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SOCIOLOGY- THE DISCIPLINE

Modernity and Social changes in Europe and emergence of sociology
● Curious human mind had a desire to know more about its social surroundings since time immemorial, but such thoughts were
systematized in form of a discipline known as "sociology" only a few centuries back in first half of 19th century in the backdrop of negative
Modernity and Social
fallouts of modernity. Modernity is defined as a condition of social existence that is significantly different to all past forms of human
changes in Europe and
experience. Dawn of Modernity is marked with the emergence of Renaissance. Renaissance was a cultural movement in European history
emergence of sociology
(covering the 15th CE to 16th CE) which promoted rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature , science , art & architecture , thus
marking the transition from the Middle Ages to Modernity.
● Modernity is defined as a condition of social existence that is significantly different to all past forms of human experience. Dawn of
Modernity is marked with the emergence of Renaissance. Renaissance was a cultural movement in European history (covering the 15th CE
Modernity
to 16th CE) which promoted rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature , science , art & architecture , thus marking the transition from
the Middle Ages to Modernity.
Scope of sociology
● Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behaviour, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and
aspects of culture associated with everyday life. Sociology is a systematic study of society and it studies human society as an interconnected
whole and how society and the individual interact with each other. Sociology seeks to explore how and why societies emerge, persist, and
Scope of sociology
then change. ||| Scope of sociological study is extremely wide. It can focus its analysis of interactions between individuals such as that of a
shopkeeper with a customer, between two friends or family members. Going further, it may analyze national issues, international issues as
well. So, what defines the discipline of sociology and its scope is therefore not just what it studies but how it studies a chosen field.
Comparison with other social sciences
● Sociology which emerged to address the challenges posed by negative fallouts of modernity (which itself emerged with Renaissance &
Comparison with other
Enlightment , intensified with FR, and consolidated with IR) is considered as mother of all social sciences and hence has close and intimate
social sciences
relationship with all other social sciences including xxxx.
History
Anthropology
Political science
Economics
Psychology
Ethics
Sociology and Common sense
● Sociology has its tryst with common sense since long time and it has been accused of being no more than common sense right from its
birth. Common sense is sound, practical judgment concerning everyday matters, or a basic ability to perceive and understand in a manner
Common Sense
that is shared by nearly all people. Oxford dictionary of Sociology defined Common sense as ‘routine knowledge that people have of
their everyday world and activities’.
SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE
Science
● Sociology has its tryst with science science and scientific method since the origin of discipline itself. Early scholars were greatly
influenced by the natural sciences and their impact on humanity. Saint Simon called the new discipline as ‘social physics’ which smacked
its obsession with science. Auguste Comte claimed that sociology is last of the sciences to be discovered and most sophisticated of all
Science the sciences as it deals with all aspects of humanity. Similarly, Herbert Spencer’s ‘organismic analogy’ was guided by similar influences of
biological sciences and Darwinism. ||| Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the world. Definition of science is not a single one, often it is related with a host of characteristics like
[Acronym = FUROSE]
Scientific method and its critique
● Scientific method refers to any systematic, empirical, rational, and objective set of steps to explore the truth or new knowledge or for
investigating phenomena or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. Scientific method is generally associated with natural sciences
Scientific method and its and discovery of laws, which govern behaviour of matter, is at the heart of scientific method. ||| Rationale behind adopting a scientific
critique methodology in sociology is to give concrete shape to sociological concepts, so that they are understood similarly by different people.
Litmus test for any discipline to be termed as scientific can be certain criteria like –Objectivity and Value Free, Quantifiability, Universal
Testability, Inter subjective reliability, and Theoretical Orientation
Major theoretical strands in research methodology
● Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a
topic. Research methodology will be conceived differently by different researchers, say, functionalists, interpretivists, positivists and so on.
Major theoretical strands in While a positivist researcher will lean more towards quantitative methods, a non-positivist researcher will incline towards qualitative
research methodology methods. Often, mixed methods are used now a days. Hence, research methods can be broadly classified as – Quantitative and
Qualitative methods. Quantitative methods include methods like – statistical methods, data tables etc. Qualitative methods on the
other hand include methods like – questionnaire, interviews, content analysis etc.
Positivism and its critique
● Positivism is an approach of studying sociology as a discipline which aims at employing principles similar to those used in natural
sciences. Positivism describes an approach to the study of society that specifically utilizes scientific evidences such as experiments,
statistics, and qualitative results to reveal a truth about the way society functions. It is based on the assumption that it's possible to
observe social life and establish reliable knowledge about its inner workings. ||| Early sociologists faced two fundamental questions
about course of discipline – (a) What should be the subject matter of the discipline? (b) What should be the methodology in Sociology?
Positivism and its critique
Influenced by prevailing atmosphere of rationalism and science, they too attempted to define subject matter and method in scientific
and objective terms. Thus, early sociologists like Saint Simon, August Comte, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim laid
foundation of positivistic theory. They contended that society is also governed by certain fixed laws and hence predictable. According to
this approach, behavior of man can also be objectively quantfied and statements based on objective measures of cause and effect
can be made leading to theories formulation.
Positivism
Fact, Value and Objectivity
● A fact in sociology refers to an empirically verifiable observation. It has its own independent existence. Facts can be perceived by our
Fact
tactical and audio-visual senses etc in the similar manner by everyone. Facts remain same in all situations and for all observers.
● Values in sociology refers to subjective disposition arising out of experience, preferences, bias, beliefs and so on. Values represent what
one believes and not necessarily what actually is. They refer to socially accepted standards of desirability and undesirability. They
Value
define what is important, worthwhile, and worth striving for. They guide our objectives, goals and our actions. Values can be
personal, cultural, temporal and situation specific and may not remain same over the period of time.
 ● Objectivity in sociology refers to an approach in which the attitude of a scientific investigator is detached, unprejudiced, value free and
free from biases. Values are the basis of subjectivity and they flow from different preconceived notions like caste, class, culture, gender,
religion, ideology and so on. Robert Bierstedt contends that ‘Objectivity means that conclusions arrived at as a result of inquiry
Objectivity
and investigation are independent of the race, religion, color, creed, nationality, occupation, moral preferences and political
predisposition of the investigator’. Hence, objectivity pre-supposes value neutrality and predictability about outcome. It is
one of the pillars of ‘Scientific Methods’ and core of positivism.
Non-positivist methodology
● Early sociologists favoured positivist approach in study of sociology amid the influence of rationalism and natural sciences. However it
was later realized by scholars that sociological issues cannot be addressed using fixed laws only, hence they turned from positivism to non-
Non-positivist methodology positivism. While positivist methodologies viewed society as given and man as mere part of it governed by its rules; non positivists on the
other hand considered man as independent thinking being who can influence society also. Non-positivists rejected the over-socialized
conception of man and thus, tried to gauge what goes inside mind of man and how it affects society.
● Interpretivist sociology is an umbrella term for various streams like Symbolic interactionism, Phenomenology, Ethnomethodology and so
on. According to this approach, the task of sociology is to interpret the meanings attached by individuals to their actions. The
Interpretivist methodology basis of this approach is that ‘individual is having a voluntary will and his thoughts cannot be understood simply in terms of external
influence’. Human beings have a consciousness which cannot be predicted. This approach also came to be known as voluntarist
approach.
● Symbolic interactionism perspective is a major framework of the sociological theory. According to John Macionis, symbolic
interactionism is "a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals". In other words,
it is a frame of reference to better understand how individuals interact with one another to create symbolic worlds, and in return, how
these worlds shape individual behaviours. It is a framework that helps understand how society is preserved and created through repeated
Symbolic Interactionism interactions between individuals. ||| Symbolic interaction theory analyses society by addressing the subjective meanings that people
impose on objects, events, and behaviours. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believed that people behave based on what
they believe and not just on what is objectively true. Thus, society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretation.
People interpret one another’s behaviour, and it is these interpretations that form the social bond. These interpretations are called the
“definition of the situation.”
● Phenomenology perspective is a major framework of the sociological theory. Phenomenology simply means study of phenomenon,
appearance of things or experience as experienced from the first person point of view. It is an approach that aims to reveal
what role human awareness plays in the production of social action, social situations, and social worlds. In essence, phenomenology is the
belief that society is a human construction. ||| Phenomenology was originally developed by a German mathematician named Edmund
Husserl. Alfred Schutz who first used this in Sociology postulated that it is subjective meanings that give rise to an apparently objective
Phenomenology
social world. The social world is a world of meanings and there is no objective reality which lies beyond the meanings of individual.
Meanings don’t have their own independent existence, instead they are constructed and reconstructed by the actors in
the course of their social interaction. He argued that people depend upon language and the “stock of knowledge” they have
accumulated to enable social interaction. All social interaction requires that individuals characterize others in their world, and their stock
of knowledge helps them with this task.
● Ethnomethodology perspective is a major framework of the sociological theory. Ethnomethodology literally means “systematic
description of methods and practices that a particular socio-cultural group employs in its everyday activities to accomplish their everyday
lives”. Ethnomethodology is concerned with the organization of everyday life and it examines the methods and practices that
people use to construct and account for their social world. ||| Ethnomethodology is the study of how social order is
Ethnomethodology
produced in through processes of social interaction. In other words, Ethnomethodology is the study of how people use social
interaction to maintain an ongoing sense of reality in a situation. To gather data, ethnomethodologists rely on conversation analysis and a
rigorous set of techniques for systematically observing and recording what happens when people interact in natural settings. It is an
attempt to classify the actions people take when they are acting in groups.
RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYSIS
Qualitative and Quantative methods
● Quantitative methods refer to objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through
Quantative methods polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. Positivists and
functionalists use this method more often.
● Qualitative Methods refer to examination, analysis and interpretation of observations for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings
and patterns of relationship to gain better understanding of symbols, motives and meanings. Qualitative methods emerged as a reaction to
Qualitative methods
an excessive emphasis on positivist research, which is considered unsuitable for understanding of social phenomenon. Interpretivists and
non- positivists favor such methods.
Techniques of data collection
● Techniques of data collection depend on whether the data required is quantitative or qualitative and whether the data required is
Techniques of data
primary data or secondary data or whether the approach is positivist or non-positivist. Hence, various techniques are also
collection
classified accordingly and some of them are like – questionnaire, field studies, surveys, secondary research and so on.
● Primary data refers to the first hand data gathered by the researcher himself, whereas Secondary data refers to the data which is
already available as a result of previously done research. It is available in form of government surveys, reports, social studies by
PRIMARY DATA &
other researchers and so on. ||| Emile Durkheim employed such data from police stations for his study of suicide. However, such
SECONDARY DATA
data is not always reliable as it may have been collected with a different purpose. Further, secondary data is also older. It may also be
prone to errors which the researcher might not be aware of.
