GE 8 ETHICS LECTURE NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
1. Definition of Ethics
Ethics comes from the Greek word "ethos," meaning custom or character.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy focused on studying the rightness or wrongness of human actions.
It aims to define what constitutes right conduct and explores the idea of living a good life.

2. Evolution of Ethics
Ethics has evolved based on changing sociocultural and political contexts.
Greek Tradition:
Focused on achieving happiness (Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics discusses how happiness is attained).
JudeoChristian Tradition:
Emphasized righteousness before God and the love of God and neighbor, shifting the focus from
happiness to religious and moral obligations.

3. Ethics vs. Morality

Ethics: Theoretical study of principles underlying right and wrong actions.
Ethics is systematic and involves examining the reasoning behind moral principles.
Morality: Practical aspect, guiding what one ought to do.
Morality provides norms that help individuals coexist peacefully and productively.

4. Morality’s Role in Society

Morality equips people with norms to promote peaceful coexistence and collective wellbeing.
A moralist seeks to improve the moral quality of a community by promoting values like fairness and
equity.

5. Two Approaches in Ethics

Normative Ethics:
Prescriptive: Defines standards of right and wrong.
Focuses on articulating the duties, virtues, or consequences that should guide our actions.
Example: Kant’s theory that an act is morally right if done for the sake of duty.

MetaEthics:
Descriptive: Investigates the nature and origin of ethical principles.
Asks foundational questions such as "What is good?" and "Why should I be moral?"
Example: Plato’s question, "Why should I be moral?" is a metaethical inquiry.

Applied Ethics
Involves the application of moral theories to reallife issues.
Casuistry (casebased reasoning) is often used to resolve complex moral dilemmas.
Examples: Abortion, euthanasia, and business ethics.

Types of Applied Ethics:

1. Business Ethics: Addresses ethical behavior in the corporate world.
2. Biomedical Ethics: Concerns ethical issues in healthcare and medicine.
3. Environmental Ethics: Explores our responsibilities toward the environment.
4. Social Ethics: Regulates principles of fairness within societies.
6. Example of Normative and Applied Ethics in Action
Scenario: A police officer shoots a terrorist to prevent a bomb from exploding in a crowded mall.
Metaethics: Killing is intrinsically wrong.
Normative Ethics: In this situation, the police officer’s action might be justified to save lives.
Applied Ethics: The officer is fulfilling his duty to protect as many innocent lives as possible.

8. Conclusion
Ethics is the study of moral principles that guide human actions.
It includes normative, metaethical, and applied approaches.
Understanding these aspects helps address moral dilemmas in reallife situations.

Ethics vs. Morality

1. Introduction to Morality
Ethics and morality are often used interchangeably, but they have subtle differences.
Etymology:
Ethics: Derived from the Greek word "ethos," meaning custom or character.
Morality: Comes from the Latin word "mores" (plural: "moris"), meaning custom or manner.
Both refer to customary behavior.
2. Similarities Between Ethics and Morality
Both terms deal with rightness or wrongness of human actions.
They can be used interchangeably:
A moral or ethical person does the right thing.
An immoral or unethical person does the wrong thing.
3. Key Differences Between Ethics and Morality
Ethics:
 Refers to the systematic study of what is right and wrong.
 A branch of philosophy that attempts to provide systems of moral principles and reasons why
certain principles are valid.
 Concerned with the theories behind moral principles.
 Ethics is known as the science of morals.
Morality:
 Refers to the principles or rules of right and wrong behavior.
 Morality is the practice of ethical principles.
 More concerned with the application of right and wrong actions.
4. Ethics as a Theoretical Framework
Ethics attempts to provide systems of moral principles.
These principles serve as the foundation for determining the rightness or wrongness of human actions.
Examples of Basic Ethical Principles:
 Respect for persons: Treating individuals with dignity and acknowledging their rights.
 Truthfulness and confidentiality: Maintaining honesty and protecting private information.
 Autonomy and informed consent: Ensuring individuals have the freedom to make informed
decisions.
 Beneficence: Promoting the wellbeing of others.
  Nonmaleficence: Avoiding harm to others.
 Justice: Ensuring fairness and equality.
5. Morality as Practice
Morality deals with the application of ethical principles in reallife situations.
Example:
 Ethics may argue that killing is wrong because it violates the principle of nonmaleficence and
respect for persons.
 Morality would simply state, “Do not kill because it is wrong.”
6. Conclusion
 Ethics is the theory and science behind moral principles, while morality is the practice of those
principles.
 Ethics provides the framework for moral decision-making, whereas morality guides individual
actions.
Summary
 Ethics = Theory and principles that explain why actions are right or wrong.
 Morality = Practice of applying those principles in real-life decisions.

