Temperature  The concept of temperature is rooted in qualitative ideas of "hot" and "cold" based on our sense of touch.

o Temperature as a measure of hotness or coldness  Many properties of matter that we can measure depend on temperature. o The length of a metal rod o Steam pressure in a boiler o The ability of a wire to conduct an electric current, o The color of a very hot glowing object.  The SI base unit for temperature is Kelvin.

Temperature scales  A number of different temperature scales have been devised, two popular choices being the Celsius (formerly, centigrade) and Fahrenheit scales.  Both scales were defined by assigning two temperature points on the scale and then dividing the distance between them into a number of equally spaced intervals.  Temperature at which ice melts under one atmosphere of pressure (the ice point ) o 0 C or 32 F  Temperature at which water boils under one atmosphere of pressure (the steam point ). o 100 C or 212 F  To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit 9 TF ! TC  32r 5

 To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius 5 TC ! (TF  32r ) 9

Where Tc: Temperature in degree Celsius TF: Temperature in degree Fahrenheit

Example 1:

A healthy person has an oral temperature of 98.6 F. What would this reading be on the Celsius scale?

Reasoning and Solution

A temperature of 98.6 F is 66.6 Fahrenheit degrees above the ice point of 32.0 F. Since difference of 66.6 F is equivalent to

, the

Thus, the person s temperature is 37.0 Celsius degrees above the ice point. Adding 37.0 Celsius degrees to the ice point of 0 C on the Celsius scale gives a Celsius temperature of .

Example 2: A time and temperature sign on a bank indicates that the outdoor temperature is 20.0 C. Find the corresponding temperature on the Fahrenheit scale.

Kelvin scale  The size of one Kelvin is identical to that of one Celsius degree because there are one hundred divisions between the ice and steam points on both scales.

 Experiments have shown that there exists a lowest possible temperature, below which no substance can be cooled.

 This lowest temperature is defined to be the zero point on the Kelvin scale and is referred to as absolute zero.  To convert Celsius to Kelvin TK ! TC  273.15

 Equation 3 is an experimental result, obtained in studies that utilize a gas-based thermometer.  When a gas confined to a fixed volume is heated, its pressure increases. Conversely, when the gas is cooled, its pressure decreases.

Figure 12-3 A constant-volume gas thermometer.  Suppose the absolute pressure of the gas in Figure 12-3 is measured at different temperatures.  If the results are plotted on a pressure-versus-temperature graph, a straight line is obtained, as in Figure 12-4.  If the straight line is extended or extrapolated to lower and lower temperatures, the line crosses the temperature axis at 273.15 C.  In reality, no gas can be cooled to this temperature, because all gases liquefy before reaching it. However, helium and hydrogen liquefy at such low temperatures that they are often used in the thermometer. This kind of graph can be obtained for different amounts and types of low-density gases.  273.15 C is the absolute zero point for temperature measurement. o Absolute zero means that temperatures lower than 273.15 C cannot be reached by continually cooling a gas or any other substance. o The Kelvin scale is chosen so that its zero temperature point is the lowest temperature attainable

Example 3 You place a small piece of melting ice in your mouth. Eventually, the water all converts from ice at T1 = 32.000F to body temperature, T2 = 98.60F. Express these temperatures as C and K, and find T = T 2 T1 in both cases.

Heat Transfer The three mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact. Convection depends on motion of mass from one region of space to another. Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, such as sunshine, with no need for matter to be present in the space between bodies.

Thermal Conduction  Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred directly through a material, with any bulk motion of the material playing no role in the transfer.  Heat transfer occurs only between regions that are at different temperatures, and the direction of heat flow is always from higher to lower temperature.  Those materials that conduct heat well are called thermal conductors, o Most metals are excellent thermal conductors o Metals are different from most substances in having a pool of electrons that are more or less free to wander throughout the metal. o These free electrons can transport energy and allow metals to transfer heat very well. The free electrons are also responsible for the excellent electrical conductivity that metals have.  Those that conduct heat poorly are known as thermal insulators o Wood, glass, and most plastics are common thermal insulators. o Thermal insulators have many important applications. Virtually all new housing construction incorporates thermal insulation in attics and walls to reduce heating and cooling costs. And the wooden or plastic handles on many pots and pans reduce the flow of heat to the cooks hand.  To illustrate the factors that influence the conduction of heat, Figure 13-8 displays a rectangular bar.  The ends of the bar are in thermal contact with two bodies, one of which is kept at a constant higher temperature, while the other is kept at a constant lower temperature.  Although not shown for the sake of clarity, the sides of the bar are insulated, so the heat lost through them is negligible.  The amount of heat Q conducted through the bar from the warmer end to the cooler end depends on a number of factors:

Figure 13-8 Heat is conducted through the bar when the ends of the bar are maintained at different temperatures. The heat flows from the warmer to the cooler end

1. Q is proportional to the time t during which conduction takes place ( ). More heat flows in longer time periods. 2. Q is proportional to the temperature difference between the ends of the bar ( ). A larger difference causes more heat to flow. No heat flows when both ends have the same temperature and . 3. Q is proportional to the cross-sectional area A of the bar ( ). Figure 13-9 helps to explain this fact by showing two identical bars (insulated sides not shown) placed between the warmer and cooler bodies. Clearly, twice as much heat flows through two bars as through one, since the cross-sectional area has been doubled. 4. Q is inversely proportional to the length L of the bar ( ). Greater lengths of material conduct less heat. To experience this effect, put two insulated mittens (the pot holders that cooks keep around the stove) on the same hand. Then, touch a hot pot and notice that it feels cooler than when you wear only one mitten, signifying that less heat passes through the greater thickness (length) of material.

 Therefore these proportionalities can be stated together as

or

o Negative sign = Heat always in the direction decreasing temperature. o The rate of heat is a scalar quantity. o The rate of heat are J/s or Watt

CONDUCTION OF HEAT THROUGH A MATERIAL

The heat Q conducted during a time t through a bar of length L and cross-sectional area A is (13.1) where is the temperature difference between the ends of the bar and k is the thermal conductivity of the material.

SI Unit of Thermal Conductivity:

Example 4: When excessive heat is produced within the body, it must be transferred to the skin and dispersed if the temperature at the body interior is to be maintained at the normal value of 37.0 C. One possible mechanism for transfer is conduction through body fat. Suppose that heat travels through 0.030 m of fat in reaching the skin, which has a total surface area of 1.7 m2 and a temperature of 34.0 C. Find the amount of heat that reaches the skin in half an hour (1800 s). Reasoning and Solution: The thermal conductivity of body fat is given as

. According to Equation 13.1,

For comparison, a jogger can generate over ten times this amount of heat in a half hour. Thus, conduction through body fat is not a particularly effective way of removing excess heat. Heat transfer via blood flow to the skin is more effective and has the added advantage that the body can vary the blood flow as needed

Example 5: In Figure 13-8 the temperatures at the ends of the bar are 85.0 C at the warmer end and 27.0 C at the cooler end. The bar has a length of 0.680 m. What is the temperature at a point that is 0.220 m from the cooler end of the bar?