● Definition of Observation : Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. According to Pauline V
Young, ‘Observation is systematic viewing along with consideration of seen phenomenon’. Rationale behind using observation
OBSERVATION (qualitative)
method is that sociological investigator should become a part of social phenomenon he wishes to understand. For reliability and validity of
results, observation should be systematic and scientific in nature and hence it is also called ‘scientific observation’ instead.
● Content analysis is a methodology in the social sciences for studying the content of communication. Earl Babble defines it as ‘the
CONTENT ANALYSIS
study of recorded human communications, such as books, websites, paintings and laws’. It is also a qualitative technique of research in
(qualitative)
sociology and often used in interpretative sociological research.
● Historical analysis is a method of the examination of past events to understand to understand current or future events. It is a method
which provides sociologists a luxury to look into past and connect the present with the past and develop a deeper perspective about
current issues and problems. Various sources used in this method are government archives, historical records, historical works
HISTORIC ANALYSIS and personal diaries and so on. ||| Historical facts are collected to gain an insight into past events related to a phenomenon. It shows
(qualitative) the social values and ideas which present social structures are based. However, in this method, collection of facts is a stupendous task
and reliability is a big problem. Historical data cannot be subjected to experimentation and statistics cannot be used in this
method. ‘Documentary research’ is one particular type of historical analysis in which documents are used a source. Government
documents, memoirs, newspapers can be source of such research
 ● Focus group technique consists of bringing together a group of people to have an extensive, free flowing discussion relating to their
FOCUS GROUP experiences or opinion on a particular focus issue. It is like a group interview. Researcher may act like a moderator to direct the
TECHNIQUE (qualitative) discussion in a desired direction of research. In Sociology, R K Merton popularized this method which was earlier limited to
marketing exercises only.
● Case Study is an in-depth and detailed examination of a social phenomenon in which every detail of an event is studied in
CASE STUDY depth. This method considers all related aspects like – antecedents and consequents – of an event in great detail and hence, offers a
holistic treatment of the subject.
● Definition : An interview is a guided conversation between the researcher and the respondent. Interview is a technique in
INTERVIEW which there is a one to one interaction between researcher and subject. It may happen in various forms and types like – face-to-face,
telephonic, group interview etc.
● A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of pre-set questions in a pre-set order and is an organized activity of information
gathering. It can be either administrated by an interviewer face to face (as used by Goldthorpe and Lockwood in their affluent worker
study), may be sent by post, or may be distributed during a large gathering or may be pasted online. It is the cheapest, fastest, and
QUESTIONNAIRRE
efficient method of obtaining large amounts of information. ||| When questionnaires are administered face to face they have advantage of
being under an expert observation and hence are more likely to be filled correctly on one hand and a risk of suffering from interviewer’s
bias on the other hand.
● A schedule is a structure of a set of questions on a given topic which are asked by the interviewer or investigator personally. The order
SCHEDULE of questions, the language of the questions and the arrangement of parts of the schedule are not changed. It is similar to a
questionnaire; main difference is that a schedule is filled by enumerator who is specially appointed for this purpose.
● A survey is a research method used for collecting data from a predefined group of respondents to gain information and insights into
various topics of interest. When information is to be collected over a large set of population, techniques like participant observation,
SURVEY (quantitative)
focus group cannot be used and survey is employed. Information collected through surveys can be analyzed through use of statistical
techniques, mathematical models and computer simulations.
● Biographical research is a research method concerned with the reconstruction of life histories and the constitution of meaning based on
BIOGRAPHICAL biographical narratives and documents. It provides new insights to already existing knowledge as texts like life histories other
RESEARCH biographical material provide new voices. ||| A cross check is made by use of available letters, news reports and contemporary
reports. However, this method is prone to suffer from biases and ideologies of writers who write biographies, narratives etc.
Variables, Sampling, Hypothesis, Reliability and Validity
● Variables are those entities whose value varies as situation changes and they are key elements of an experiment. ||| Generally,
there are two kinds of variables. In any research method, there are always some ‘dependent variables’ and there are some
‘independent or fixed variables’. Value of dependent variables depends upon value of independent variables and other dependent
variables. ||| Variables can also be further classified as – experimental variables, measured variables, discreet variables, continuous
Variables
variables. ||| In any study, generally measured variable is also a dependent variable. For example – in studying the educational level of an
area, ‘Education Level’ is a dependent variable, which depend on other variables like – parental income, schools available, teachers quality,
cultural values and so on. Dependent variable in one situation can be independent variable in another research. For example, in
determining the causes of unemployment, education can be an independent variable with unemployment as an independent variable.
● Definition : Sampling is a process of selection of a limited number of items from a larger whole of items. Process of sampling
Sampling requires defining population set first from which samples will be chosen. After that sample frame is specified. After that, sampling
method is specified.
● Definition : A hypothesis is a tentative statement, which formulates a precise and definite relation between two or more
variables. It is an untested statement which awaits validation. Upon validation, a hypothesis may yield a theory, concept or
generalization etc. ||| It states the objective of a research and tells what a researcher is looking for. It can also be defined as
a conjecture or an educated guess based upon previously accumulated knowledge about a given state of affairs put in concrete terms to
Hypothesis
provide the basis for empirical testing. According to Stebbing, ‘Every hypothesis springs from the union of knowledge and sagacity’. Hypothesis
should reasonably show the interconnectedness between two or more variables. For example – a researcher observes that ‘number of
marital breakdowns’ goes up as one observes ‘rise in annual total family income’ or ‘crime rates’ are higher in ‘slums’ than in other parts of
urban areas. A hypothesis will aim at finding interconnectedness between the two variables mentioned in the sentence.
● Reliability and validity are the two important entities which determines the correctness and effectiveness of an observation and hence
usefulness of a result. Reliability leads to repetition of same result; validity is the degree of meeting the desired goal. ||| These are
Reliability & Validity
two major challenges in sociology as outcomes of sociological research are not a result of a controlled experiment and a situation never
remains same. Different ideologies also guide research methodology and hence, different results will be produced every time.
SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS
INTRODUCTION
Positivism
Marxism
● Functionalism is one of the theoretical perspective in sociology according to which each of the institutions, relationships, roles, and
norms that together constitute a society serves a purpose, and each is indispensable for the continued existence of the others and of
society as a whole. Functionalism as a perspective evolved with the beginning of sociology as a discipline and Saint Simon, August
Functionalism
Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim put forth ideas which formed its basis. Its basic premise is that society works as a system
of interconnected parts and each part exists because it has to perform certain functional prerequisites of the whole system i.e. society
behaves like an organism.
● Master paragraph : Interpretivistis analyse society as a system of inetractions (human action). We need to understand human action
through Verstehen because the same actions can mean different things to different people [Max Weber]. We need to understand action
in terms of shared meanings within a group and how the members of that group see themselves and how the individuals and the group
Interpretivism
understand society [G H Mead]. We need to understand whether an individual is just putting on an act (manipulating props and just
managing an impression) [Erving Goffman] . We need to understand whether a person has been labelled by agents of social control,
whether they have been stigmatised by society [Howard Beckar].
Neo-Marxism
Neo-functionalism
Modernism
● Postmodernism is a social solipsism characterized by self-referentiality, epistemological relativism, moral relativism, pluralism, irony,
irreverence, and eclecticism; it rejects the "universal validity" of binary oppositions, stable identity, hierarchy, and categorization. Post-
Post-Modernism modernity refers to a globalised society with the following characteristics: a technologically advanced, mainly post-industrial service sector
economy, high levels of consumption, lots of individual freedom to shape identities through consumption, and correspondingly high levels
of cultural diversity; media-saturation and hyperreality; high levels of insecurity and uncertainty.
Post Structuralist
Feminism
KARL MARX
● Introduction : Karl Marx was one of the early pioneers of the discipline of sociology. He laid foundation of ‘conflict perspective’ in
sociology which was radically different from the then prevailing functionalist view. He wrote in a background when industrialization and
Karl Marx capitalism were in full swing and Europe was witnessing post-French revolutions changes which were too profound and social
environment was in huge flux. It prompted Marx to give a thought about the misery and suffering of the people whom he saw as the
victims of new economic order called capitalism.
● Master paragraph - Karl Marx analyses society as a social structure which is divided into dominant upper class in the form of 'haves'
(Bourgeoisie) and subjugated class in the form of 'have nots' (Proletariat) and the relation between them is of
exploitation/antagonistic cooperation/ Surplus value. He employed a critical approach known as Historical materialism to hold
that societal evolution is driven by conflict between two classes (class conflict) having opposing interests in historical situation of their
Mode of production. MOP which is uniquely defined in terms of a particular ‘FOP’ and ‘ROP’ in a materialistic context constitute
Economic Infrastructure which in turn shapes Social Superstructure. Bourgeoisie exert ideological control through the
superstructure and keeps Proletariat in false consciousness. But In Capitalist mode of production , the worker's alienation (no control
over labor) is at peak and when workers will gain a critical mass in terms of true consciousness, revolution happens. Worker's
revolution will result into a state of transition where they will take over state (dictatorship of proletariat) and then subsequently
establish State of Communism (the final stage of societal evolution) and then history will end. ||| Karl Marx employed a critical approach
(Historical materialism) to hold that societal evolution is driven by conflict between two classes (Bourgeoisie and Proletariat) having opposing interests
in a particular Mode of production. In Capitalist MOP , the worker's alienation is at peak and when workers gain a critical mass in terms of true
consciousness, revolution will happen resulting into establishment of state of communism
● Karl Marx in his work "Contribution to Critique of Political Economy 1859" articulated about Historical materialism. Historical
materialism, also known as the materialist conception of history, holds that that societal evolution throughout history are the result of
Historical Materialism
material and technological conditions rather than ideals. HM asserts that materials conditions of society’s MOP or the union of a society's
FOP and ROP fundamentally determines society’s organisation and development.
● Karl Marx in his work "Contribution to Critique of Political Economy 1859" talked about Mode of Production as a particular
social formation. MOP refers to the varied ways in which human beings collectively produce the means of subsistence in order to survive
and enhance social being. It is uniquely defined in terms of a particular ‘FOP’ and ‘ROP’ in a materialistic context. FOP include : human
labour power and means of production (tools, techniques, machinery, factory buildings, raw materials, plants, animals, exploitable land etc).
Mode of Production ROP include : the property, power and control relations (legal code) , cooperative work associations, relations between man and the
things of their work, and the relations among the social classes. Both FOP and ROP change continously and together they constitute
Economic infrastructure. Economic infrastructure thus includes ‘forces’ and ‘relations’ being involved in production and it shapes Social
Superstructure. Social superstructure includes all other aspects of society like – culture, law, state, family, religion, education etc and it
helps in functioning of economic infrastructure.
