KAMKUS COLLEGE OF LAW

B.A. LL.B. Ist SEM

POLITICAL SCIENCE - I
POLITICAL THEORY
CODE (BL-1003)
UNIT-I
Detailed Questions Answers
Q. 1. Discuss nature and scope of Political Science.
OR
Q. It is said "Political Science begins and end with the state." Discuss.

Ans. Introduction
Politics exists everywhere. It is all-pervading and as old as human beings. Politics prevails in
every sphere of human life. Whether one likes or not virtually no one is completely beyond the
reach of some kind of political system.
Political science is a social science and like its sister subjects it revolves around man and his
social (Political) environment. Being one of the oldest social sciences its nature and scope of the
study have undergone several changes over the centuries. Political Science first began with the
Greeks. The term ‘Politics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means ‘city-states’
(Polity meaning Government, politeia meaning Constitution) and each city in those days was an
independent state, a principality in its own right. E.g. Athens, Sparta, Corinth etc.
Aristotle is regarded as “the father of Political science” on account of his far reaching and
permanent contribution to the field of politics. He called politics the Master Science because
politics determines the environment within which every person will organize his life. No one
can escape from the parameters set by politics. In his famous book ‘Politics’ Aristotle wrote,
“Man is by nature a Political Animal and he who is by nature or by accident is without state is
either above humanity or below it.” Politics is the control room of all human activities.
Definitions of Politics or Political Science

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The word politics has different interpretations. From Plato to Easton it has been interpreted in
different ways. Definitions of politics vary according to the variety of activities that have been
considered political from time to time. Though the study of politics existed in some form since
the time of Aristotle, the discipline was indistinguishable from moral philosophy and the study of
society in general until early 19th century. Its independence as a field of study was established
only in the later part of 19th century.
Early Definitions or Traditional View of Politics
According to the traditional political scientist from the early part of 20th century such as J W
Garner, Henry Sidgwick, R G Gettel and others Politics deals mainly with study of state and
government or related institutions.
R G Gettel defined politics as “the study of the state in the past, present and future, of political
organization and political function, of political institutions and political theories.”
According to Laski “the study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to
organized states.”
According to Garner, “Political science begins and ends with state.”
According to Leacock, “Political science deals with government.”
Thus from above definitions it is clear that the traditional view of politics was narrow, static and
limited and included only the study of state and government, its structure and organization etc.
Modern view of Political Science
1) Power view
The dawn of the 20th century saw fresh ground being covered by political scientist such as
Laswell, Powell, Merriam, Morgenthau, weber etc. A more realistic analysis of political activity
is contained in the definitions of politics in terms of power.
Harold Laswell defining politics in empirical terms maintains that politics is the study of the
shaping and sharing of power. The fundamental issue in politics according to him is who gets
what, when and how?
Robert Dahl holds that, “politics involves to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”
According to Shaw and Pierce politics is the struggle for power to make authoritative decisions
for the whole society.

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Definitions emphasizing power focused attention on the fact that functions are more important
than forms or structures. Power is indeed a central idea of politics and examining this element
takes political enquiry into the core of the matter.
Importance of political science
1. It is the science that the studies the political power and authority of the state and
government.
2. It is the systematic study of the institution, organization, process and law of the
government.
3. It is the study of politics that may influence the government structures and processes in a
given society.
4. It is how the branches of government perform the various political task such as the
delivery of basic services.
5. It is the exercise of sovereign political right of the state and government to carry its task
for the improvement of quality of life in the society.
Scope of Political Science

Study of Political Theory

Study of Political Institutions Study of adjustment of individual with the state

Study of State and Government

Study of Political Dynamics

Study of international relations and international law

Study of disagreements and their resolution

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1) Study of State and Government
Political science is the science of state and government. It deals with the nature and formation of
the state and tries to understand various forms and functions of the government. Scholars like
Bluntschli, Garris and others believe that the scope of political science is restricted to the study
of the state alone. Scholars like Leacock attach more importance to the study of government that
to the state.
Political science makes a thorough investigation into the origin of the state. It also deals with the
elements of the state, sovereignty and law, ends and functions of state, the rights and obligations
of the individual, political institutions, forms of government, elections, political parties, public
opinion, local bodies and international bodies etc. it studies state as it is, as it has been and as it
ought to be.

2) Study of Political Theory

Political theory is a major branch of political science. On the basis of the political ideas or
thoughts of political thinkers, political theory formulates definitions of the concepts like
democracy, liberty, equality, ground of political obligation etc. It deals with some rudimentary
concepts of political science. Speculations of political philosophers and other ideologies are put
together in one volume which is given the title political theory.

3) Study of Political Institutions

The study of political institutions includes a study of constitutions and comparative governments.
It deals with the nature of different political institutions, including government, explains their
merits and demerits, their structure and working and arrives at different conclusions on
comparative basis. The study of public administration and local governments may also be
included under this heading.

4) Study of Political Dynamics

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The study of political dynamics has become important in the twentieth century. It means the
current forces at work in government and politics. It covers a wide range of and includes political
parties, public opinion, pressure groups, lobbies etc. A scientific study of the working of these
political dynamics helps us to explain the political behavior of individuals and groups. The study
in this field is often done in collaboration with other social sciences like sociology, anthropology
and psychology etc. Human nature is not static but dynamic. Hence the study of political
dynamics becomes extremely essential to understand changing concepts.

5) Study of adjustment of individual with the state

It is interesting to study the nature of relationship between individual and state and to examine
how man adjusts within the society. Man is the root of politics. The state guarantees certain
rights and liberties to its citizens and also imposes certain reasonable restrictions on them.
Maximum state intervention can lead to loss of liberty and complete absence of the state
intervention can lead to a state of anarchy (Chaos). It is a difficult problem to adjust and
reconcile the authority of the state with the individual liberty.

6) Study of international relations and international law

It includes wide range of topics like diplomacy, international politics, international law and
organizations like UN. With technological advancement and progress in human knowledge the
world has come closed and become like one family. Human society today is viewed from a
world perspective. Therefore the study of international relations today has become an
independent discipline.

7) Study of disagreements and their resolution

Disagreement is at the root of any political process on account of conflicting interests,
contradictory view and opinions, socio-economic inequalities and scarce resource available to
resolve these issues. Hence politics is all about making choices and arriving at policy decisions
suitable to the broad demands and needs of people in the society. Elections are said to be the

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most effective means of resolving conflicts in any society. Apart from it Legislature, Judiciary,
Pressure groups also are some other means to resolve political conflicts at public level.

Q. 2. Explain the nature of political science.

OR
Q. 2. “When I see a good sit of examination questions headed by the word
‘Political Science’ I regret not the questions but the title.” Maitland. Discuss
the statement.

Ans. Nature of political science

There are different views on the nature of politics, Aristotle, BodiN, Hobbes, Bluntschli,
Montesquieu, Lewis, Sidgwirk, Jellinek, Bryce, etc. hold that politics is a science, but writers
like J.S.Mill, Maitland, Catlin, Barker, Buckle, Auguste Comte, etc maintain that is only an art.
Meaning of science and Art
The word science literally means ‘knowledge’. ‘Science’ generally means a systematic way of
gathering and organizing knowledge. “Science is knowledge ascertained by observation and
experiment critically tested systematized and brought under general principles.”
As per Garner “science is a knowledge relating to particular subject acquired by systematic and
classified.”
The conclusion in science is based on experience, precision and predictability. It is studied by
collecting and verifying data, formulation concise and standard principles and making
predictions. Science is a systematic body of knowledge based on reasons and evidence.
‘Art’ means ‘skill’ or a way of doing a particular thing in a particular way. It can be improved by
practice, guided by principles.

Politics is a Science
Politics is considered as science on the following grounds-
1. Politics can be studied in a systematic manner.
2. It is said that experimentation is possible in politics.
3. Political Science like other science has absolute and universal laws.

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 4. It is possible to make predictions in politics but in a limited area.
5. There are certain principles and methods on which political thinkers unanimously agree.
6. Politics is subject which has scientific nature.
7. At present, politics has attained modernity.
Aristotle called politics as “Supreme Science.”

Politics is not a Science

James Brecy“maintains that Politics can never become a science.”
Catlin thinks that there is No such thing as political Science.
Maitland writes“When I see a good sit of examination questions headed by the word
‘Political Science’ I regret not the questions but the title.”

Auguste Comte rejects to treat it as a science on the following grounds-

1. There is no consensus of opinion among the political thinkers as to its methods principles
and conclusions.
2. It is impossible to foretell what is going to happen as Astronomy can tell us. In other words it
lacks the elements which constitute a basis of provision.
3. It lacks continuity of development.

Politics is not considered as science on the following grounds-

1. Politics has no absolute and universal laws like physical science or exact sciences.
2. It does not observe the theory of cause and effect, which is the basic of all sciences.
3. The subject of politics has not developed in a a steady regular and continuous manner.
4. The factors which influence political conditions cannot be controlled for experimentation.
5. In politics there are no tools of measurement to ascertain result while observing political
phenomena.
6. Politics is subjective by nature and objectivity is not possible in politics.

