tripod legs.

Next, Leveling of the instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly
vertical.

Focusing is required to be done in order to form image through objective lens at the plane of the
diaphragm and to view the clear image of the object through eye-piece.

Permanent adjustment

There are three adjustments for this level viz:

1. The line of collimation should coincide with the axis of the telescope.

2. The line of collimation should be at right angles to the vertical axis.

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3. The axis of the bubble tube should be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

Other levelling instrument

Tripod- A surveyor's tripod is a device used to support any one of a number of surveying
instruments, such as theodolites, total stations, levels or transits.

Levelling staff- A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated wooden or aluminium rod,
used with a levelling instrument to determine the difference in height between points or heights
of points above a vertical datum. It is available in 3 m, 4m, 5m.

Figure 7 Levelling Staff Figure 8 Tripod

Errors in Levelling

There are following types of Errors in Leveling.

1.Instrumental Errors

2.Collimation Error

3.Error due to Curvature & Refraction

4.Other Errors

1. Instrumental error and Correction- a) Collimation error occur due to under sensitive
bubble. Correction: Check before use and equalise sights. b)Errors in staff graduation Correction:

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Check c)Loose tripod head. d)Telescope not parallel to bubble tube Correction: Permanent
adjustment. e) Telescope not at right angles to the vertical axis Correction: Permanent adjustment

2. Error of Collimation- Collimation error occurs when the collimation axis is not truly
horizontal when the instrument is level. The effect is illustrated in the sketch below, where the
collimation axis is tilted with respect to the horizontal by an angle a.

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Curvature and refraction correction

Cc is always negative. A properly adjusted instrument take the readings with respect to
horizontal line. So something has to be subtracted from the staff reading to get actual reading.
Cc= d2 /2R and –ve. D is distance of the staff from the point of tangency and R is the radius of
the Earth = 6370km. Cc= -7.849 x 10-8 x d2 meters, if d is in meters. Effect of refraction (Cr) Air
is denser near the earth and becomes thinner as we go far from the surface of the earth. This
causes refraction. Cr=(1/7) x (d2 /2R) and +ve. Combined effect Cc + Cr = - (6/7) x (d2 /2R) = -
6.728 x 10-8 x d2 meters, if d is in meters.

Figure 9 Curvature and refraction correction

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4. Other sources of errors in leveling- It includes- 1. Incorrect setting-up of instrument 2.
Movement of staff from position when changing level station 3. Staff not held vertically 4.
Parallax: Instrument knocked or moved during backsight-foresight reading 5. Tripod or rod
settles between measurements e.g Bubble off center

Contouring

Contours and contour lines

Contour An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is known
as contour. It facilitates depiction of the relief of terrain in a two dimensional plan or map. In
other words, contour is a line in which the ground surface is intersected by a level surface
obtained by joining points of equal elevation. This line on the map represents a contour and is
called contour line. Contouring is the science of representing the vertical dimension of the terrain
on a two dimensional map.

Contour Map : A map showing contour lines is known as Contour map. A contour map gives an
idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their relative positions in plan serves the
purpose of both, a plan and a section.

Contouring : The process of tracing contour line on the surface of the earth is called Contouring

Contour Line : A Contour line is an imaginary outline of the terrain obtained by joining its
points of equal elevation. Contour Interval (CI) – It is the vertical distance between any two
consecutive contours. Suppose a map includes contour lines of 100m, 98m ,96 m and so on .The
contour interval here is 2 m. This interval depends upon the nature of the ground (i.e. whether
flat or sleep). the scale of the map the purpose of the survey. Contour intervals for flat country
are generally small, e g. 0.25 m, 0.5 m, 0.75m. etc. Contour interval for a steep slope in a hilly
area is generally greater. e.g. 5m. 10 m, 15 m etc. It should be remembered that the contour
interval for a particular map is Constant.

Contours and contour lines

Characteristics of contours

All points in a contour line have the same elevation. Flat ground is indicated where the contours
are widely separated and steep-slope where they run close together. A uniform slope is indicated
when the contour lines are uniformly spaced. A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and
equally spaced. A series of closed contour lines on the 80 map represent a hill 75, if the higher
values are inside. A series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a depression if the higher
values are outside

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Method of Contouring

1. Direct method 2. Indirect method 1. Direct Method of Contouring It consists in finding

vertical and horizontal controls of the points which lie on the selected contour line. For vertical
control levelling instrument is commonly used. A level is set on a commanding position in the
area after taking fly levels from the nearby bench mark. The plane of collimation/height of
instrument is found and the required staff reading for a contour line is calculated. The instrument
man asks staff man to move up and down in the area till the required staff reading is found. A
surveyor establishes the horizontal control of that point using his instruments.

Methods of contouring

After that instrument man directs the staff man to another point where the same staff reading can
be found. It is followed by establishing horizontal control. Thus, several points are established on
a contour line on one or two contour lines and suitably noted down. Plane table survey is ideally
suited for this work. After required points are established from the instrument setting, the
instrument is shifted to another point to cover more area. The level and survey instrument need
not be shifted at the same time. It is better if both are nearby to communicate easily. For getting
speed in levelling some times hand level and Abney levels are also used. This method is slow,
tedious but accurate. It is suitable for small areas.

2. Indirect Method of Contouring – In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and
their levels are reduced. Thus in this method horizontal control is established first and then the
levels of those points found. After locating the points on the plan, reduced levels are marked and
contour lines are interpolated between the selected points. For selecting points any of the
following methods can be used: a. Method of squares b. Method of cross-section c. Radial line
method

a. Method of Squares - In this method area is divided into a number of squares and all grid
points are marked (Fig.) 1.10 Method of Contouring Commonly used size of square varies from
5 m × 5 m to 20 m × 20 m. Levels of all grid points are established by levelling. Then grid
square is plotted on the drawing sheet. Reduced levels of grid points marked and contour lines
are drawn by interpolation Fig.

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Figure 10 Method of square

b. Method of cross-section- In this method cross-sectional points are taken at regular interval.
By levelling the reduced level of all those points are established. The points are marked on the
drawing sheets, their reduced levels (RL) are marked and contour lines interpolated.

Figure 11 Method of cross-section

Figure shows a typical planning of this work. The spacing of cross-section depends upon the
nature of the ground, scale of the map and the contour interval required. It varies from 20 m to
100 m. Closer intervals are required if ground level varies abruptly. The cross- sectional line
need not be always be at right angles to the main line. This method is ideally suited for road and
railway projects.

c. Radial Line Method- In this method several radial lines are taken from a point in the area.
The direction of each line is noted. On these lines at selected distances points are marked and
levels determined. This method is ideally suited for hilly areas. In this survey theodolite with
tacheometry facility is commonly used.

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Figure 12 Radial line method

Area and volume measurements

One of the main objectives of the surveying is to compute the areas and volumes. Generally, the
lands will be of irregular shaped polygons. There are formulae readily available for regular
polygons like, triangle, rectangle, square and other polygons. But for determining the areas of
irregular polygons, different methods are used. They are: (1) Graphical method (2) Co-ordinate
method (3) Planimeter Out of these three methods, the co-ordinate method is popularly used, in
land surveying for computing catchment area, drainage area, cross section of rivers, channels etc.
Under this method the given area is split into two with a base line run at the centre. There are
two important rules available.

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