● Karl Marx in his work "Economic and Political Manuscripts 1844" talked about Alienation. Alienation is "a condition in social
Alienation relationships reflected by a low degree of integration and a high degree of distance between individuals, or between an individual and a
group of people in a community or work environment.
● Karl Marx in his work "Das Kapital 1867" talked about Calss conflict. Class conflict or class struggle or class warfare, is the political
Class struggle tension and economic antagonism that exists in society consequent to socio-economic competition among the social classes or between
rich and poor.
EMILE DURKHEIM
● Introduction : Emile Durkheim was one of the pioneers of the discipline of sociology and was also founder scholar of functionalist
tradition in sociology along with August Comte and Herbert Spencer. However, it was Durkheim who gave distinctive sociological
explanations in the field of functional analysis for the first time. He was also the one who is credited to liberate the budding discipline from
Emile Durkheim
the mysterious methods and terminology of theology and philosophy. According to him, individual is subordinate to society and is also
governed by it. ‘Society has a reality of its own over and above the individuals who comprise it’ said Durkheim. He is considered father of
sociology for following reasons –
● Master paragrapgh - Emile Durkheim analyses society as a social structure which exists externally to the individual as a series of
social facts (e.g. Relion, Suicide etc.) and that social structure is made up of norms and values which is passed down through social
institutions. As society evolves, anomie creeps in which is checked by achieving Social solidarity based on DOL
● Emile Durkheim in his ‘Division of Labor in Society, 1893’ described DOL as a social phenomenon. DOL refers to separation of tasks
Division of Labour in any economic system or organisation so that participants may specialise (specialisation). Historically, an increasing division of labour is
associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and the increasing complexity of industrialised processes.
● Emile Durkheim in his book " The Division of Labour in Society 1893 " described how social order was maintained in societies based
on two very different forms of social solidarity – mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. According to Durkheim, social
Social solidarity solidarity refers to the system of social bonds which link individuals directly to the wider society. The two types of solidarity can be
distinguished by [MNCC] Morphological or structural features, Types of norms in existence, Formal features of collective conscience, Content of
collective consceince
● Emile Durkheim in his book " ‘The Rules of Sociological Method, 1895 " described that ‘social facts are ways of acting, thinking and
feeling which are external to the individual and are endowed with the ‘power of coercion’ by reason of which they control of him’. Social facts are
Social Fact
norms, values, and social structures that transcend the individual and can exercise social control. Durkheim argued that the discipline of
sociology should be understood as the identification and empirical study of social facts.
● Emile Durkheim in his work ‘The Suicide, 1897’ described suicide as a social phenomenon. He defines suicide as ‘Suicide is any case of
death caused by directly or indirectly, positive or negative action of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result’. Positive actions are
those actions taken by the individual to end one’s life, for example – consuming poison. Negative actions are in form of inaction which
Suicide causes death, for example – starvation, remaining inside a burning house etc. Indirect causes are those when a person has no intention of
dying, though he knows that he may die, as in case of army, fire fighter etc. ||| It was the first serious effort to establish empiricism in
sociology. He exhibited the use of scientific methodology in sociology for the first time and showed that ‘real laws are discoverable’ in
sociology as well. This theory is well known for the pragmatic approach of Durkheim in understanding social problems.
● Emile Durkheim in his work ‘Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 1912’ gave functional explanation of existence of religion in the
world and observes its existence as a social fact rather than a supernatural phenomenon. He defines religion as ‘A unified system of beliefs
and practices related to sacred things, that is to say – things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite them into a single moral
community, for all those who adhere to them’. ||| According to Durkheim, beliefs are ‘system of ideas’ , which explain the sacred. Practices
are rites or rituals explaining individual’s behavior towards the sacred. There are two types of such rites – positive and negative.
Religion and Society Positive rites bring individual and sacred together and are easier to perform, for example – worship. Negative rites help in maintaining the
distance between the two and are difficult to perform, for example – fasting, sacrifice etc.
MAX WEBER
● Introduction : Max Weber, like Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx, was one of the pioneers of the discipline of sociology and one of the
early founders of the interpretivist approach. Like Emile Durkheim, he addressed the problem of scope and nature of the discipline
and he also established first department of sociology in Germany. Sometimes he is also referred as father of modern sociology.
He is also considered to have bridged the gap between positivism and idealism. Sticking to positivism, he favored the use of scientific
methods in sociology for the purpose of achieving objectivity, on the other hand drawing from idealists like ‘Neo-Kantians’, he developed
Max Weber
the scope of sociology as ‘the meaning attached by the actors to their actions’. He was opposed to pure abstract theorizing.
Instead, his theoretical ideas are embedded in his empirical research, usually historical research. According to him, the behavior of man
in society is qualitatively different from physical objects in natural world and organisms in biological world. In his book ‘Methodologies of
Social Sciences’ written during first decade of 20th century, he defined sociology as ‘Sociology is a science which attempts
interpretivist understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at an explanation of its cause and effect’.
● Master paragrapgh -
● Max Weber, opines that subject matter of sociology is to study ‘social action’ and he defines social action as – ‘Any act is social by virtue of
the meanings attached to it by the actors, which takes into account the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course’. In this definition,
Social Action
Max Weber mentions 2 conditions for any action to become social – Action is social if some meaning is attached to it by the actor +
Action is social if it is oriented to some other things
● Max Weber, one of the “founding fathers” of Interpretivist sociology made the concept of Verstehen, which loosely translates to
‘understanding’ in German popular. Weber believed that the interpretation of human actions through recognition and empathy was crucial
Verstehen
for a better understanding of social phenomena in society. Verstehen is the procedure by which sociologists gain access to the meanings
behind human actions.
● Max Weber opines that the conduct of sociology depends upon the construction of abstract, hypothetical concepts. According to
him, ‘Ideal Types’ is a type of objective methodology to study social action. He defined ‘Ideal Type’ as – ‘An ideal type is formed by the one-
sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent
Ideal types
concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those one-sidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct…’. In
Weber’s view, the ideal type was to be derived inductively from the real world of social history and not deductively or from
personal judgments alone.
● Max Weber’s conception of authority is a demonstration of his concept of ideal type in action. According to him, both power and
authority are social in character and comes into play where relations are there. Power is defined by Weber as ‘The chance of a man or a
number of men to realize their own will in a communal action, even against the resistance of those who are participating in the communal
Authority action’. Authority according to Weber is a form of ‘legitimate or socially approved power. According to him, coercion differentiates power
from authority. Power has an element of coercion in it. ||| Like all other concepts, concept of authority is also developed by Max Weber
as an ideal type. According to him, there are 3 ideal types of authority which are based upon his conception of various type of social action
– RAT
● Bureaucracy refers to a centralized form of management and tends to be differentiated from adhocracy, in which management tends
more to decentralization. Max Weber, contends that bureaucracy is an ideal type of organization in which structure is based on
Bureaucracy
rational-legal authority and which suits most the requirements of modern societies where work is done rationally in pursuit of large
scale administrative tasks and organizational goals’.
● Max Weber’s theory of PESC contained in his work ‘The Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism, 1904’ is widely known for – its
use of scientific methods in sociology, possibility of studying ‘macro’ phenomenon in terms of ‘micro’ and a demonstration of his idea of
Protestant Ethic and Spirit ‘causal pluralism’. His study of capitalism is that of modern capitalism and, unlike Karl Marx who gave primacy to economic structure and
of Capitalism material aspects, Max Weber put more emphasis on ideas leading to an economic system. He was concerned with
Protestantism, mainly as a system of ideas, and its impact on the rise of another system of ideas, the ‘spirit of capitalism’, and ultimately
leading to a capitalist economic system.
G H MEAD
G H Mead ● Introduction :
● G H Mead in his work "Mind, Self and Society 1934" gave theory of self. Mead's theory of the self maintains that the idea people have
of themselves stems from the process social interaction with others. This theory opposes biological determinism because it holds that the
self does not exist at birth and may not be present at the beginning of a social interaction, but it is constructed and reconstructed in the
process of social interactions, experience and activity. ||| The self, according to Mead, is made up of two components: the “I” and the
Theory of Self “me.” “I” is the psychological aspect of the self, referring to individual’s own impulses, desires, emotions etc. Whereas “Me” is the social
aspect of the self which is evaluative & keeps control on “I”. The “me” represents the expectations and attitudes of others i.e. the
"generalized others” organized into a social self. So, in effect, the "I" is the self as subject while the "me" is the self as object. It is the
complex operation of “I” & “me” which leads to development of self. According to Mead's theory, the self is developed through three
activities: language, play, and game.
TALCOTT PARSONS
Talcott Parsons ● Introduction :
● Master paragraph- Talcott Parsons analyses society as a social system which is made of constellation of social actions/system of
interactions and based on value consensus and social order; which requires individuals to be integrated which is achieved through
Socialisation and Social control (Social regulation). Social system need to fulfill its basic needs/functional prerequisites (AGIL)
which must be met through specialized sub systems for continued survival of system. Subsystems of overall action system are linked to
each other with Cybernatic hierarchy of control. Actors face various functional dilemmnas (Parsons call it Pattern variables) during
Social interaction which is resolved through role institutionalisation in the social system.
● Talcott Parsons in his work ‘Structure of Social Action, 1937’ contends that as – ‘Any act consciously performed is Social Action’.
Parsons considers that all possible empirical action of the people can be arrested into a universal theoretical framework. He
Social Action developed theory of ‘structure of social action’ and enumerates 3 types of social action in contrast to Weber’s 4 ideal types of social
action. Unlike Weber who says that action should be oriented towards others for it to be ‘social’, Parsons instead gave 4 conditions for an
action to be social.
● Talcott Parsons in his work “The Social System, 1951” contends that “Social actions don’t occur in isolation, but in constellation
and such constellation in the form of institutionalised social interactions is called Social system” ||| Social system is the patterned
network of relationships constituting a coherent whole that exist between individuals, groups, and institutions. It is the formal structure
Social system
of role and status that can form in a small, stable group. An individual may belong to multiple social systems at once; examples of social
systems include nuclear family units, communities, cities, nations, college campuses, corporations, and industries. A social system has two
parts – structure (actors, environment, relation etc) and functions (performance of which leads to gratification).
● Talcott Parsons in his work ‘Structure of Social Action, 1937’ gave concept of Action systems (Cultural system , Social system,
Actions System Personality system, Organismic system) as his grand structural functional framework. Every action-system need to fulfill its basic
needs/functional prerequisites (AGIL) through specialised sub-systems for continued survival of system.