Politics is a social science

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It must be admitted that political science is not an exact science, as it falls short of the degree of
the perfection and exactness attained by physical science. Passions, emotions and prejudice
which influence political process defy absolute prediction, but still it is possible to study political
science in a systematic and scientific manner.
Politics deal with social phenomenon. It has judiciously chosen different methods for studying
different phenomena. For matter no social science can demand absolute certaint on any social
question. This is because the material it has to deal with is human being whose actions cannot be
predicted with absolute certainty. In this regard the plight of political science is similar to other
social sciences. Politics like economics, ethics and sociology is social science having
characteristics of positive science.

Politics is an Art
An art is a system of rules for the attainment of a given end. Art is the practical application of
knowledge for achieving definite end. A science teaches us to know whereas in art teaches us to
do. Art is an action with purpose. It lay down precepts or specific solutions for specific
problems. Some writers consider politics as an art because it deals with aspects of life and
explains the way how political affairs are to be conducted.

Q.3. Discuss the Evolutionary Theory of the Origin of state.

Ans. The Evolutionary Theory of the Origin of state
Five theories in explanation of the origin of the state, but no single theory offers an adequate
explanation. The theory which explains and is now accepted as a convincing origin of the state is
the Historical or Evolutionary theory. It explains the state is the product of growth, a slow and
steady evolution extending over a long period of time and ultimately shaping itself into the
complex structure of a modern state. This theory is more scientific.
The state is neither the handiwork of God, nor the result of superior physical force, nor the
creation of evolution or convention, nor a mere expansion of the family. The state is not a mere
artificial mechanical creation but an institution of natural growth or historical evolution says
prof. Garner.
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There were a number of factors which helped the evolution of the state. They were kinship,
religion, war, migration economic activities and political consciousness. The important factors
which contributed to the growth of the state are –

The important factors

Kinship Religion Property and defence Political consciousness Force

1. Kinship
Kinship is the most important and was based upon blood relationship and kinship was the first
strongest bond of unity. Family constituted the first link in the process of the evolution of the
state with the expansion of the family arose new families and the multiplication of families led to
the formation of clans and tribes. Kinship was the only factor which bound the people together.
According to Professor Mac Iver, the magic of names ‘reinforced the sense of kinship, as the
course of generations enlarged the group. The blood bond of son ship changed imperceptibly into
the social bond of the wider brotherhood. The authority of the father passes into the power of the
chief once more under the aegis of kinship new forms arise which transcends it. Kinship creates
society and society at length creates the state'.
2. Religion
Religion provided the bond of unity in early society. It also affected all walks of life. The
worship of a common ancestor and common goods created a sense of social solidarity. There was
fear in the hearts of men as far as religion was concerned. Even today we see religious practices,
affairs and faith in uniting people. In the early days a number of races are united by religion and
unity was essential for the creation of state.
3. Force

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Force also played an important part in the evolution of the state. It was the use of physical force
that was responsible for the growth of kingdoms and empires.
4. Property and Defence
Property and defence played a vital role in the evolution of state in ancient times particularly
among the people who were nomads and wagabonds and tribals. Prof. Laski has referred to the
necessity of acquiring property by the members of society and protecting the property acquired
with reference to the population mentioned above.
This led to making adjustments in the social system and relationship between the members of
different groups. The need to protect property ultimately compelled the ancient people to
establish the state.
5. Political consciousness
The last is political consciousness arising from the fundamental needs of life for protection and
order.
When the people settle down on a definite territory in pursuit of their subsistence and a desire to
secure it from encroachment by others the need for regulating things and persons is felt
imminently and this is the essence of political consciousness.

Conclusion
1. No single factor is responsible for state building.
2. It is result of evolutionary process in which kinship; religion, property, force and
consciousness of people are main factors.
3. State is natural growth over a long period of history.

Q. 4. Critically explain “Social Contract” theory.

Ans. Social Contract Theory
The Divine theory established the ‘Divine Rights’ of kings. In contradiction, the social contract
theory emphasized that the state was not the creation of God but it was the result of an agreement
entered into by men who originally had no government organization. The history of world is
divided into two periods; the period before the state was initiated and the period after.
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In the first period there was no government. There was no law that could be enforced as there
was no human authority to formulate and to enforce them. Man lived in a state of nature, in
which they were subject to follow only such regulation that nature was supposed to prescribe.
How men lived in the state of nature without coercive agency of a government, what made them
establish a government, the term of contract and the party to contract where discussed in the
theory. One thing accepted by all the exponents of the theory was that the state was a human
creation as a result of contract.
The concept of social contract was found in the political treatises of both east and west. Kautilya
in his Arthasasthra mentioned that “the king Manu supported the payment of one-sixth of the
grains grown and one-tenth of their sovereign dues, the king took the responsibility of
maintaining the safety and security of their citizen.
Plato in his Crito stated that Socrates was represented as awaiting calmly the execution though it
was injust, because he would not breakup his contract with the state by escaping from prison into
exit.
Milton in his “Tenure of Kings and Magistrates” argued that men were born free, and that wrong
sprang up through Adam’s sin, wherefore to avert their own complete destruction men agreed by
common league to bind each other from mutual injury, jointly to defend them against anything
that gave disturbance or opposition of such agreement.
The power of kings and magistrates is nothing else “but what is only derivative transferred and
committed to them in trust from the people, to the common good of them all in whom the power
yet reminds fundamentally, and cannot be taken them, without the violation of their natural birth
right”.
In the 16th and the 17th century, the ‘Social Contract Theory’ gained popularity. It advanced
during the period of religious wars in the course of popular and famous revolution in England,
America and France. Richard Hooker (1554 – 1600), Hugo Grotious, Milton are also
supporters of this theory. However, the Social Contract Theory raised to the peak in the hands
of Thomas Hobbes(1588 – 1679)., John Locke (1632- 1704) and Jean Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1978). All the three exponents established their thesis from the beginning of human
habitation.

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1 Thomas Hobbes
In the state of nature, men lived together without the state or government. Men possessed
natural rights which he acquired, from the law of nature. Men’s acts of movement were
motivated by self-interest and disregarded to the interest of others. There were continuous
conflicts, might was right, no justice existed, men ruled under insecurity. Furthermore,
intolerance, chaos and anarchy prevailed, weak was exploited by the strong. To Hobbes the state
of nature was the state of war, war of all against all. He further stated during the time when men
lived without common power to keep them all in the awe, they are in that condition there is no
place for industry… culture… no navigation… no commodities… buildings… no society… The
lives of men were solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.
2 John Locke
According to lock in ‘The State of Nature’, men had a peaceful natural life. They were free and
equal. However freedom is not licensed. The natural law of reason commands that no one shall
harm each other. There was no common superior; each individual work out his/her own
interpretation as a result there prevailed “full fear and continued danger” andthat was hostile to
his/ her rights of empowerment which was different from that of anarchy described by Hobbes.
According to Locke, people entered into two contracts, one is social and the other one is political
contract. In social contract they united into a community of peaceful living, secured the
enjoyment of their property this is social contract.

3 Jean Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau’s perception was that “man is born free and everywhere he is in chains. Men in the
state of nature lived in a blessing delightful life; men were innocent, honest and noble. They
were free, equal and happy”. In the increase of population and dawn of reasoning, there were
changes in their way of life. People became selfish and started thinking mine and thing. In the
words of Rousseau, “the first man who after enclosing the piece of land be thought himself to
say this is mine and found people simple enough to believe him as real founder of civil
society”.
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 Consequent of establishment of private property and other usages, work became indispensable.
These lead to more productions which paved way for the difference of rich and poor. This
resulted in quarrels and men were compelled to give their natural freedom. Then,men faced a
problem. The problem was “to find a form of association which protects with the whole common
force the person and property of each associate” and virtue of which everyone, while uniting
himself to all… reminds as free as before. The problem is solved through this contract and
creation of civil society.
In the contract, everyone needs to surrender all his rights to the community. Thus, the
community becomes sovereign. Further, Rousseau’s view was that real or true will of society as
general will; general will is sovereign. The general constitutes the government. The government
acts under the general will and is responsible to the general will of the people. Rousseau was the
person who promoted the idea of direct democracy and popular sovereignty.

Criticism of the theory

1. Theory is unhistorical.
2. Natural order is unscrupulous.
3. Sate is the result of development not the constriction.
4. State is a natural institute.
5. Natural order is unreasonable.

Short Questions Answers

Q. 1. Discuss the State and its elements.

Ans. Meaning of State
The state is the most universal and powerful of all social institutions. As the Greek writers have
taught us to think, the state is both a natural and a necessary institution. Aristotle declares that
man by nature is a political being. To him, to live in the state and to be a man were identical, for
whoever was not a member of the state or was unfit to be one was either a god or a beast.

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Modem Writers mean that the state has its roots in the natural impulses of man and it cannot be
easily eradicated.