MORAL STANDARDS VS. NONMORAL STANDARDS

1. Introduction to Moral and Nonmoral Standards
Different societies have different moral beliefs, deeply influenced by culture and context.
Example: Wearing a hijab is a moral standard in Muslim communities, while Western cultures may not
consider dressing a moral issue.
Cultural clashes often occur when one group imposes its values on another, potentially leading to
violence.

2. Why Distinguish Moral Standards from Nonmoral Standards?

Understanding the difference helps avoid cultural reductionism and the imposition of nonmoral
standards on others.
Moral Standards: Related to actions that promote the welfare of humans, animals, and the
environment. They focus on what is right or wrong, and we may impose them when universal moral
values (like not killing) are violated.
Nonmoral Standards: Based on personal preference or cultural norms, such as etiquette or aesthetics,
and shouldn't be imposed on others.

3. Characteristics of Moral Standards

A. Serious Impact: Concerned with actions that can seriously harm or benefit humans, animals, or
the environment (e.g., child abuse, murder).
B. Not Authority Dependent: Moral standards are not created by authoritative bodies, but are
based on solid reasoning (e.g., no law is needed to know killing is wrong).
C. Overriding: Moral standards take precedence over other standards and selfinterest.
D. Impartiality: Moral standards are based on fairness and justice.
E. Special Emotions & Vocabulary: Moral standards evoke specific emotions and are tied to special
moral language.

4. Characteristics of Nonmoral Standards

Nonmoral Standards: Guidelines for judging actions outside of moral considerations, like etiquette, law,
or aesthetics (e.g., good manners, legal standards, or artistic preferences).
Nonmoral standards don't make a person moral or immoral (e.g., texting while driving may be illegal but
not immoral).

5. Key Distinctions
Moral Standard Example: "Do not harm innocent people" or "Don't steal."
Nonmoral Standard Example: "Don't text while driving" or "Don't talk with your mouth full."

Conclusion
Understanding the difference between moral and nonmoral standards helps foster mutual respect and
avoid unnecessary conflicts between cultures.
MORAL DILEMMAS
1. What is a Dilemma?
A dilemma is a situation where a person must choose between two or more conflicting options, none of
which are fully acceptable.
The key feature is that all options will have undesirable outcomes.
Example: A town mayor must choose between preserving a forest and allowing miners to boost
economic development.
2. What are Moral Dilemmas?
Moral dilemmas arise when individuals (moral agents) are forced to choose between conflicting options,
each with moral implications.
Moral agents must make a decision, but every choice involves compromising some moral principle.
Example: Lindsay, who is against killing, faces an ectopic pregnancy where abortion is required to save
her life, presenting a moral conflict.

3. Three Conditions for a Moral Dilemma (Karen Allen)

 Obligated Decision: The moral agent must make a decision about the best course of action.
Example: Lindsay may decide abortion is necessary to save her life.
 Conflicting Options: There must be two or more conflicting moral options.
Lindsay must choose between her life or moral integrity.
 Compromise of Moral Principles: No matter the choice, some moral principle will be
compromised.
Lindsay’s choice will either violate her belief in the sanctity of life or risk her own survival.

4. Types of Moral Dilemmas

A. Epistemic Moral Dilemmas
Conflicting moral requirements exist, and the agent lacks full knowledge of which is morally right.
Example: Deciding between keeping a promise to your child or helping a sick stranger.
B. Ontological Moral Dilemmas
Conflicting moral requirements where neither is stronger, and the agent cannot prioritize one over the
other. Example: A military doctor must choose which soldier to save with limited blood supply.
C. Self-imposed vs. World-imposed Moral Dilemmas
Self-imposed: Caused by the agent’s own actions.
Example: A politician promises to protect forests while seeking support from mining companies.
World-imposed: Created by external circumstances.
Example: Sophie must choose which of her children will live in "Sophie's Choice."
D. Obligation vs. Prohibition Dilemmas

Obligation Dilemma: More than one action is obligatory.

 Example: A son must choose between caring for his grieving mother and fighting for his country.
Prohibition Dilemma: All feasible actions are forbidden.
Example: Sophie’s decision in "Sophie's Choice," where any decision results in harm.

5. Single Agent vs. Multi-person Dilemmas

Single Agent: One agent must choose between conflicting moral actions.
Example: A doctor must report a patient’s HIV status (legal obligation) or maintain confidentiality
(ethical obligation).
Multi-person: Involves multiple agents, and each agent's decision affects others.
Example: A family must decide whether to prolong a dying member's life, with no consensus.

5. Conclusion
Moral dilemmas are complex situations where no choice is morally perfect. Understanding the types and
conditions of dilemmas helps in making thoughtful, if difficult, moral decisions.