 ● Talcott Parsons in his work ‘Structure of Social Action, 1937’ gave concept of Action systems (Cultural system , Social system,
Personality system, Organismic system) as his grand structural functional framework. Every action-system need to fulfill its basic
needs/functional prerequisites (AGIL) through specialised sub-systems for continued survival of system. Parsons in his
Cybernatic Hierarchy of
conceptualisation of action system also see their inter-relation and inter-linkages. Parsons develops what he terms the cybernatic
Control
hierarchy of control to explore these relations among the subsystems of overall action system. He propunds that those systems which
have a high level of information (such as cultural system) have control over systems which have a high level of energy (such as Organismic
system)
● Pattern variables in more general terms, is referred as ‘types of orientation’ or fundamental dilemmas that actors face in any
situation or during social interaction. Simply put, Pattern Variables are are choices between alternative variables while performing ‘roles.’
Pattern Variables Pattern Variables’ is the connecting link between the Parsonian idea of social action and social system. While pattern variables are
dilemmas, social system is the solution. Pattern Variables allow for categorisation of dichotomies in Perosnality system (mode of
orientation), Cultural system (value systems) and Social system (normative requirements)
R K MERTON
R K Merton ● Introduction :
● Master paragraph-
● Manifest functions are deliberate and known. While latent functions are unintended and/or go unrecognized by many. ||| Each system
Latent and Manifest
in society has a specific function that relies on and is associated to other systems. When these systems function, it leads to social stability.
function
When one or more systems dysfunctions , it leads to social instability. Both functions and dysfunctions can be latent or manifest.
● Middle-range theory, developed by Robert K. Merton, is an approach to sociological theorizing aimed at integrating theory and
empirical research. Middle-range theory starts with an empirical phenomenon (as opposed to a broad abstract entity like the social system)
Middle range
and abstracts from it to create general statements that can be verified by data. This approach stands in contrast to the earlier "grand"
theorizing of social theory, such as functionalism and many conflict theories.
● Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, politics or being like-minded. People often choose
to conform to society rather than to pursue personal desires - because it is often easier to follow the path others have made already,
Conformity and Deviance
rather than forging a new one. ||| Deviance explores the actions and/ or behaviors that violate social norms across formally enacted rules
(e.g., crime) as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and mores).
● A reference group is a group to which individuals compare themselves, which is not necessarily a group to which those individuals
belong. Thompson and Hickey (2005), contends that reference groups are ones "that people refer to when evaluating their own
Reference Groups qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors. ||| R K Merton developed a theory of the reference group and elaborated on the
concepts of in-group and out-group. For any group of people there are always other groups whom they look upon to and aspire to be like
them.
STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY
Concepts – Equality & Inequality, Hierarchy, Poverty, Deprivation
● Pierre Bourdieu defines Inequality as "patterns of unequal access to social resources. These social resources can be divided into four form of
capital (Cultural capital, Social capital, Economic capital, Symbolic capital)". All societies are marked by differences (either natural or man-made)
on various counts like – sex, color, skills, wealth, status, power, and geography and so on. When society tends to attach values on such
Equality & Inequality
differences in terms of superior or inferior, desirable or undesirable and so on, it leads to evaluation of differences and thus ‘social
differences’ now become ‘inequalities’. While differences are created by nature, man creates inequalities. These inequalities
occur in specific patterns and these patterns are understood through concept of ‘Social Stratification’.
● Master paragrapgh : Structural inequalities in the form of Hierarchy, Exclusion, Poverty, Deprivation and Social stratification based
on Class, Status groups, Gender, Ethnicity, Race are not allowing marginalised groups (Women, LGBTQ etc) to go for upward Social
mobility. Besides Patriarchy, Sexual DOL, Violence have further deteriorated the conditions of these groups. Due to Constitutional & legal
safeguards, Education and increased opportunities, Technology and information empowerment , Women and LGBTQ communities have
challenged the existing male dominated discriminatory systems.
● Hierarchy refers to “Any relationship of individuals, groups, or classes involving a system of ranking within society or an organization
Hierarchy
according to some criterion of evaluation accepted as relevant within the system”.
● Ruth Lister in her work ‘Poverty, 2004’, refers social exclusion to ways in which individuals may become cut off from full
involvement in the wider society or prevention of individuals from having the same opportunities that are available to most of the
Exclusion population (e.g., housing, healthcare, employment, civic engagement, democratic participation, and due process). Exclusion is a process by
which individuals or households experience multiple deprivations – either of resources or of social links to the wider community or
society – which prevents them from participating fully in the politico-socio-economic life of the society.
● Amartya Sen defines poverty as – ‘Lack of what one needs to live in society – Not only to survive, but also for contribution and
participation in society’. He redefines poverty not only in terms of economic status, but also in terms of capability and hence connects it to
Poverty the empowerment. Poverty is a social problem which arises due to an inter-related wave of cultural, social, political, economic and
psychological factors, and often expressed in terms of lack of material resources which one requires for a minimum
standard of life.
● Pierre Bourdieu defines deprivation as "lack of adequate cultural, social, economic and symbolic capital". Deprivation refers to denial of
access to resources required for self-development and fulfilment of basic necessities of life. Resources can be social, economic and cultural
Deprivation and basic necessities vary from one culture to another. When compared to exclusion, while exclusion is ‘from’ social participation,
deprivation is ‘of’ resources. When compared to poverty , poverty is often expressed in economic terms, deprivation can have other
dimensions as well.
Theories of Social stratification – Structural functionalist theory, Marxist theory, Weberian theory
● Sutherland and Maxwell defines stratification as ‘a process of differentiation which places some people higher than the others. Social
Social stratification stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, education,
occupation, social status, gender, ethnicity, race, or derived power (social and political).
● Structural functionalism is one of the theoretical perspective in sociology according to which each of the institutions, relationships,
roles, and norms that together constitute a society serves a purpose, and each is indispensable for the continued existence of the others
Structural functionalist and of society as a whole. ||| Structure functionalists idea of stratification believe that social stratification in society exists because it
theory serves important role in functioning of society. Different strata are created due to differential capacity of actors and their ability to perform
different roles. Functionalists see existence of various strata in terms of their interdependence, cooperation and serving the function of
integration of society.
● Marxism is one of the theoretical perspective in sociology which focus on how the economy and our social norms and values shape how
we understand our relationship to the economy and our place within the social structure relative to others. ||| Marxian idea of
stratification flows from his central notion of dialectical materialism, unequal control over FOP and consequent class formation. Karl Marx
Marxist theory
said that nature made everyone equal, but some men deprived others. He agreed that there are inequalities in society in various fields, but
they all emanate from one thing – control over FOP. Thus, in the Marxist theory social classes are defined by what relation they have to
the MOP.
 ● Weberian theory of stratification refers to a three-component theory of stratification, with social class, social status and political party
as conceptually distinct elements. The three-component theory of stratification is in contrast to Karl Marx simpler theory of social class
that ties all social stratification to what people own. The three components of Weber's theory are: Social class: based on economically
Weberian theory
determined relationship to the market (owner, renter, employee, etc.) ; Status (German: Stand): based on non-economic qualities like
honour, prestige and religion ; Party: affiliations in the political domain. All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life
chances" (opportunities to improve one's life).
Dimensions of Social Stratification
● A social class is a form of social stratification which occur in class society in which, people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social
Class
categories based on wealth, income, education, occupation, and belonging to a particular subculture or social network.
● Social status refers the level of social value a person is considered to hold. Status is one of the most ancient system of social
stratification where ranking is done based on the relative position in terms of honour and respect, prestige, goodwill, fame,
Status
personal qualities and social capital of an individual in a society. Earlier, status was seen as in terms of ascriptive values – e.g. –
Caste, Nobleman, Clergy, Estate owner etc. Today the term status is wider.
● Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to and differentiating between femininity and masculinity. Depending on the context,
Gender this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Stratification based on gender is one of the most
fundamental forms of stratification.
● Master sentence : Structural inequalities in the form of Hierarchy, Exclusion, Poverty, Deprivation and Social stratification based on
Class, Caste, Gender, Ethnicity, Race are not allowing marginalised groups (Women, LGBTQ etc) to go for upward Social mobility. Besides
Patriarchy, Sexual DOL, Violence have further deteriorated the conditions of these groups. Due to Constitutional & legal safeguards,
Education and increased opportunities, Technology and information empowerment , Women and LGBTQ communities have challenged
the existing male dominated discriminatory systems.
● Ethnicity is a grouping of people into categories who identify with each other based on shared attributes that distinguish them from
Ethnicity other groups such as a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, culture, religion, history, society, nation, or social
treatment within their residing area.
● Race is a grouping of peoples into categories who identify with each other based on shared attributes mainly physical and biological
Race generally viewed as distinct within a given society such as – color of skin, type of hair, facial features, size of head etc. While ‘race’ is
perceived as biological, ‘ethnicity’ is cultural or social in its meaning.
Social Mobility- Open & close systems, Types of Social mobility, Sources & causes of mobility
● Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals, families or groups within the social strata or between social strata in a society. It is
Social mobility a change in social status relative to one's current social location within a given society. The concept of social mobility is closely linked to
the concept of stratification.
● Open systems are those systems which offer free mobility from one stratum to another and there are no barriers which cannot be
Open systems
overcome. Ex- modern societies, Class system
● Closed systems are those systems which are marked by rigid boundaries which are unassailable. Individuals cannot cross their strata in
Close systems
ordinary circumstances. Ex- Caste system, gender stratification, ethnic stratification
IMPACT OF COLONIAL RULE ON BRITISH SOCIETY
Social Background of Indian Nationalism
● Indian nationalism is a modern phenomenon. It came into being during the British period. This came into being as a result of the action
Social Background of Indian
and interaction of numerous subjective and objective forces and factors which developed within the Indian society, under the conditions of
Nationalism
British rule and the impact of world forces.
Modernization of Indian Tradition
● According to Yogendra Singh, modernization is a form of cultural response, involving attributes which are basically universalistic and
evolutionary; they are pan-humanistic, trans-ethnic and non-ideological. Process of modernization of Indian tradition started during British
Modernization of Indian rule, but it was not a linear uni-directional process as it happened in West, but it also involved a dialectical relationship between modernity
Tradition and tradition and modern was also traditionalized in the process, though in less significant manner. Modernization of Indian tradition
includes change in traditional institutions, values and processes like caste, kinship, family, religion, political and social organization, and so
on.
Protests and Movements during colonial period
● From the colonial era to post-Independence, Protests & Social movements have acquired intensity at different times, in different
geographies, in different contexts, and had different outcomes. Protests are generally issue based and relatively short lived as compared to
Social movements. ||| Colonial rule saw numerous types of protests and social movements arising out of discontent with colonial rules
Protests and Movements
and structural disparities of Indian society. Colonial rules led to many changes to traditional social structure which was resisted by Indians.
during colonial period
Their economic policies, social policies, religious policies etc. all led to reactions from Indians. So, causes were both internal as well as
external. For example – while peasant movements were largely result of excesses of colonial policies, caste movements were result of
internal fault lines in Indian society.