Definitions of State
1. According to Holland - "State is a numerous assemblage of human beings, generally
occupying a certain territory among whom the will of the majority or of an ascertainable class of
persons is by the strength of such a majority made to prevail against any of their number who
opposes it."
2. According to Garner - "The state, as a concept of political science and a public law, is a
community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portions of
territory, independent or nearly so, of external control and possessing an organized govt. to
which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.
3. According to MacIver - "The state is an association which acting through law as promulgated
by a govt. endowed to this end with coercive power maintains within a community territorially
demarcated the universal external conditions of social order."

Elements

1. Population
It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the state. Greek thinkers were of
the view that the population should neither be too big nor too small. According to Plato the ideal
number would be 5040. According to Aristotle, the number should be neither too large nor too
small.
2. Territory
There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and organize them
socially and politically. It may be remembered that the territory of the state includes land, water
and air – space. The modern states differ in their sizes. Territory is necessary for citizenship. As
in the case of population, no definite size with regard to extent of area of the state can be fixed.

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There are small and big states. In the words of Prof. Elliott “Territorial sovereignty or the
superiority of state overall within its boundaries and complete freedom from external control has
been a fundamental principle of the modern state life”. 12 India has an area of 32,87,263 sq. km.
Approximately India occupies 2.4% of the global area.

3. Government
Government is the third element of the state. There can be no state without government.
Government is the working agency of the state. It is the political organization of the state. Prof.
Appadorai defined government as the agency through which the will of the State is formulated,
expressed and realized.
According to C.F. Strong, in order to make and enforce laws the state must have a supreme
authority. This is called the government.
4. Sovereignty
The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty. The word ‘sovereignty” means supreme
and final legal authority above and beyond which no legal power exists. The concept of
“sovereignty” was developed in conjunction with the rise of the modern state. The term
Sovereignty is derived from the Latin word superanus which means supreme. The father of
modern theory of sovereignty was Jean Bodin (1530 – 1597) a French political thinker.

Sovereignty has two aspects:

Internal Sovereignty means that the State is supreme over all its citizens and associations.
External sovereignty means that the state is independent and free from foreign or outside
control.
According to Harold J. Laski, “It is by possession of sovereignty that the state is distinguished
from all other forms of human association.

Q. 2. Write a short note on Divine Theory and Force theory of the Origin of the
state.

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Ans. Theories of Origin of State Divine Right Theory
The theory of divine origin of the state treats the state as synonymous with kingship; it is usually
invoked to uphold the divine right of the king. It holds that –
(a) the institution of state was established by the will of the, god;
(b) the king or ruler was appointed by the God himself ;
(c) the king is solely accountable to God, not to any other authority.
A systematic exposition of this theory was made by Robert Filmer in the "Patriarcha" In short,
the belief in divine origin of the state may be treated as a matter of faith rather than as a theory
based on any evidence. It was sharply attacked by John Locke and a bid to establish the will of
the people as the source of all authority in civil society.
The main points in the doctrine of the divine right of kings may thus be
summed up –
1. Monarchy is divinely ordained and the king draws his authority from God.
2. Monarchy is hereditary and it is the divine right of a king that it should pass from father to
son.
3. The king is answerable to God alone; and
4. Resistance to the lawful authority of a king is a sin.
The theory of divine origin was popular for a long time but later on it began to decline on
account of many factors.
Criticism
1. The theory of divine origin has been criticized on many grounds.
2. To say that god selects this or that man as ruler is contrary to experience and
commonsense.
3. God cannot be expected to do such worldly things for human beings.
4. The theory is dangerous because it pinpoints the unlimited and arbitrary power of the
kings.
5. The theory of divine origin of the state advocates only monarchical form of government.

The Theory of Force

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The force theory of the origin of the state holds that the state is the product of use of force by the
strong against the weak. When the state is regarded as an outcome of subjugation of the weak by
the strong, it is portrayed as an embodiment of the injustice. The force theory is therefore,
usually invoked in order to show that freedom of the individual could be secured' only by
restraining or destroying the state.
Criticism
1. Force is not the only factor the state based on mere brute force can continue its existence for
a temporary period of time but ultimately it will be found that something other than force is
necessary to ensure the continuance of the state.
2. Mahatma Gandhi held the view that society can be effectively built upon the pasic of pure
ahinsa or nonviolence in which force has no place.
3. State is the result of political Consciousness State came into existence through the desire of
the human beings to lead a peaceful and settled life.

Q. 3. Describe in brief the “Liberal Theory” regarding function of State.

Ans. Liberal Theory
Liberal theory of property is not integral part of the overall philosophy of liberalism. Liberalism
is the theory and practice of individual liberty, judicial defence and the constitutional state. It
was a reaction against the authority of the feudal barons, the government by the aristocrats and
the power of the clergy. It was an attempt to give back to man his personality and individuality.
According to Hobhouse- “liberalism is concerned with civil, fiscal, personal, social, domestic,
administrative, political and economic liberties.”
Liberalism as an economic, social and political doctrine arose in defence of capitalism, the
capitalist market society and the interests of the capitalist class after the decline of feudalism.
The right to property was needed to operate the capitalist market economy. Liberalism defended
the right to property.
Prof. Laski, Adam Smith, Herbert Spencer, Jermy Bentham, J.S.Mill, T.H. Green and other
liberal theorists advocated the right to private property and the private ownership of means of
production. They defined capitalist and private ownership of the means of production.
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They defended capitalism and private property and advocated freedom for trade and industry.
They were of the opinion that and industry flourished well under free competition. The free
movement of capital and trade and adjustment of prices on the basis of demand and supply
would lead to the best economic adjustment in economy. It stimulates production, keeps wages
and prices at the normal level, prevents excessive rates of interest, increases national wealth and
promotes individual and social welfare. They demanded free trade, freedom of occupation
unrestricted competition and along with it in violable property rights.
The liberal theory is based on the assumption that property is the reward for one’s labour. As
labour and ability are the personal property of the individual, a man is fully entailed to own what
his labour and ability have produced. A man should have a right to ownership and private
property. In the private market economy, the force of demand and supply automatically bring
about the forces of demand and supply automatically brings about the equilibrium between
production, prices and consumption. Under the capitalist system, the right to property was
inherent and natural. However, they did not agree with the feudal view that inequality in society
existed because men were unequal by birth. Instead they found a rational explanation of
inequality in man’s ability and capacity. In a free capitalist society, any man working hard and
having requisite ability, irrespective of the fact whether he is poor or rich, can accumulate any
amount of property because it is the reward of his labour and ability and it is in the interest of the
society that the right to property and ownership be respected. The liberal theory of property,
therefore, pleads for an exclusive and absolute right of the individual to property.

Very Short Questions Answers

Q. 1. Give the meaning of Behaviouralism.

Ans. Behaviouralism
Behavioralism (or Behavioralism in the United States) is an approach in political science which
emerged in the 1930 in the United States. It represents a sharp break from previous science. This
is because it emphasized an objective quantified approach to explain and predict political

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behaviour. It is associated with the rise of the Behavioural Science unbiased, neutral point of
view.
Behaviourlism seeks to examine the behavior, action and acts of individual rather that the
characteristics of institutions such as legislatures, executives and judiciaries and groups in
different social settings and explain this behaviour as it relates to the political system.

Q.2. Give the two characteristics of Post – Behaviouralism.

Ans. Post – Behaviouralism
Post- Behaviouralism also known as neobehaviouralism was a reaction against the dominance of
behaviouralist methods in the study of politics, one of the key figures in Post- Behaviourlism.

Characteristics of Post – Behaviouralism

Opposition to value- free social science Intellectual Movements

1. Opposition to value- free social science

The post- Behaviouralism are deadly opposed to the attempts of the behavioralist in making
political science as value free science. David Easton observes Research about constructive
development of value was inextinguishable part of the study of political science never and has
been evaluated neutral despite of protestations to the contrary.
2. Intellectual Movements
It must be remembered that the post- behaviouralism is not confined to a particular section of
society. It is a sort of intellectual movement and its followers can be found amongst all sections
of the society, in all generations from young graduates to old members of the profession.
Post behaviouralism in thus both a movement and intellectual.

Q. 3. Give four functions of the State.

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Ans. The functions which are considered to be non-essential for the existence of the state are
said to be optional functions of state.
Woodro Wilson has summed up the following functions as optional-
1. The regulation of trade and industry.’
2. The regulation of wages.
3. The maintenance and management of the means of transportation.
4. The maintenance of telecommunication systems.
5. Education.
6. Care of the incapable and poor.
We can say that optional functions are those which are not necessary for the continued existence
of the state, but the civilized states normally perform for the welfare of the citizens.

Q. 4. What is the deference between state and society?

Ans. Society
Societies may also be structured politically. In order of increasing size and complexity, there
are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees
of political power, depending on the cultural, geographical, and historical environments that
these societies must contend with. Thus, a more isolated society with the same level of
technology and culture as other societies is more likely to survive than one in closer proximity to
others that may encroach on their resources. A society that is unable to offer an effective
response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the
competing society.

20
 Deference between state and society

State Society
1. The State is a compulsory 1. Society is a voluntary organization.
organization.
2. The State is a territorial 2. Society is not limited to any geographical
organization. area.
3. The State possesses the power of
coercion. Disobedience to its law 3. Society, on other hand. Does not enjoy
is followed by punishment.
the power of coercion Disobedience to
its rules may not be followed by any
physical punishment.
4. What
Q. 2. State is
derives its strength
the relation mainly
between state and government?
from laws. 4. Societies derive its strength from
traditions, customs and conversions.
5. Society is a very broad and
comprehensive organization of
5. State is only a political institution or
human beings.
organization.
6. State is a territorial entity.
6. Society has no territory.

Q. 5. What is the deference between State and Government?

Ans. State
The state is the most universal and powerful of all social institutions. As the Greek writers have
taught us to think, the state is both a natural and a necessary institution. Aristotle declares that
man by nature is a political being. To him, to live in the state and to be a man were identical, for
whoever was not a member of the state or was unfit to be one was either a god or a beast.
Modem Writers mean that the state has its roots in the natural impulses of man and it cannot be
easily eradicated.
Government

21
The government 'regulate the relationships’ among members of a society and between the
society and outsiders' and that they 'have the authority to make decisions for the society' to
meet goals and maintain order. While all of these definitions help us grasp the meaning of the
word 'government,' they provide a lot to remember, so let's summarize. Government, whether we
refer to the system or institutions in operation, the group of people in charge, or the process in
use, is the authority that sets rules for a society, helps its members relate to one another and to
others, and keeps it running smoothly, securely, and peacefully.
Deference between State and Government

STATE GOVERNMENT
1. State is an organized political 1. Government is the system by which a
community that lives under a single state or community is controlled.
system of government. 2. Governments are temporary.
2. State is more or less permanent.
3. State refers to a political entity that 3. Government generally refers to a
group of people.
is immaterial and non-physical.
4. State employs its power through the 4. Government controls the state at a
government. given time.
5. State is a sovereign authority. 5. Government uses the sovereign
6. State is a larger entity is includes
authority of the state as an element.
all individuals, associations and
6. Government is a smaller entity it
institutionsthat exist within its
comprises of the people only involved
territorial boundaries.
in the legislative, executive and the
7. Territory of the State is definite. judicial machinery of the state.
7. Government’s territory is not definite.

Q. 6. Clarify the difference between State and Nation.

Ans.Though the terms State and Nation are used interchangeably there is a fundamental
difference between these two terms.

22
 Difference between State and Nation
STATE NATION

1. A state is political. 1. Nation is cultural.

2. State is objective and non – 2. Nation signifies the consciousness of
spiritual. unit prompted by psychological and
3. A state is in habited by spiritual feelings and nationality is
heterogeneous group of people. subjective.
3. Nation must be homogeneous in its
4. A state must be sovereign in composition.
character. 4. A nation may be consisting of people
who do not retain their sovereign
5. There may be more than one character.
nationality inside a state. 5. In the same nation, there may be
several states.
6. The state has a definite territory 6. Nation consists of a people with a
population, a government and common will to live together.
sovereignty.
7. A nation does not necessarily need a
7. A state needs organization in the government
Q. 6. What
form
do you
of
mean by ‘Welfare
government and
State’?
Ans. sovereignty. ‘Welfare State’

“A community where state power is deliberately used to modify the normal play of economic
forces so as to obtain a more equal distribution of income for citizen a basic minimum
irrespective of the market value of his work and his property.”
According to G.D.H. Cole “The welfare state is a society in which an assured minimum standard
of living and opportunity becomes the possession of every citizen.”
According to T.W. Kent“ State that provides for its citizens a wide range of social services.”
According to Ven Ratagay “Welfare state is a state which does not confine itself to the
discharging of mere police functions but takes a wider view of its obligations and undertakes all

23
activities which are considered necessary and desirable to remove social evils and promote the
welfare of the population.”
A welfare state is a state in which organized is deliberately used in an efforts to modify the play
of market foxes in at least direction first by guaranteeing individuals and families minimum
income irrespective of the market value of their work or their property, second by narrowing the
extent of insecurity by enabling the individuals and families to need certain ‘Social
Contingencies’ and third by ensuring that all citizens without distinction of status or class are
offered the best standards available in relation to certain range of social services.

24
 UNIT-II

Detailed Questions Answers

Q. 1. Write an essay on Gandhism.

Ans. Gandhism and Sarvodaya
Meaning
Gandhi’s mission in life was to purify politics, to rekindle faith and trust in mankind, to
rehabilitate the freedom of man and to restore the dignity and worth of human beings. Gandhism
way of life is closely related to the concept of Sarvodaya.
Gandhism and Gandhian way of life
He started his battle against racial discrimination and social inequality in S. Africa. In 1915,
Gandhi entered the Indian National Movement. His struggle was based in the principles of truth,
non-violence and Satyagraha. His active participation actually began from the days of the
non-cooperation movement in 1921- 22.Civil disobedience movement, the Dandi march, the
Gandhi-Irwin pact, The Round-Table Conferences, Quit India Movement Shimla Conference,
The Cabinet Mission Plan and his lonely march in Bengal after the Partition of the country
demonstrated his faith in truth and non-violence. Gandhi applied these principles on a mass-scale
covering the whole of life, individual and social, moral and material, Herein lay the originality of
Mahatma Gandhi. Sanskrit, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagvad Gita, John Ruskin's book "Unto
the Last" and Leo Tolstoy's "The Kingdom of God is Within You" exercised a powerful
influence in shaping the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi.
Religion and Politics
He believed in all-pervading God. His God was truth. His truth was knowledge and where there
is true knowledge there is bliss. He accepted the creative force of religion. Religion inspires faith
in moral values. The true religious attitude to Gandhi meant voluntary acceptance and fulfillment
of duties. Moral society is impossible without truth, love, ahimsa and obedience to the law of

25
God. Once a moral man and moral society is obtained, Gandhi felt that politics can be purified. It
is only when politics is based on the lofty values of religion that it can be purified. Thus for
Gandhi, religion and politics are closely related.
Gandhian Outlook
He was a man of action. He believed that unless and until the purity of heart s not there, no
problem can be solved. He emphasized on both the means as well as the ends. The purity of
means was uppermost in his mind. He attempted to realize a better ordering of human society.
Man ought to observe the code of morality. He prescribed the norms of truth, non-violence and
regard for means to which human conduct must adhere.
Concept of Truth
It was the prime goal for which he struggled. He believed that it would be appropriate to say
that" truth is God" rather than saying that "God is truth". Truth resides in every human heart; It is
his inner voice and one has to search for it. Truth involves self-suffering and there can be no
place for self-interest. He was even ready to sacrifice national freedom for the sake of truth and
non-violence. He considered truth as the active power of evolution in the universe.
Non – Violence (Ahinsa)
He said "non-violence is the first article of my faith. It is also the last article of my creed. "Infect
it was in the course of his pursuit of truth that he discovered non-violence. Ahimsa required
deliberate self-suffering not M the deliberate injuring of the supposed wrongdoer. Use of
violence not only lowers the victim but also the user of violent means because non-violence is
the law of our species as violence is the law of brute. He felt that only through non-violence the
dignity of the individual can be enhanced and the society and the politics can be purified.
Satyagraha
Satyagraha is the technique of resisting all that is evil, unjust, impure and untrue and resolving
all maladjustments in human relations by love, voluntary suffering and self-purification by an
appeal to the divine spark in the opponents soul. It is opposed to force, fraud and coercion. It is
the weapon of the strongest. It is resistance based on moral force.
Techniques of Satyagraha
(l) Non-Cooperation - like hartal, Social Boycott and Picketing.
26
(2) Civil Disobedience.
(3) Hijrat - equivalent to voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence.
(4) Fasting.
(5) Strike.
Concept of State
He was a "philosophic anarchist". The modem state is based on force and violence. It is
exploitative in nature. Even the state is a democratic one; its authority rests on violence. Gandhi
disliked it. His vision was to establish a state based on higher moral virtues. It would encourage
voluntary cooperation among the people. Once the people cooperate voluntarily, there would be
no need of political power and the emerging result is a stateless society. The state is not an end.
The individual owes the state only limited loyalty. The individual has the right to resist the state
but only through non-violence means. He wanted to assign the minimum functions to the state.
He advocated the establishment of the system of panchayats, a system of
democraticdecentralization in order to develop active and virile citizens, specific fundamental
rights for the citizens and the establishment of economic equality in society.
Property and Trusteeship
Capitalists and landlords should work as trustees of the workers and the peasants. Let them apply
the bulk of their earnings not for themselves but as a trust for the good of their society. Every
man has a right to have a balanced diet, a decent house to live in, facilities for the education of
one's children and adequate medical relief. Any possession of property over and above, he
considered as superfluous. If the capitalists and workers are hostile to each other, Gandhi favored
state-ownership of industries. Trusteeship could reform the ailments of capitalism. Is based on
the faith that human nature is never beyond redemption. Gandhismis a philosophy of life and
Gandhi was a moral revolutionary. It aims to bring about a transformation in human life by the
supremacy of self-suffering love. The strength of Gandhism lies not in preaching but in putting
his ideals into practice.
SARVODAYA