Social reforms
● Social reforms is a kind of movement that aims to make gradual change, or change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or
fundamental changes. British advent into India also brought modern ideas and reformative approach. Much orthodoxy was prevalent in
Social reforms India when British arrived. While Sati, child marriage and patriarchy ailed women, caste & untouchability ailed lower castes, on the other
hand educational backwardness, superstition, health problems etc. ailed society at large. Social reforms during colonial rule came as a result
of both orthogenetic and heterogenetic sources.
PERSPECTIVES IN STUDY OF INDIAN SOCIETY
Indology
● ‘Indology’ literally means ‘systematic study of Indian society and culture using historical texts’. Task of Indological perspective is to interpret
and understand Indian society and culture based on traditional religious text, historical documents, and even archaeological evidence. |||
Indology Religious texts like – Mahabharata, Ramayana, Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis etc, historical texts like – Kautilya’s Arthshastra, Magestheneses’s
Indica etc, Writings and inscription by kings and other archaeological evidences were used for the study of Indian society. Indology
emphasizes upon study of Indian languages, beliefs, customs etc within broad purview of Indian society.
● Classical Indology refers to a pure-book view. Initial emphasis of this perspective was on translations of Sanskrit texts and developing an
understanding on this basis. Classical Indology was prevalent before 1920s in the writings of British intellectuals. William Jones
Classical Indology established Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1787 which later on emerged as major centre of Indology. Max Muller’s ‘Sacred Books of the East’ – a
multiple volume work published from 1849-74 – translated Vedas and other sacred texts. Henry Maine’s ‘Ancient Law, 1861’ and ‘Village
Communities in East and West, 1871’ were classical Indological texts.
● Classical Indology was modified by combining it with various sociological perspectives leading to development of Modern Indology. G S
Ghurye combined Classical Indological approach with anthropological diffusionist approach. Radha Kamal Mukherjee combined
Modern Indology
classical Indology with empirical sociology. D P Mukherjee combined Classical Indology with Marxian analytical framework.
Structural Functionalism
● Structural functionalism is one of the theoretical perspective in sociology according to which each of the institutions, relationships,
Structural Functionalism roles, and norms that together constitute a society serves a purpose, and each is indispensable for the continued existence of the others
and of society as a whole.
Marxism
● Marxism is one of the theoretical perspective in sociology which focus on how the economy and our social norms and values shape how
Marxism
we understand our relationship to the economy and our place within the social structure relative to others.
RURAL AND AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Idea of Indian Village
● Historically, India is deemed as a land of villages. Village in India is not merely a spatial unit, but it is Indian society in miniature.
Village According to Andre Beteille – ‘Village was not merely a place where people lived… It had a design in which were reflected basic values of Indian
society’.
Village studies
● Village studies became a prominent feature of study of Indian society in 1950s-60s. Earlier they were either led by colonial
administrators or Indologists. Study of Indian villages began in 18th century itself with intensive survey of land holdings. Early approaches
Village studies
were influenced by the book view and such studied formed a textually informed orthodox view of Indian villages. Purpose of such colonial
studies was either to make an economic assessment or draw a cultural map of India for rulers.
Agrarian social structure – Evolution of LTS and LR
● Agrarian social structure refers to the institutional framework under which agrarian operations are carried out and broadly covers the
Agrarian social structure – system of land tenure and land tenancy. Since agricultural land is the most important productive resource in rural areas, access to
Evolution of LTS and LR land shapes the rural class structure as well. Historically, caste and land were also linked. Usually, dominant and upper castes had the
control over the land and the lower castes barely had any land. Thus, land-caste and class were intimately linked.
● Land tenure refers to the relationship among individuals or groups, with respect to land. It defines the conditions under which land can
Land Tenure System be occupied, held or managed, by whom and for how long. There are different types of tenure, it may be based on written policies and
laws (statutory land tenure) or on unwritten customs and practices (customary land tenure).
● Land reform refers to efforts to reform of ownership and regulation of land or process of redistribution of land by the government
Land Reforms from landholders to landless people for agriculture or special purpose. Land distribution has been part of India's state policy from the very
beginning.
Agrarian class structure
● Agrarian social structure refers to the institutional framework under which agrarian operations are carried out and broadly covers the
Agrarian class system of land tenure and land tenancy. Agrarian class structure is one of dimensions of Agrarian social structure. ASS includes caste,
class, land ownership, Jajmani system etc while agrarian class structure will include only classes.
Programmes of rural development, CDP , cooperatives, PAP
● Rural development was one of the topmost agenda of the government of India as most of the population lived in rural areas. Rural
development was also important for securing food security for our huge population and achieving the ideal of socio-economic equality as
Programmes of Rural enshrined in our constitution. Further, rural development was necessary to minimize urban-rural equalities, check migration and
development provide decent standard of living to those living in rural areas. In recent times also, rural development is a big planning concern as it
became clear that the earlier strategies of top down approach remained largely ineffective in alleviating poverty and inequalities in rural
areas, and now rural development programs seek greater participation of the people.
● CDP which was launched in 1950s was a multi project programme with an aim of overall development of rural India. This programme
consisted of village industries, agriculture, animal husbandry, irrigation, education, public health etc. There were officials for each activity at
CDP district level to plan, execute and evaluate the programme up to the village level. CDP was the first major effort for rural development
which was conceived as a method through which the Five Year Plans would initiate a process of transformation of the socio-economic life
of the village.
● Cooperative is a voluntary group of people on equal basis with similar interests and activity who leverage their resources for collective
Cooperatives as well as individual gains. In Indian rural context, role of cooperatives was envisaged to cut Intermediaries in production chain , extricate
rural peasant from the grip of moneylenders, provide technical knowhow, promote economies of scale and uplift the standard of living.
● Poverty which stood at around 55% at the time of independence is now at the level of 22% as per Tendulkar Committee report.
Amartya Sen defines poverty as – ‘Lack of what one needs to live in society – Not only to survive, but also for contribution and participation in
PAP
society’. He redefines poverty not only in terms of economic status, but also in terms of capability and hence connects it to the
empowerment. Government has adopted multiple approaches towards fighting poverty over the years.
Green revolution
● Green Revolution was a period when agriculture in India was converted into an industrial system due to the adoption of modern
methods and technology, such as the use of HYV seeds, irrigation facilities, pesticides, fertilizers, and mechanized farming. It was supported
Green revolution
by strengthening of credit facility, electrification, infrastructure etc. The term Green Revolution was first used by Dr William Gaud, the
administrator of the USAID, in a speech on March 1968.
Changing MOP in Indian agriculture
Changing MOP in Indian ● Indian agriculture continued to have a traditional MOP which was shaped by a peasant society, Jajmani system and caste in a semi feudal
agriculture setup till the arrival of the British. British rule heralded a new MOP under which land as well as agricultural produce came to market.
Problems of rural labour including bondage and migration
● Rural labor, historically belonged to the landless class in Indian society and it worked under the economic system known as – Jajmani
system. In wake of little financial and material security, this labor always led a life of want and misery. With introduction of private property
Rural labor
during colonial rule, new classes emerged and problems of the rural labor only exacerbated at the hands of Zamindars, dominant castes,
British officials (they were often taken as begar) and so on.
● National Commission on Labor defines bonded labor as ‘labor which remains in bondage for the debt incurred’. Thus, it is a relation
Bondage between a creditor and debtor in highly unequal terms. This form of labor is a product of debt bondage where the dependence and
control of labor is through indebtedness.
● Migration of rural labor into other well-off areas is a hallmark of the developing and the underdeveloped agrarian economies as rural
areas are often left behind in developmental race. Distressed rural labor often resorts to migration to urban areas for better pastures
often ending up in low key jobs.

Migration
CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA
Perspectives on study of Caste systems
● Caste system is a closed system of stratification which is peculiar to India. It existed from centuries and its exact origin is still not
known. Primarily, it is a system called ‘Varna’ system under the Hindu fold of Indian society which divides society into 4 groups or ‘Varnas’
based on the birth – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Shudras. Apart from these, there is a 5th group – which falls outside the
Caste
Varna system – and is called ‘Avarna’ or outcastes or untouchables. While ‘Varna’ is a macro conception, ‘caste or jati’ is the
ground reality. Caste is an endogamous group having an independent culture and structural existence. Castes are further divided into
sub-caste which are endogamous and gotras which are exogamous groups.
Features of Caste system
Untouchability- forms and perspectives
● Institution of ‘untouchability’ refers not just to the avoidance of physical contact but to a much broader set of social sanctions and
social disabilities which are ascriptive in nature within the ritual framework of the caste system. It refers to a practice in which various
Untouchability- forms and
types of segregation are imposed within the cultural framework of the caste system. It is also understood in terms of the ‘social
perspectives
distance’ that various castes maintain with each other. 3 main dimensions of untouchability – namely, exclusion, humiliation-
subordination, and exploitation – are all equally important in defining the phenomenon.
TRIBAL COMMUNITIES IN INDIA
Definitional Problems
● India has perhaps the highest concentration of tribal population anywhere in the world except Africa. The term tribe is used in many
different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. Tribals in India are not a homogeneous group. Tribals are also
Tribes
distinguished by their distinctive socio-cultural features which vary from one part of country to another in terms of their traits,
assimilation with larger world, kinship, marriage, and religion so on. Their spread is also not even.
● Historically, tribes have been addressed by the different authorities by different names like – Adivasi, aborigines, primitives, backward
Hindus and so on. Definitional problem of tribes deals with two inter-related problems – problem of defining the tribes and evolving
the understanding of tribes in Indian context. Today, tribes are generally defined in terms of various general features rather than a fixed
Definitional problems
definition and are defined as a group of individuals with shallow history, indigenous in nature, having a particular territory, tied by closed
bonds of kinship, a common name, common ownership of resources, practicing endogamy, having distinct customs, rituals and beliefs,
simple social ranking and political organization, and so on.
Geographical Spread
● Data : As per some estimates, tribals are concentrated in about 15% of geographical area and constitute about 8% of population. There
are over 700 tribes which have been notified under Article 342 and there are many more sub-tribes as well. About 85% of the tribal
Geographical Spread
population lives in central India. Of the remaining 15%, about 11% live in the NER states, leaving only a little over 3% living in the rest of
India.
Colonial Policies and tribes
● Before colonial rule, tribes have been living in forest and hilly area as part and parcel of Indian population and they enjoyed a free life of
their own without interference of state. British colonial policies towards the tribals had two major elements. Firstly, it favoured isolation
of the tribal areas from the mainstream as they saw their union with larger population as a threat to their colonial empire. Secondly,
Colonial Policies and tribes
British administration was interested in ‘civilizing’ these people. Colonial rulers followed similar policy of exploitation and alienation with
tribes that they followed in rest of India. To maximize their earnings, various attempts were made to bring tribes into fold of revenue
administration.