27
Vinoba Bhave was the chief exponent of sarvodaya movement. Later on, Jaya Prakash Narayan
also joined the movement. The sarvodaya society was established in January 20th, 1950. It
indicated a plan to attain social, moral and economic independence as envisaged by Gandhi.
The sarvodaya aims to establish a new social order on the basis of truth, love and nonviolence. It
is highly critical of the state and its govt. because both are based on force and coercion. Its aim is
to establish a society free from every form of authority. Its ultimate aim is to establish a stateless
and classless society.
Its main features are as follows:
1. No power should be dominant in society; there should only be a discipline of good thought.
2. All faculties of the individual to be dedicated to society which must provide the individual for
growth and development.
3. The moral, social and economic values of all the callings perform honestly should be the
same. The sarvodaya aims at the welfare and rise of all individuals. Men will be the center of
such society. But it rejects the theory of individualism or laissez faire. It argues that willing
submission to social restraint for the sake of the well-being of the whole society enriches both
the individual and the society of which one is a member. Its twin principles are physical labor
and non-possession. It considers wealth as the common heritage of society. Production will be
for consumption and mutual sharing.
Grounds of Sarvodaya
A no. of steps should be taken to transform the existing institutions according to sarvodaya:
1. It puts its faith in the doctrine of non-violence.
2. It aims towards the establishment of a decentralized society. As such, sarvodaya pleads for the
realization of gram raj or village self-govt.
3. It pleads for the establishment of the cottage and rural industries in order to make thevillages
self-sufficient.
4. It believes in the Gandhian concept of trusteeship.
5. It believes in secularism.
Programme of Sarvodya
It has comprehensive programs which are as follows:
28
1. To establish communal peace and harmony;
2. To remove Untouchability;
3. To eliminate caste system;
4. To implement prohibition;
5. To encourage khadi and village industries;
6. To make village as a unit of self-govt.
7. To spread new education;
8. To propagate the ideals and rights towards women's equality and dignity;
9. To remove the provincial and sectarian feelings of narrowness;
10. To take steps towards the development of agriculture and labor organizations;
11. To provide service to tribes and other backward and weaker classes;
12. To provide other welfare activities to the society in general.

Q. 2. Critically Examine the Austin Theory of Sovereignty.

Or
What do you understand by the concept of Sovereignty? Critically analyze Jhon
Austin Theory of Sovereignty.

Ans. SOVEREIGNTY

Introduction
Sovereignty is an essential element of the state. State cannot exist without sovereignty. State is
regarded superior to other associations only because of sovereignty. In fact modern theory of
state got its proper shape and perfection only when the concept of sovereignty was introduced in
it. When we try to search for the origin of this concept we find that the term sovereignty is the
product of modern political thinking but the idea goes back to the time of Aristotle who referred
to it as the “supreme power” of the state. In middle age Roman jurist and civilians were also
familiar to this idea. But it was Jean Bodin who developed for the first time the theory of
sovereignty systematically in his book “Six Books on the Republic.”

29
Meaning, Nature and Definitions
The term sovereignty is derived from the Latin word ‘Superanus’ meaning supreme. It is
basically a legal concept. It denotes supremacy of state. To understand the term sovereignty, it is
desirable to look into some definitions of the term given by some political thinkers.
According to Jean Bodin defined sovereignty as “absolute and perpetual power of commanding
in a state. It is supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law”.
According to Pollock says that “Sovereignty is that power which is neither temporary nor
delegated nor subject to particular rules, which it cannot alter, nor answerable to any other power
on the earth.’’
According to Burgers described sovereignty as “original absolute unlimited power over the
undivided subjects and over all associations of subjects. It is the underived and independent
power to command and compel obedience.”
According to D.F. Russell defines sovereignty as “the strongest power and supreme authority
within a state, which is unlimited by law or anything else.”
According to Laski sovereign is “legally supreme over any individual or group. It possesses
supreme coercive power.” The above definitions may differ from each other but one thing is
very clear and there is no doubt about the superior authority of sovereignty. The basic idea is that
the sovereignty is able to declare law, issue commands and take political decisions, which are
binding on individuals and associations within his jurisdiction.

There are two aspects of sovereignty

Internal Sovereignty External Sovereignty

Internal sovereignty means that the sovereign is the supreme authority over the individual and
associations, within its territory.
External sovereignty means that the sovereign is an independent entity, free from alien rule or
control, in its conduct with other states and international organization. Modern state claims
30
supremacy in internal matter and freedom from the control of external governments on the basis
of the attribute of the sovereignty.
Characteristics-
Sovereignty has the following characteristics-
1. Sovereignty is absolute from the legal point of view.
2. Sovereignty is permanent. It lasts as long as the state. Change in government does not
end sovereignty but only transfers it to the next bearer.
3. Sovereignty of the state is universal. It extends to all within its territory.
4. Sovereignty is inalienable. Sovereignty of the state cannot be given away without
destroying the state.
5. Sovereignty cannot be divided between or shared by a plurality. To Gettell – “If
sovereignty is not absolute no state exists; if sovereignty is divided more than one state
exists; but with the emergence of the concept of federalism, the idea of dual sovereignty
was provided by Tocqueville, Wheaton and Halleck.
6. Sovereignty is exclusive. State alone has the sovereign authority and legitimate power to
make citizens obey its dictates. It is again important to note that all these characteristics
of sovereignty are peculiar to the legal notion of sovereignty. They are best represented
by an absolute monarchy. In the actual working of the state – especially in the case of
democratic, federal, pluralist and constitutional government – it becomes extremely
difficult to discover the seat or real character of sovereignty.
7.
Kinds of Sovereignty
Sovereignty can be classified into different kinds. This classification is based on the location of
sovereignty.
KINDS
1. Titular Sovereignty
By titular sovereignty we mean sovereignty by the title only. It refers to the sovereign powers of
the king or monarch who has ceased to exercise any real authority. 2 In theory he may still
possess all the powers but in practice sovereign power is enjoyed by some other person or body
31
of persons. Titular sovereign is only a symbol of authority, a legacy of past. Britain presents a
good example of titular sovereign. The king is the titular head and he does not enjoy any real
powers. Actual powers are enjoyed by council of ministers and parliament. In India president is a
titular sovereign and the cabinet is a real sovereign.

2. De Facto and De Jure Sovereignty

De facto sovereignty indicates to a sovereign who without legal support or constitutional support
enjoys sovereign power. De jure sovereign is recognized by law or the constitution, but not in
position to practice its power. In case of revolutions, that is a successful overthrow of the
existing regime in a state there may be de facto and de jure sovereigns.

3. LEGAL SOVEREIGNTY
The main features of legal sovereignty are as follows:
(1) The legal sovereign is always definite and determinate.
(2) Legal sovereignty may reside either in the person of a monarch as in an absolute monarchy;
or it may be vested in a body of a persons as in a democracy.
(3) It is organized and known to law
(4) It alone is competent to declare the will of the state.
(5) Obedience to the commands of the legal sovereign is obligatory; disobedience means
physical punishment.
(6) The legal sovereign alone is the source of all rights. He can take them back or even annul
them.
(7) The authority of the legal sovereign is final. It is absolute and supreme. It is subject to no
control within the state.

4. Political sovereignty
Political sovereignty is the hidden power of the mass of the people. But in developing
democracies, in practice, the political sovereignty rests in that class of people under whose
influence the mass of people actually are. It is eroded under the influence of demagogues,

32
 religious leaders and caste elites. As such, only an effective and healthy public opinion can
be identified with political sovereignty.

The following are the main characteristics of political sovereignty:

(1) Political sovereignty is a power of the electorate or the mass of the people or the public
opinion.
(2) In modem representative govt. it can be described in a simple phrase as the "power of the
people".
(3) It is the sum total of the influence in a state which lies behind the law.
(4) Whereas the legal sovereign is definitely organized and discoverable, the political
sovereign is vague and unorganized.

5. Popular Sovereignty
When the sovereignty resides in the people of the state it is called as popular sovereignty. This
theory was expounded by Rousseau, which later became the slogan of French Revolution. The
doctrine of popular sovereignty regards people as the supreme authority. It is people who decide
right or wrong. People are not bound by any natural or divine law. Government exists only as a
tool for the good of the people. It should be held directly responsible to the people. It can
exercise authority only on the basis of the law of land. Will of the people should not be ignored
Popular sovereignty is the basis of modern democratic system.

Relationship between Legal and Political Sovereignty

The problem of the good govt. is largely the problem of the proper relation between the legal and
political sovereign. Though legally speaking, the legal sovereign is important and omnipotent.
The political sovereign manifests itself through voting, the press, speeches and all the means of
communication. It however, can only become effective when organized. The organization of
political sovereignty necessarily results in the creation of legal sovereignty the two are aspects of
the sovereignty of the state. They constantly react to each other.
In the end one must quote the definition given by AV. Dicey "Behind the legal sovereign, there is
a political sovereign before whom the legal sovereign must bow."

33
Q. 3. Critically examine the main principles of Socialism.
Ans. SOCIALISM
Meaning
Socialism aims at that economic organization and social reconstruction by suitable means under
which the major instruments of production are placed under the ownership and control of public
authority in order to ensure that they are properly utilized to secure the public interest.
Evolutionary socialism relies on the democratic method, parliamentary reform and even
economic planning on the plea that the interests of the underprivileged sections, especially the
working classes might be represented and taken care of by their representatives and leadership.
Socialism as a principle of common ownership of society's wealth, for the common benefit is a
typically modem idea. In fact modem socialism arose from the failure of classical liberalism on
the humanistic front.

Types of Socialism
1. Utopian Socialism
The two outstanding pioneers of utopian socialism were Charles Fourier and Robert Owen. All
these thinkers agreed on one main point: that individual enterprise and market competition were
inimical to human welfare and that a cooperative form of social. Organization could provide the
remedy to the existing ills of society. The chief contribution of the utopian socialist was that they
draw society's attention to the inadequacies of the industrial system and painted a picture of a
society free from inequality, exploitation and injustice.

2. Scientific Socialism
Marx and Engel's dismissed all previous socialist thinking as utopian especially because it is not
based on a scientific understanding of the mechanism of social injustice in capitalist society. The
dialectical method originally signified a process whereby new ideas are generated through an
intellectual debate that is by the clash of conflicting ideas.

34
3. Democratic Socialism
It is a modem version of Fabian socialism. They believe that the goals of democracy and
socialism are not separable from each other, both stands for the amelioration of the ordinary
man. Its main aims are: Partial socialization of production and distribution, Satisfaction of moral
as well as material needs, Freedom of thought and expression, No form of dictatorship, free
competition for power.

4. Welfare State
It denotes another combination of liberalism and socialism. The irony of welfare state is that it
seeks a compromise with capitalism. It pays lip service to socialist goals but never seeks to
replace capitalism against which socialism had arisen. Welfare state has been dubbed between a
half-way house between capitalism and socialism. Welfare state expands the scope of state
activity to a very large sphere. Welfare state also extends the regulatory sphere of the state. In
this way, welfare state assures help to the needy at every step.

5. The Socialist Pattern of Society

The socialist pattern of society was accepted as a model of socio-economic development by the
Indian Parliament in dec.1954.The accent of the socialist pattern was on reduction of equalities,
the raising of standards of living, the enlargement of opportunities for all, the promotion of
enterprise among the classes and the creation of a sense of partnership among all sections of the
community.

Evaluation
1. No Coherent Doctrine.
2. Not based in the Working Class.
3. Legitimization of the Bourgeois Class.

Q. 4. Critically examine the “Utilltaranism.”

Or
35
Q. 4. What do you understand by the term Utilitarianism? Who are the major
exponents of this theory? Discuss their views.

Ans. Utilitarianism
It was another important expression of classical liberalism. Its main exponents are Jeremy
Bentham, James Mill, Henry Sidgwick, J.S. Mill. It holds that all practical reasoning should be
based on the concept of utility, which denotes a positive balance of pleasure over pain derived
from a thing, condition, action or policy. Bentham argued that political institutions and public
policies should be judged by their consequences. Satisfaction of the individual could be taken as
a yardstick of utility, public decisions should be governed by the principle of "greatest
happiness of the greatest number". Men always desire pleasure and averse only to pain. This
natural propensity provides the best standard of right action. He argued that pleasures derived
from different sources could be measured only in terms of quantities. He even laid down a
multidimensional scale for the measurement of pleasure and pain called "Felicific Calculus".
Each individual should be treated as one unit and that none should be given special
consideration: "Each to count as one and no one for more than one." Good govt. should be
based on free individual initiative, free competition, free suffrage and free elections. Social good
is comprised of the sum total of individual good and the state is left with minimal functions.

J.S. Mill came to revise it on two important counts:

a. He introduces qualitative differences between different kinds of pleasure;
b. By drawing a distinction between self-regarding and other-regarding actions.
Sources of Pleasure or Pain
Bentham list out the following four sources of pleasure or pain:
1. Pleasure and pain which occur due to physical or natural sanction: We experience or expect
them in the ordinary course of nature, nit purposely modified by any human interposition.
2. Pleasure and pain that occur due to moral sanctions: These are pleasure and pain which we
experience or expect at the hands of our fellows prompted by the feeling of hatred or goodwill.

36
3. Pleasure and pain that occur due to political sanctions: Such pleasure or pain are received
from the magistrate or the legislator.
Pleasure and pain which occurs due to religious sanction: Bentham himself explained these four
types of sources thus: Suppose a man’s house is destroyed by fire, if it is due to his own
imprudence, it is the punishment of nature. If it is at direction of some power, it is a punishment
of political sanction. If it is done by his neighbor, due to ill-will, it is a punishment of moral or
popular sanction. If it is an act for offending divinity, it is a punishment of religious sanction.

Bentham attaches three conditions to has principle of utility

1. It must be clear and precise.
2. It must be single and sufficient amount of motivation..
3. It must be applicable by means of a moral calculus.
Significance of Bentham’s political obligation of Utilitarianism Bentham’s straight forward
statements challenging the then existing social and political institutions have universal appeal.
His philosophy gave a severe blow to the social contract theory, when he said that the state was
not outcome of any contract but only because the people saw in it their advancement. His
philosophy preached democracy and democratic institutions which was a bold step in those days.
His utilitarianism shook many of the age-old institutions from their very foundations. His
utilitarian principles which are a common sense formula of the ‘greatest happiness of the greatest
member’ had been of immense value which helped to face the problem of his day and hold good
even today.
It has given the legislators somewhat a measuring rod by which they could judge the utility of
particular legislation. Though the utility cannot be measured ordinarily Bentham treated all
problems from the utilitarian point of view and all his other theories, legal, political and social
are an extension of his ethical theory. He offered practical solutions to reform the English
society. He applied the principle of utility to the question of property. He contended that property
was an institution which brought happiness to its owner. To achieve the end of ‘greatest
happiness of the greatest number’ required that the property be equally distributed among the
people.

37
Evaluation
Critics observed that Bentham reduced the individual to a consumer of utilities. It was J.S.Mill
who changed him into a doer and creator. Inconsistency in Bentham's thought shows his bias for
capitalism rather than his concern with humanity.
John Rawls says that utilitarian philosophy must be rejected on moral grounds. In calculating
aggregate happiness it tends to ignore the sufferings of particular individuals.

Q. 4. Define Liberalism. Explain the main tenets of Liberalism.

Or
Q. 4. What do you understand by Negative and Positive concept of Liberalism?
Who are the Major exponents of the Positive and Negative concepts of
Liberalism? Discuss their Views.

Ans. Liberalism
Liberalism includes the viewpoint of those who oppose absolute monarchy, age-old feudal
system and privileges of the church. It also includes the views of those who advocated
individualism and later parliamentary democracy.
The origin of the word 'liberalism' can be traced in the term 'liber' which means 'freedom or
liberty'. Those who are in favor of liberty of the individual are usually called liberals. Thus,
liberty of the individuals is the core of individualism. Liberalism and individualism are often
identified with each other. This is not totally correct. Now, liberalism gives precedence to the
society over the individual. It argues that welfare state can interfere in the activities unity can be
ensured. Constitutional govt., liberty, equality, fraternity and secularism are important principles
of liberalism. It’s ideal is coordination between proper development of the personality of the
individual and welfare of the entire community. The ideology of the liberalism first developed in
England during the 17th and the 18th centuries. Liberalism is of two types:
TYPES

38
 1. Classical Liberalism
It was limited to the demands of constitutional guarantee for rights of the individual. It appeared
as champion of religious tolerance, constitutionalism and rights of the man. Its objective was to
keep the individual free from the control and the activity of the monarch. The negative or the
classical liberalism did not want the state to possess unlimited powers, it did not want the state to
interfere in the economy and it did not want the state to violate the liberty of the individual.

2. Modern Liberalism
Nature of liberalism began to change towards the end of the 19th century. State is no more
regarded as a necessary evil. State is an instrument of welfare of the community. Liberals want
an ideal society inspired by the concept of welfare of the community. Western liberal
Democracies have adopted the system of mixed economy so that both private and public sectors
may co-exist as instruments of progress. Welfare state is the ideal of modem liberalism.

Main Prnciples of Liberalism

1. Liberalism has faith in the intelligence of man based on reason. Scholars like John Locke and
Thomas Paine advocated liberalism.
2. Liberalism was initially regarded as a symbol of revolt against tradition and superstition. But it
condemns violence and discards revolution. It advocates peaceful, and constitutional means for
changing the social system.
3. Liberalism is a supporter of capitalism and does not believe in classless society. Liberalism
has total faith in individual liberty.
4. Individualism is the focal point of Ii liberalism. It is responsibility of the state to help in the
development of his personality, and to protect his life, liberty and property. It does not accept the
state as an end. It only accepts the state as its means.
5. According to liberalism, state is a man-made institution created for the protection of the
individual. It does not accept it as a divine institution.