Issues of tribal integration and Autonomy
● Issue of tribal autonomy and integration was identified by the national leadership even before independence. The isolationist side
argued that tribals needed protection from traders, moneylenders and Hindu and Christian missionaries, all of whom were intent on
reducing tribals to detribalized landless labor. The integrationists, on the other hand, argued that tribals were merely backward Hindus,
Issues of tribal integration
and their problems had to be addressed within the same framework as that of other backward classes. ||| Taking along both autonomy
and Autonomy
and integration is a difficult balancing act as they are somewhat conflicting paradigms in in context of tribal development. Too much focus
on autonomy sometimes leads to secessionist tendencies and also leads to a development of a narrow ethnocentric view. Integration, on
the other hand, may pose a threat to their cultural identities.
SYSTEM OF KINSHIP
Kinship, Kinship systems types, Regional variations in Kinship in India
● kinship system refers a pattern of social relationships in which a set of persons recognized as relatives, either, by virtue of a blood
Kinship relationship (consanguineal), or by virtue of a marriage relationship (conjugal relationship), or by adoption. There are also ‘fictive
kins’ especially in societies such as rural societies where mechanical solidarity is higher.
Family, Household and Marriage
● In simplest terms, family is a social unit, household is a dwelling unit and marriage is a union of two or more adults. They together form
the primary social units in the society. George Murdock, in his work ‘Social structure, 1949’ defines family as ‘A social group
Family
characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually co-habiting adults’.
● The household or ghar is a residential and domestic unit composed of one or more persons living under the same roof and eating food
Household cooked in the same kitchen or chulah. Emotional attachment is core feature of family, while commensality is core feature of
household.
● Marriage can be defined as a socially acknowledged and approved sexual union between two adult individuals. According to B
Malinowski, ‘Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children’. According to the Collins Dictionary of Sociology,
Marriage
‘Marriage is a socially acknowledged and sometimes legally ratified union between an adult male and an adult female’. This type of union is
based on two objectives – sexual gratification and procreation with socially sanctioned sex-relationships and economic co-operation.
Lineage and Descent in India
● Lineage is understood as a principle on the basis of which alignment or inheritance is chosen in a linear fashion. Unilineal lineages can be
Lineage
matrilineal or patrilineal, depending on whether they are traced through mothers or fathers, respectively.
● Descent (Vansha) is the principle whereby a child is socially affiliated with the group of his or her parents. The individual belongs
simultaneously to several descent groups – those of the two parents, the four grandparents, the eight great-grandparents, and so on.
Descent
However, this chain is generally limited by memory or by some conventionally determined cut-off point at, say, four or five degrees
removal or a few generations.
Patriarchy, Entitlements, Sexual Division of Labor & Violence against women
● Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social
Patriarchy privilege and control of property. Sylvia Walby in her ‘Theorizing Patriarchy, 1990’ defines patriarchy as "a system of social structures
and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women".
Entitlements
 ● Sexual Division of Labor refers to process of dividing work between different people based on their sex and gender. It is the most basic
SDOL form of division of labor which has been in existence since time immemorial. It is now acknowledged that sexual division of labor is
socio-culture in nature and not biological.
● Violence against women is primarily a result of unequal patriarchal social structure. Woman is pushed at margins in relationships,
given lesser rights and is expected to subjugate to whims of male counterparts. Absence of equal rights and financial liberty coupled
with gender stereotypical notions leave her vulnerable to multiple violence right from birth to death. ||| This violence sometimes
Violence against women
appears as manifest form of – feticides, infanticides, rapes, dowry deaths, domestic violence and so on. Sometimes it appears as indirect
and latent form of – unequal rights, low social status, no share in parental property, poor nutrition of girl child, inferior education of
girls, unequal sexual division of labor, discrimination in employment, pornography and misrepresentation of women in the media and so on.
RELIGION AND SOCIETY
Sociological theory of Religion
● Religion is a social-cultural system of designated behaviors, beliefs and practices, morals, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies,
ethics, or organizations, that relates humanity to supernatural, transcendental, and spiritual elements. Emile Durkheim in his work
Religion “Elementary forms of Religious Life 1912” defines it as ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say – things
set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite them into a single moral community, for all those who adhere to them’. In most cases, the
sacred includes an element of the supernatural, reverence, awe etc.
Types of Religious practices : Animism, Monism, Pluralism, Sects & Cults
● Animism is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Animism refers to a given form of
religion in which man finds the presence of anima or spirit in objects, places or notions that surrounds him. ||| Animism is considered to
Animism
be one of the most primitive ideas that gave birth to religion in society and as a religious concept, it is associated with primitive people.
Even today, many tribals, cults and sects across the world believe in this idea as religious practice.
Monism ● Monism is belief in a single attribute, god or religious idea. It is centered on the belief of oneness of all existences or in a single god.
● Religious pluralism is an attitude or policy regarding the diversity of religious belief systems co-existing in society. Religious
pluralism is the belief that one can overcome religious differences between different religions and denominational conflicts within the same
Pluralism
religion . The existence of religious pluralism depends on the existence of freedom of religion, fertility of ideas and mutual
tolerance.
● Religion has been an integral part in every man’s life. It guides individuals as to which path in life to choose, instilling values in them that
shape their life. There are several major religions in the world, and from them a large number of sects and cults have emerged. ||| A sect
is a small body or group of people who separated from a larger established group to follow a different doctrine. They have their own ideas
and beliefs. ||| A cult is a very different organisation not related with larger established group and has unconventional ideologies and the
members practice very different rituals. The members live isolated from society and do as their leader commands them to. ||| Summary:
Sects & Cults (1). A sect is a small group that separated from a larger group to follow a different doctrine while a cult is a small, quasi-religious group
with very unorthodox ideologies, rituals, and practices. (2). A sect is a branch of a certain religious organization while a cult is a totally
different organization. (3). Members of a sect live in mainstream society while members of a cult usually live in isolation away from their
families who are non-believers. (4). Cult members are usually completely obedient and dependent upon their leader while members of a
sect are not. (5). Some sects have been widely accepted and recognized by other religious groups and most governments while most cults
are not.
Religion in Modern Society : Religion and Science, Secularization , RF, RR
● Questions and confusions have always surrounded man and he sought answer to these in either religion or science. Religion and
Religion and Science
science both acted as storehouse of complementary knowledge. It is generally agreed that religion predates science.
● Secularization is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward non-religious
values and secular institutions. The secularization thesis expresses the idea that as societies progress, particularly through modernization,
rationalization, and advances in science and technology, religious authority diminishes in all aspects of social life and governance. Bryan
Wilson describes the process of secularization as ‘the various social institutions gradually become distinct from one another and
Secularization
increasingly free of the matrix of religious assumptions that had earlier informed, inspired and dominated their operation’. ||| Thinkers like
Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber etc were of view that traditional religion would become more and more marginal in the
modern world. According to them, a process of secularization is bound to occur as science become more important in lives of people to
control and explain social world.
● Secularism means separation of religion from political, economic, social and cultural aspects of life, religion being treated as a purely
Secularism
personal matter. It emphasized dissociation of the state from religion and full freedom to all religions and tolerance of all religions.
● Religious fundamentalism refers to the belief of an individual or a group of individuals in the absolute authority of a sacred religious text
Religious Fundamentalism or teachings of a particular religious leader, prophet, or God . These fundamentalists strongly believe in one and only one true
explanation and adherence to literal meanings of sermons or scriptures or doctrines and apply them to all aspects of life.
● Communalism is a strong allegiance to one's own ethnic group rather than to society. In India, basis of allegiance had been
Communalism
predominantly religion, so, in context of India, communalism is chauvinism based on religious identity.
● Religious revivalism seeks to restore commitment and attachment to paricular group. RR simply means revival of religion – in any form
Religious Revivalism be it institutional attendance as in church, growth of religious institutions and phenomenon like sects, cults, denominations, rise in
individuals pursuing spiritual peace through personal motions of religion and finally, growth of fundamental ideas or fundamentalism.
Religious Communities in India
● India is home to some of the world’s oldest religions like – Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism etc and also to hundreds of new sects and
cults. Christianity came to India in first century itself when Saint Thomas came to India. He was one of the original 12 apostles of the
Religious Communities in
Christ. Islam came to India in around mid 7th century. Similarly Parsis came to India in 8th century when Persia was invaded by the
India
Muslims. While Muslims and Christians swelled in their numbers due to their open outlook, Parsis and Jews remained a closed community
and remained limited in numbers.
Problem of Religious minorities in India
● India has numerous ethnic, linguistic and religious groups of various sizes. Constitution of India also makes a distinction between
majority and minority groups, but doesn’t define them. Minorities are of two types- linguistic minorities (determined by state govt) and
Problem of Religious
religious minorities (central govt). Religious minorities are six – Muslims (14.2 %), Christians (2.3%), , Sikhs (1.7%), Buddhists (0.7%), Jains
minorities in India
(0.4%), and Parsis (⤳0) . [Acronym = HM CS BJP] A religious community is declared minority not on basis of their absolute numbers,
but other factors like their threat perception, cultural development etc.
VISIONS OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA
Sociology theory of Social change
● Social change involves alteration of the social order of a society which may include changes in social institutions, social behaviours, or
social relations. Wilbert Moore defines social change as ‘a significant alteration in structure over time in behavior patterns and culture, including
Social change norms and values’.
Agent of Social change
● Agents of social change can be various. They can be from within the society i.e. endogenous or can be from external sources i.e.
exogenous. Internal causes include factors like – stress and conflict in society, conflicts between ideals of society and actual reality,
charismatic leadership as in case of Gandhi, Lenin, Mandela etc, planning, political rule, and inventions and so on. Russian Revolution is an
Agent of Social change
example of social change driven by internal causes. External causes may include cultural causes, environmental causes etc. Attack, war,
urbanization, industrialization, westernization trade, migration, are some of social causes and earthquakes, pollution, deforestation,
ecological changes are some of exogenous physical factors.
Development & Displacement, ES, Dependency
● Development as a social concept involves progressive change from one inferior state to a superior state of well-being or simply change
in the desired direction and can have many dimensions – cultural, political, economical, etc. Yogendra Singh opines that “Development is
Development
a strategy of planned social change which is considered desirable by the members of a society.” So, the notion of development may differ
from society to society. It often leads to increase in scale, efficiency, mutuality and freedom.
● Development-induced displacement occurs when people are forced to leave their homes in a development-driven form of forced
Development induced
migration. It can result from various development projects such as construction of dams, mining, coal & nuclear power plants, road
Displacement
developments, environment conservation projects etc.
● Environmental sustainability is the responsibility to conserve natural resources and protect global ecosystems to support health and
wellbeing, now and in the future. Another issue related with developmental process is of environmental problems and sustainability. In
Environment sustainability 2013, floods caused major havoc in the regions of Uttarakhand which was primarily a result of developmental activities in fragile
Himalayan ecosystem. Similarly, environmental challenges have been posed by dams construction, mining, coal and nuclear
power plants, unstructured urban growth and so on which has resulted in loss in species diversification, extinction of indigenous species.