39
6. It believes in the concept of natural rights of the man. Neither the society nor the state can
violate the natural rights of life, liberty and property as they are created by the nature.
7. It advocates religious freedom and tolerance i.e. secularism.
8. Constitutionalism is the main political doctrine of the liberalism. Absolute rule has no
place in it.
9. The democratic govt. is the ultimate objective of the liberalism. It believes in the concept of
popular sovereignty, which in turn means democratic govt. based on the consent of the people.
10. In international sphere, it advocates the ideal of world peace and peaceful settlement of
international disputes.

Evaluation
Negative liberalism liberated the individual from traditional authorities-the state and the church.
It maintained that political power is the trust of the people. Positive liberalism gave the idea of
the state that will remove the hindrances which come in the way of the development of the
human personality. Thus liberalism is a flexible philosophy. Its main tenets have changed with
the requirements of time. It is a doctrine of positive action maximum social welfare function to
be performed by the state. Critics of liberalism are generally the Marxists who call this
philosophy as reactionary and bourgeoisie. But with its emphasis on the welfare state, liberalism
may strengthen itself and meet the Marxian challenge more vigorously in the 21st century.

Q. 4. What is Marxism? Discuss the Marxist Theory of Historical Determinism,

Dialectical Materialism and the Concept of Surplus Value in detail.
Or
Q. 4. Explain the concept of Class Struggle in Marxist Theory.

Ans. Marxist Theory

Introduction

40
It is also known as Scientific Socialism. Marxism interpreted social, pc1iitical and economic life
of man on the basis of class conflict. Exploitation has always been at the center of every class
structure. According to Marxism, exploitation will come to an end only when division of the
society into economic classes will be finished.

Fundamental of Marxism
It can be analyzed on the basis of four different theories –

1. Dialectical Materialism
This philosophy is based on the idealistic ideas of Hegel. Hegel described the entire society as
ever changing. The process of change was termed as 'being',' non-being' and 'becoming'. These
three stages were respectively described by him as 'theses', anti-theses' and 'syntheses. Every
abstract idea begins with theses. Naturally contradictions appear in the idea. These are called as
'anti-theses'. As a result of conflict, between theses and antitheses, a compromise is reached
which become the syntheses. Marx says that matter is most important. In the material world
change keeps on taking place, certain tendencies emerge, others disappear and while others
re-emerge. Material development is indicated by theses, anti-theses and synthesis. Marx says that
classless society will be ultimate of dialectical materialism.

2. Materialistic Interpretation of History

Analyses of history based on dialectical materialism are named by Marx as 'Historical
Materialism'. All historical development should be viewed in the material context. By material
condition he meant environment, production, distribution and exchange. On the basis of
production-oriented relations Marx divides history into five periods –

a. Primitive Communism
Every individual himself was a consumer as well as a producer.
b. Slave Society

41
With the development of agriculture the concept of ownership of land emerged. This was the
period of slavery. There were slaves and slave-owners.
c. Feudal Society
State as an institution stood at the head of the feudal order. Peasants called serfs were no better
than the slaves.
d. Capitalist Society
Large-scale industries were set up under private ownership. This means that the means of
production came in the hands of a one class - capitalists.
e. Socialist Society
Class struggle results n the victory of the working class. At this stage there will be a transitional
period of 'dictatorship of the proletariat'. Once that happen and production reaches the stage
when everyone can get what he needs, the state itself will wither away.

1. Theory of Class Struggle

One class has always exploited the other. With the disappearance of the primitive society,
conflict between the haves and have-nots became the vital truth of social life. State has always
been an instrument of exploitation. Class struggle will continue till social order comes under the
control of the working people. With the victory of the proletariats, the class struggle will come to
an end and way for a classless society will be cleared.

2. Theory of Value
This theory explains that the workers are not given adequate value - wages -of their labor.
Wages are arbitrarily fixed to exploit the laborers. Workers labor has its own value because it is
also sold and purchased in the market. Thus the value of labor depends on what has been spent
on production, development and protection of the labor power. The idea of this theory is that all
commodities including labor have their value. Marx says that surplus value is the principle cause
of class-struggle. The extra money earned by the capitalist is surplus value which should actually
have gone to the workers. But he does not get it.

42
3. Dictatorship of the Proletariat
This is a transitional stage. The aim of Marxism is to achieve socialism through revolution. After
the revolution effort will be made to establish social control over means of production. State will
be used by the proletariat to liquidate capitalism. It will be dictatorial so that capitalism may not
succeed in regaining their lost power. According to Marx, this dictatorship will be more
democratic. Its aim will be to restructure the production system so that everyone may get work
according to his ability. State will be controlled by the workers. When classless society will be
established crime will also disappear because there will neither be shortage nor exploitation.
There will be no need of state. Thus state will wither away and communism will be established.
In communism all will be equal, there will be no private property, means of production will be
socially-controlled and there will be no conflict.

Evaluation
1. No sharp division of society into classes, especially middle classes.
2. Various welfare function adopted by the capitalist societies.
3. Inequality of power in socialist states.
4. Shift of focus from base to superstructure.

Short Questions Answers

Q. 1. Write the short note on “Socialism.”

Ans. Socialism
The term “Socialism” comes from the word ‘Socius’ meaning society. The word ‘Socialism’
was used for the first time in the poor man’s Guardian in the year 1833 in connection with
Owan’s theory of social reconstruction.
The main concern of socialism is the welfare of society with the aim to remove the injustices and
evils of the capitalist system. In fact it is a reaction against the eighteenth century industrialsation
and doctrine of individualism leading to the growth of capitalism.
43
Led Ramsay Muir to remark- “Socialism is a chameleon like creed It changes its coloure
according to its environment. For the street corner and the club room, it wears the flaming scarlet
of the class war; for the intellectuals is red shot with Tawny; for the sentimentalist, it becomes a
delicate rose pink and in clerical circles it assumes a virgin which just touched with a faint flush
of generous aspiration.”
According to Hughan- “Socialism is the political movement of the working class which aims to
abolish exploitation by means of the collective ownership and democratic management of the
basic instruments of production and distribution.”
The Oxford English Dicionary defines socialism as “ a theory or policy that aims at or advocates
the ownership or control of the means of production- capital, land and property.

Very Short Questions Answers

Q. 1. Which type of ‘State’ was supported to by Gandhi ji?

Ans. ‘State’ was supported to by Gandhi ji

Gandhiji was hostile to the state. He neither regarded it as necessary nor divine or natural
creation. He believes that the state exists to serve the people to the state.

Gandhiji rejects the state mainly for three reasons-

1. The state is based on violence.
2. The coercive authority of the state is destructive of individual freedom and personality.
3. In a society of equals based on non – violence and cooperation the state is an evil and
unnecessary.
Q. 2. Clarify the difference between ‘Nominal and ‘Real’ Sovereignty.
Ans. Difference between ‘Nominal and ‘Real’ Sovereignty

44
 Legal (Nominal) Sovereignty Political (Real) Sovereignty

1. Supreme Law making authority 1. Behind Legal Sovereign, cannot

in legal terms. express in legal terms. It cannot
issue commands in the form of
Laws.
2. Legal Sovereignty is vested in 2. Political Sovereignty vested in the
one person or a group. electorate or people.
3. Legal sovereign is definite 3. Political Sovereignty is indefinite,
organized, precise and know to unorganized vague and unknown to
law. law.
4. Legal Sovereign is more 4. Legal Sovereignty is weak in power.
powerful.
5. Recognized by lawyers and 5. Not recognized by lawyers and
courts. courts.
6. Cannot go against the will of 6. Actually the legal sovereign has to
political sovereign. bow down before the political
sovereign.
7. Concept of Nominal Sovereignty 7. Concept of real sovereign is vague.
is very clear.
8. Nominal Sovereign is elected by 8. Real sovereign is the electorate or
Real Sovereign. people.

45
 UNIT- IIIrd

Q. 1. Explain the Concept of Power. Discuss various sources of power.

Ans. Power
Meaning
1. Power, in its broadest sense, is the ability to influence the outcome of events.
2. In the sense of having the ‘power, to do something.
3. In global politics, this includes the ability of a country to conduct its own affairs without the
interference of other countries,
4. Power is usually thought of as a relationship: that is, as the ability to influence the behaviour
of others in a manner not of their choosing or ‘power over’ others.
5. It is capacity of individual to impose ones will over the behaviour of others.
6. It is a ability of the person to produce intended effects on others.
7.When we say A is more powerful than B. It means B will act according to wishes of A.
8. It denotes/ means the ability of a person to fulfill his desire or to achieve his objectives.
9 Force Power is generally thought to involve bringing about of an action by someone against
the will.
10. A powerful person creates situation when you do not have an option but to follow the wishes
of the powerful person.
11. It is ability to use force.