● Dependency theory is of the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy
states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished
and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system". ||| Developed countries over the years
Dependency developed their development model primarily based on material well being. The western notion of development was imposed on newly
liberated nations after WWII. However, soon it was realized that their conditions were not improving and instead they were facing a net
outflow of resources, stagnant levels of poverty and worst of all a dependency on the western countries. This leads to rise of ‘dependency
theories’ in 1950s .
● Globalisation : Choen and Kennedy (2000) in their work "Global Sociology" defines Globalisation as ‘'the increasing interconnectedness
Globalisation
and interdependency of the world’s nations and their people into a single culture, economic, political and global system’'

Idea of Development planning and Mixed economy

● Development in Indian context didn’t mean just economic development, but also cultural and social development as well. Development
meant not only growth, but growth with justice to those who had undergone colonial oppression and had also suffered from evil
practices – like caste, untouchability, bondage, discrimination, patriarchy and so on – that were prevalent in India. Our constitution itself
Development Planning
laid down philosophical framework for development that was to be undertaken. It declares India a socialist country and directive
principles (Art 39) calls for minimization of inequality whereas Article 15 calls for positive discrimination for weaker sections. Thus,
philosophical basis of developmental planning in India has deep welfare roots.
● A mixed economy is the one in which both private and public sectors participate. To give the ideas of development planning a practical
Mixed economy
shape, India went for a mixed economy model.
Constitution, law & social change
● Constitution and legislation play an important role in social change in a diverse and traditional society like India which suffers from
multiple inequalities like – caste, class, gender, ethnicity, race and regions. Constitution and Law can be a great tool in the hand of every
Constitution, law & social
common man with which he can fight all the dysfunctional social institutions, irrationalities, dogmas, biases and stereotypes, hegemony and
change
dominance in a liberal democracy. In India, importance of law and constitution regarding social change is more pertinent vis-à-vis situation
of four groups – Dalits and other depressed sections, women, the poor and the tribals.
Education and social change
● Francis J Brown remarks that ‘education is a process which brings about changes in the behaviour of society. It is a process which
Education and social change
enables every individual to effectively participate in the activities of society and to make positive contribution to the progress of society’.
Science & Technology and social chnage
● S&T are essential ingredients of modern life which accompany us from cradle to grave. S&T is an important secular medium which
Science & Technology and transcends local boundaries and touches lives of everyone. Evolution of mankind can be seen in terms of technological evolution as well.
social chnage Invention of fire and wheel changed the face of mankind. Various historical epochs viz – hunter-gatherers, agrarian society, industrialist
society – are distinguished from each other in term of technological advancement
INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION
Social organisation of work in different types of socities
● Work is integral part of human existence. Calvinists deem it as a calling and a possible way of being the ‘chosen one’. Notion of
Karma in Hindu philosophy is also closely linked to work in material world. Work in simplest terms can be defined as the carrying out the
Work
tasks which requires the expenditure of mental or physical effort, which has its objective of production of goods and services to cater the human needs.
But in economic sociology, it is generally an activity which results in paid employment, reward, or contract.
● Social organization of work refers to patterning of activities which involves a technical as well as social component. Technically it may
be called as division of labor and socially it may reflect the normative structure at workplace in form of stratified order, power
relations, social mobility, alienation and so on. SOW was different in different societies – slave, feudal and capitalist. At a particular time
Social organisation of work
also, different societies might have different organization of work. While capitalism was in offing in Europe, Asia had ‘Asiatic Mode of
Production’ according to Marx. It is argued that in the period of globalization and modernization, it is the growing competition between
firms and countries that makes it essential for firms to organize production suiting the changing market conditions.
Formal and Informal organisation of work
● According to Amitai Etzioni, ‘Our society is an organizational society’. Organizations are different from other social institutions like
family, kinships, friends etc. Organizations are social units which have specific objectives and goals to achieve. Organizations existed in one
Organisation form or another since time immemorial from Harrapan urban organizations to modern business houses. Rise in division of labor has also
been accompanied by the consequent rise in types of organizations. Political, economic and other functions are now performed by
distinctive organizations.
Formal organisation of ● Formal Organization of Work is the one in which the worker is governed by the formal rules and regulations. A formal
work organization is rationally designed and has explicit objectives & goals and for them, there are explicitly defined means as well.
● Informal Organization of Work is the one in which workers are not governed by fixed rules and regulations, but by directions of
Informal organisation of
employer. It generally includes casual labor, contract labor, child labor, domestic labor etc.
work
Labour and society
● Concept of work is also associated with industrialization and growth of capitalism. Initially, the term ‘worker’ was used for those who
worked in factories and entered into employment out of his own will. In contemporary sense, worker is the one who is not in a
managerial job. In strict sense of meaning, worker is also differentiated from ‘labor’. The term labor denotes a worker who lacks
Labour and society
choice for any reason. Child labor, rural labor and bonded labor are ‘labor’ and not ‘worker’ as they lack choice and are often forced into
work. Workers are generally in a contractual relation with the employer, labor on the other hand is in feudal or ritual relation
with the employer.
Evolution of modern industry in India
● Industrial development is important for socioeconomic and human development of a country. India, since ancient times, has been
famous in the world for its cottage and household industries. Before the beginning of modern industrial development, Indian pottery,
Evolution of modern
muslin and silk goods were much in demand. Traditional handicrafts industry, however, suffered after the advent of the British in India. The
industry in India
British policy of exporting raw material from India to Britain and importing finished goods into India severely hampered growth of
industries. This critical scenario improved somewhat after the mid-19th century but the growth of industries was a slow process.
Growth of urban settlements in india
● Process of ‘urbanization’ denotes population growth of the cities and towns, spread of urban way of life to the countryside.
Growth of urban Urbanization is a cultural and social psychological process whereby people acquire the material and non-material culture, including
settlements in india behavioral patterns, forms of organization, and ideas that originated in, or are distinctive of the city. Process of urbanization has
demographic as well as social dimensions.
Working class : structure, growth and mobilization
● M Holmstrom, defines working class as ‘a group which share similar economic situation which distinguishes it from others like
Working class : structure, property owners, managers and employers. It thus refers to industrial workers and sometimes other wage earners and petty self-
growth and mobilization employed’. Modern working class came into being with the rise of capitalist MOP. In other words, rise of factory system of production
and working class happened simultaneously.
Child labor
● Child labour refers to the exploitation of children through any form of work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with
their ability to attend regular school, and is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful. Child labor is defined as any work done by
Child labor
a person who is under the age specified by law. Worst forms of child labor, according to ILO, include – bonded labor, mining, child
prostitution, drug-trafficking
Slums and Deprivation in Urban Areas
● Govt of India defines slums as an area where such dwellings predominate, which by reason of dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty
Slums arrangement and design of buildings, faulty arrangement of street, lack of ventilation, lack of sanitation facilities, inadequacy of open spaces
and community facilities or any combination of these factors, are detrimental to safety, health or morale’.
Industrial class structure
● Industrial class refers to strata that form due to division of work in factories. Growth of industrial classes is linked with growth of
Industrial class colonialism and industrialization in India. Industrialization refers to the process that lead to replacement of manpower by the in-animate
source of power and setting up of plants and machines which lead to mass production and commoditization of labor.
Middle classes in India
● Middle Class as a conceptual stratum in urban class structure emerged only after industrialization when the concept of class itself
Middle class emerged in its current sense and it’s placed in between the dichotomous property owning and working class. Thus, structurally they are
placed in the middle and have characteristics of both upper and lower classes.
POLITICS AND SOCIETY
Sociological theories of Power
● Max Weber’s conception of authority is a demonstration of his concept of ideal type in action. According to him, both power and
authority are social in character and comes into play where relations are there. Power is defined by Weber as ‘The chance of a man or a
number of men to realize their own will in a communal action, even against the resistance of those who are participating in the communal
Power action’. Authority according to Weber is a form of ‘legitimate or socially approved power. According to him, coercion differentiates power
from authority. Power has an element of coercion in it. ||| Like all other concepts, concept of authority is also developed by Max Weber
as an ideal type. According to him, there are 3 ideal types of authority which are based upon his conception of various type of social action
– RAT
Power Elite, Political Parties, Pressure groups
● Elite are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society.
The Power Elite is a 1956 book by sociologist C. Wright Mills, in which Mills calls attention to the interwoven interests of the leaders of
the military, corporate, and political elements of society and suggests that the ordinary citizen is a relatively powerless subject of
Power elite
manipulation by those entities. The power elite is a term used by Mills to describe a relatively small, loosely connected group of individuals
who dominate American policymaking. This group includes bureaucratic, corporate, intellectual, military, media, and government elites who
control the principal institutions in the United States and whose opinions and actions influence the decisions of the policymakers.
Social elite
● A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular country's elections. It is common for the
Political party
members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific ideological or policy goals.
Pressure groups ● Pressure groups also known as interest groups use various forms of advocacy in order to influence public opinion and ultimately policy.
Regionalism and decentralization of power
● Regionalism is the feeling of a common sense of identity and purpose by people within a specific geographical region, united by its
unique language, culture etc. In a positive sense, it encourages people to develop a sense of brotherhood and oneness which seeks to
Regionalism protect the interests of a particular region and promotes the welfare and development of the state and its people. In the negative sense,
it implies excessive attachment to one’s region which is a threat to the unity and integrity of the country. In the Indian context generally,
the term 'regionalism' has been used in the negative sense.
● Decentralisation refers to a governance process in which power is shared from Centre and State governments to local government.
The basic idea behind decentralisation is that there are a large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level. |||
Local governance is well known in India since time immemorial. Panchayats in India are historical institutions and were known by different
names during different periods. Even during independence struggle, they were envisaged by Gandhiji as the true realization of Swaraj. After
independence, they were demanded as institutions of local empowerment in a backward nation and many states like Rajasthan took active
Decentralisation steps to promote them.
Nation, State, Citizenship, Civil society, Democracy, Ideology
● A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as language, history, ethnicity, culture
Nation
and/or territory. A nation is thus the collective identity of a group of people understood as defined by those features.
● Harold Laski defined state as – ‘A way of organizing collective life of a society’. Max Weber defines state in terms of ‘monopoly over
legitimate use of violence’. Bertrand Russell defines state as a ‘Repository of collective force of its citizens’. ||| When society and
State
other associations and institutes are integrated into a one single unit, it is termed as state. While nation is an emotional manifestation of a
society, state is a result of desire for political unity.
● Citizenship is a relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its
protection. Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and the conditions under which that
Citizenship
status will be withdrawn. Recognition by a state as a citizen generally carries with it recognition of civil, political, and social rights which are
not afforded to non-citizens.
● According to World Bank, civil society refers to the wide array of non-governmental and not for profit organizations that have a
presence in public life, express the interests and values of their members and others, based on ethical, cultural, political, scientific etc.
Civil society
Organizations and institutions that make up civil society include labor unions, non-profit organizations, churches, and other service
agencies that provide an important service to society but generally ask for very little in return.
● Democracy is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation ("direct democracy"), or
Democracy
to choose governing officials to do so ("representative democracy").
● An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially as held for reasons that are not
purely epistemic, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones. Sociologists define ideology as "cultural beliefs that
Ideology
justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality”. Dominant groups use these sets of cultural beliefs and practices to
justify the systems of inequality that maintain their group's social power over non-dominant groups.
Collective action, Agitation, Protest, Social movements, Revolution
● Collective action refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to achieve a common objective and enhance
Collective action
their condition.
● Agitation is a social process which involves ‘intense activity’ undertaken by an individual or group in order to fulfill a purpose. Purpose
Agitation and dissatisfaction is central to agitation. In general, agitation and protest have only subtle differences. While protest is a reaction to an
event which has already occurred, an agitation can also be for a future course which is seen as desirable or undesirable.
● Protest is a social process of opposition directed against any individual, group or even wider society, which may occur at individual or
collective level, manifest or latent level and may involve action or inaction as a tool of protest. Opposition and dissent is central in protest.
Protest Protest, thus, pre-supposes a prior event against which a protest is done. For example – fast unto death by Mahatma Gandhi against British
policies is an instance of individual level protest, opposition of India to terms of WTO which are unfavorable to developing countries is
example of collective protests.
● A social movement is defined as a sustained collective action aimed at bringing or resisting social change outside the sphere of
Social movement established institutions. According to MSA Rao, social movements are characterized by three important features – orientation of change,
ideology and collective mobilization.
● According to James M Jasper, ‘Revolution is a social movement that seeks, as minimum, to overthrow the government or state’. Broadly it
means – radical change and it is used in many sociological contexts like – Green Revolution, Knowledge Revolution, Social Revolution
Revolution
etc. It often leads to fundamental change in social structure and social life, changes in political structure and increased participation of
people in political life.
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
Peasants and Farmers movements
● A peasant movement is a social movement concerned with the agricultural policy, which claims peasants rights. Anthony Pereira
Peasant movement defined a peasant movement as a "social movement made up of peasants (small landholders or farm workers on large farms), usually inspired by
the goal of improving the situation of peasants in a nation or territory".
● A farmer movement is a social movement concerned with the agricultural policy, which claims farmer rights. Farmers movement are
Farmer movement largely a post GR phenomenon and emerged in prosperous regions of country and were driven by interest based ideology and they wanted
to extract maximum benefit out of that.
Environment movements
● Environmental movement is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing environmental issues including just and
sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy and individual behaviour. |||
Environmental movement The first seed of an environmental movement in India was the foundation in 1964 of Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh, a labour cooperative
started by Chandi Prasad Bhatt. It was inaugurated by Sucheta Kriplani and founded on land donated by Shyma Devi. This initiative was
eventually followed up with the Chipko movement starting in 1974.
Women movement
● Women movement is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing women's issues including the inequality
Women Movement between men and women, women's liberation, reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women's suffrage, sexual
harassment, and sexual violence.
Backward classes and Dalit movements
● Other Backward Class is a collective term used by the Government of India to classify castes which are educationally or socially
disadvantaged. It is one of several official classifications of the population of India, along with General Class, Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes (SCs and STs). OBCs were found to comprise 52% of the country's population by the Mandal Commission report of
1980, and were determined to be 41% in 2006 when the National Sample Survey Organisation took place. ||| Untouchability is the most
visible and comprehensive form of social discrimination. However, there were a large group of castes that were of low status and were
also subjected to varying levels of discrimination short of untouchability. These were generally the service castes and artisanal
castes or the so-called Shudras who occupied the lower rungs of the caste hierarchy. These groups – which need not be based on
Backward classes
caste alone but are generally identified by caste – were described as the ‘socially and educationally backward classes’. ||| The term
‘backward communities’ was used for the first time in official parlance by the State of Travancore in1930s to include all
educationally and economically backward sections. Madras province used it in 1930s to refer the castes which were just above
untouchables. Thus, the concept was there much before it got recognition in our constitution. Since caste has entered all the major
Indian religions and is not confined to Hinduism alone, members of other religions are also there who belong to the backward classes and
share the same traditional occupational identification and similar or worse socio-economic status. For these reasons, the OBCs are a
very diverse group.
● Backward classes movement is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing BC issues which includes
backwardness such as illiteracy and lack of education, poverty, political and economic exploitation, non-representation in services etc
Backward class movement
 ● Dalit is a name for people belonging to the lowest caste in India, previously characterised as "untouchable". Dalits were excluded from
the four-fold varna system of Hinduism and were seen as forming a fifth varna, also known by the name of Panchama or Avarnas. They were
the most deprived section of society both ritually as well socio-economically. Their sub- human treatment over centuries led to
Dalits
inner revolt in Hindu social organization in form of Dalit movements. These movements addressed issues of cultural segregation,
political and economic exploitation and the most importantly – a struggle for recognition as fellow human beings. They have been
redemptive, reformative and revolutionary all at the same time.
● Dalit classes movement is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing dalit class issues which includes issues of
Dalit movement cultural segregation, political and economic exploitation and the most importantly – a struggle for recognition as fellow human beings. They
have been redemptive, reformative and revolutionary all at the same time.
Ethnicity & Identity movements
● Ethnic movement refers to mobilization of the people based on markers, real or imagined, which they share – language, region, religion,
culture, customs, race, etc. Generally, those ethnic groups which are in minority involve themselves in ethnic mobilization. Ethnic
Ethnicity movement
mobilization includes linguistic mobilization, communal mobilization, Dalit mobilization, caste mobilization, tribal mobilization etc. In India,
only the tribal movements and racial movements are generally kept under the category of ethnic movements.
Identity movement ● Identity movement refers to xxxx
● An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social,
economic or religious, the individuals in conflict must expressly fight for their ethnic group's position within society. ||| Ethnicity
Definition : The term ‘ethnic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘ethno’ meaning ‘nation’. It was originally used to denote primitive tribes or
societies that formed a nation based on their simplistic forms of government and economy. The term was put into use to overcome the
Ethnic conflicts controversies related with race and ethnicity emerged as a key sociological and political concept only in the early 1970s. Today race is
typically associated with perceived (and not actual) biological features and ethnicity has cultural/social notions. It is now employed in a
broader sense to signify self-consciousness of a group of people united, or closely related, by shared experience such as language, religion,
common heritage, caste, race etc. There is nothing innate about ethnicity, it is imbibed in an individual through socialization. Ethnicity is not
fixed; it is situationally defined. According to Barun De it is a creative response of the group which is marginalized in society.
POPULATION DYNAMICS
Population growth, composition, and distribution
● Population of a country is a horoscope of a country. On the one hand, High burden of population can take a toll on resources; on the
Population growth, other hand, it can also be converted into demographic dividend if judiciously utilized. Some centuries ago, Thomas Malthus gave a bleak
composition, and future for world in wake of rising population, but recently China has shown that population may not be necessarily a hurdle in
distribution development. Population of India poses a big challenge and many demographers term it as root cause of all problems in India. Its high
growth rate also poses another challenge, especially in area of planning.
● Birth rate is the one of the 3 components of population change, the other two being mortality and Migration. The most commonly used
Birth Rate indicators of birth rates is ‘Crude Birth Rate’. It is generally expressed in number of live births per 1000. There are also specific birth rates
for a particular age group and gender as well. Birth rates are the expressions of fertility of women of a given population.
● Death rate is the one of the 3 components of population change, the other two being Birth rate and Migration. There are various
measures of mortality: Crude death rate, Neo-natal mortality rate, Infant mortality rate (IMR), Under 5 mortality rate, Maternal Mortality Rate
Death rate
(MMR). Crude death rate is the ratio of the total registered deaths occurring in a specified calendar year to the total mid-year population of that
year, multiplied by 1000. There is an absolute growth in population if mortality rate is lower than the birth rate.
● Migration is the one of the 3 components of population change, the other two being mortality and fertility. Human migration involves
the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location. Everett
Migration
Lee, defines migration broadly ‘as a permanent or semi- permanent change of residence’. Others like Eisenstadt consider it as a more or less
permanent in nature.
Population planning and Family planning
● While the global population has increased only 3-fold during the last century, from 2 billion to 6 billion, India's population has increased
nearly 4 times from 24 crore to 100 crore in the same period. India has had an official population policy for more than a half century. In
fact, India was perhaps the first country to explicitly announce such a policy in 1952 in the form of the ‘National Family Planning
Population planning and
Programme’. The broad objectives of this programme have remained the same – to try to influence the rate and pattern of population
Family planning
growth in socially desirable directions. In the early days, the most important objective was to slow down the rate of population growth
through the promotion of various birth control methods, improve public health standards, and increase public awareness about population
and health issues.
Emerging Issues : Agening, Sex ratio, Child mortality, Reproductive health
● Ageing is the process of becoming older. In humans, ageing represents the accumulation of changes occurring over time and can
encompass physical, psychological, and social changes. As a process, it poses challenges at every phase of life from puberty to old-age.
Countries like Japan today face enormous pressure as a significant chunk of their population is now approaching old age and dependency
Ageing
ratio is increasing. Developing societies, such as India, which are subjected to economic development and modernization, are experiencing
an increasing degree of deterioration in the condition of the aged people. Old aged people (> 60 years) in India stands at around 8.60% of
population or 10.40 crore in absolute no (Census 2011).
● Sex ratio is defined as the ratio of male and female in a population. In most sexually reproducing species, the ratio tends to be 1:1. The
Indian Census has preferred to define the sex ratio as the number of females per 1000 males. It can be further defined as child sex ratio
Sex ratio and adult sex ratio. Sex ratio is one of the key demographic indicators which also reflect the socio- cultural values of a given society. Poor
sex ratio reflects a preference for male child in a patriarchal society which creates demographic void and has serious implications for
society.
● Child mortality is the mortality of children under the age of five. Child mortality rate or U5MR refers to the probability of dying
Child mortality between birth and exactly five years of age expressed per 1,000 live births. It encompasses neonatal mortality (the probability of death in
the first month of life) and infant mortality (the probability of death in the first year of life).
● WHO defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all
Reproductive health matters including reproductive system and its functions. Reproductive health denotes the health of an individual's reproductive system during all
life stages and concerns with issues like ability to reproduce, safe motherhood, prevention from STD , hygiene, family planning and so on.