Definitions
According to C.J. Fedrick-“Power is not a primarily thing, a possession but rather a relation.”
According Robert Dahl-“Power is the capacity to change the possibility of result.”
According to H.D. Lasswell and A. Kaplan-“Political Science as an empirical discipline, is he
study of shaping and sharing of power.”
According Mac Iver-“Power is the capacity of centralization, regulate or direct the behaviour of
person or things.”
46
According to A. R. Ball-“Political Power is the Capacity to affect another’s behaviour by threat
of some from of sanction.”

Characteristic Features
The following characteristics of power can be emphasized on the basis of the above-mentioned
definitions given by different scholars and thinkers.
1. Power is situational, which means that it depends on the position or personality ofQQ the
individual or class which exercises it. There are ample instances which exhibit that one person
occupying a particular post proves successful and enhances the grandeur and respect of the post,
while another person working on the same post meets utter failure and contributes in the decline
and downfall of that post. History is full such varying examples.
2. Power is bilateral in character, which implies that both ruled are affected by it. While
exercising it, the ruling class keeps in its mind the desires of the governed class because if the
desires of the ruled are neglected, the rulers may have to face the opposition of the people. Thus,
it is evident that power is exercised by rulers and ruled both in their own way.
3. Power is relational, as postulated by Lass well Kaplan. It makes possible to know the relation
between powerful and powerless and rulers and who are powerful, they get power is a
inter-human relation, because those gets the approval of others.
4. Sanction is inevitably essential for power. In fact, In, it may be valid and legal only when
sanction is inherent in it. It essentially means that if the capacity of person to get work done from
others is devoid of coercion, that capacity or ability can never be termed as power.
5. Power is essentially teleological and functional, which inevitably means that it is exercised for
the fulfillment of some or the other goal. If it is goallessly used, it will be essentially ineffective
and useless.
6. Power is essential related with external influence. Herman finer believed that the sense of
power reflected by all those external influences, through which any one can be compelled to
proceed towards any specific direction. This clearly implies that power is related the fact that it
may affect the external activities.

47
 Sources of Power

1. Knowledge
The most significant source of power in the human field is knowledge, which enables us to
move from darkness to light. In reality, knowledge implies self-realization, which helps us in
investigating, learning, thinking and developing mind and soul. Thus, it is evident that
knowledge is a very essential source of power.
2. Organization
Organization is also an equally important source of power. Organization may be defined a
determining what activities are necessary to any purpose (or plan) and arranging them in groups
which may be assigned to individuals. In fact, organization essentially involves three factors-
definite goal, sense of cooperation and several individuals.
3. Personality
History is witness of the fact that there had been several individuals in the society who had
become famous top ranking leaders of the society, though the reasons inherent may be either
their great sacrifice or social service, wisdom, political skill, oratory, organizational ability
competence to take quick decisions, attractive physical personality, or other god-gifted greatness.
Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel, Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, Jai Prakash Narain, etc.,
had been such great personalities who earned a lot of fame and popularity in the political field.
Charismatic personality of a leader is more powerful than others.
48
4. Force
Right from ancient time, force has been considered to be an important source of power. Even
today strong nationals impose their will over weaker ones. War and treaties still occur on the
basis of coercion according to needs.
5. Status
Another source of power is the status of an individual. Economic status often helps in attaining
power. A financials well off man exercise much pressure even on highly posted officials and
ministers and he gets success in getting things done in his own way.
6. Skill
A tactful people usually exert more powers than others, Which is a clear proof that skill is
another source of power.
7. Wealth
Wealth is also an important source of power. Those possessing control over economic sources
and means of control provide source for livelihood to others. A wealthy person can easily
purchase voters, legislators to get him elected in elections and he can also succeed in getting
governmental laws and political favor.
8. Authority
Those, who have got an authority, normally become powerful and people in general adopt totally
a different attitude towards them.
9. Love and Humanity
Those who preach the lesson of love and humanity become powerful in the society. Father of the
Indian nation Mahatma Gandhi organized the country and kindled the fire of consciousness
among countrymen with the help of these elements due to which Indians succeeded in getting
free of the British slavery.
10. Military Force
Armed personnel easily exert their control over unarmed people and compel them to work
according their own wishes. Nations, having more and latest modern weapons, usually establish
their suzerainty over weaker nations through such weapons. America and soviet Russia had

49
succeeded in forming two groups of capitalism and socialism only through this power during the
last century.
Kinds of Power
As there are various forms of power, it is quite difficult to measure it. Even then several attempts
have been made to measure it, so it is essential to associate them with different forms of power.
On the Basis of Hindu Scriptures- According to ancient Hindu scriptures, there are two
under-mentioned kinds of power-
1. Divine Power-if the power is exercised in the welfare of human being in accordance with the
religious rules and regulations; it is called as divine power.
2. Beastly Power-When the power is use for anti-religious and inhuman purpose, it is called
3. As beastly or physical power.
4. Its use is injurious for human welfare.

Other kinds
Other kinds of power in include political power, economic power, military power and national
power. A detailed discussion of the other kinds of power is being mentioned below-

Political Power

POWER
Economic Power Military Power

National Power

1. Political Power- Political power ultimately results into the government power. With the
support of this power, the government gets is orders obeyed by all the individuals and
associations formulated by them within its jurisdiction. Political power is supreme in all types of
power.

50
2. Economic Power- The most significant power which affects the political power, is
economic power. This is the power of wealth. Those, who possess economic power, earn control
over political power. Those individuals, who are prosperous from economic view point, succeed
in earning political power.
3. Military power- In modern age, military power has very significant place. In democratic
states, military power is the machinery to make the authority of government effective. The state
is defended from the external invasion only with the help of military power and national
boundaries are safeguarded.
4. National power- The concept of national power occupies a significant place in modern
international politics. A nation maintains its relations with other nation on the basis of this power
and fulfills its national interest. National power is a collective power which takes shape with the
help of political, economic, military, cultural and psychological powers.

Importance of power
The concept of power is so important in political science, that in modern times it is defined as the
science of power. It is true that the concept of power is studied in other social sciences too, but it
has such a specifically and most significant place in the field of political science that Becker says
that it is inseparable from power and S.S. Ulwar avers that “of all social sciences, no one has
been more concerned with the concept of power than political science.” In fact power is centre to
the study of politics and politics is nothing but struggle for power. It is next to impossible to
separate power from the study of politics.

Q. 2. Define the concept of Authority.

Ans. Authority
Introduction
Authority is that form of power which is legalized and legitimized. Authority is a form of power
e.g. a statute giving power to an minister. If a person has power due to a special office , he
occupies, this is known as authority.

51
Example- Police Commissioner has authority to issue order and get them obeyed by virtue of
authority he occupies.
Power + legitimacy = Authority.
Authority consists of two important components: power and legitimacy.
Authority means legitimate power which has been approved by the people or power in
accordance with the constitution or the law of the state.
A government officer is competent to use authority- his authority is clearly defined.

Meaning
In English the word 'Authority1 can be used to mean power given by the state.Origin of the
Word 'Authority' The word 'Authority’ is derived from the Latin word 'austoritus’ meaning‘
invention‘, 'advice', 'opinion', 'influence' or 'command' in English.
Authority means power given by the state in the form of government, judges, police officers etc.
The word 'Authority’ is used in the name of an organization; the name usually refers to the
governing body upon which such authority is vested.

Definitions
According to Mac Iver – “Authority is often defined as being power, the power of command
obedience.”
According to Rabert Dahl –“Legitimate power or influence is generally called authority.”
According to Jouvenel- “by Authority I mean the facility of gaining another man’s assent.”
Types

Rational - Legal Traditional Authority Charismatic

authority

52
Rational - Legal authority
Max Weber holds that the authority in a 20th century has been developed on the basis of
functions performed by specialized structures in a rational-legal system. Bureaucracy is its best
example. The rational-legal type of authority asserts that obedience is to be rendered only to law
i.e. to impersonal order of a person in a position of authority within the defined sphere.
Traditional Authority
Traditional authority simply appealed to long practice. In traditional societies, people act in
particular ways or accept the power of some people over themselves because they believe that
these rules have been followed from time immemorial. Religious authority is of this kind. The
authority exercised by tribal chiefs or village elders are based on this belief.
Charismatic Authority
Charismatic authority is believed on the basis of the supernatural qualities that are believed to be
in the possession of the leaders. People gave their support and obedience to them because of
some extraordinary personal qualities and also because they represent some ideals with great
precision and clarity. Lenin, Mao, Mahatma Gandhi belongs to this category. Acceptance of
authority is the most important concept of legitimization of power. Authority is subject to certain
limitations also. It is limited if it goes against morality or conscience. Since people obey out of
values they have internalized, any order against morality will lower the respect of the authority.

Characteristics of Authority
After defining the Authority, The, the characteristic features of its concept automatically and
spontaneously appear. Some of the most important and essential features of it are being
discussed below:

53
1. Based on Reason
The authority is essentially based on reason. It means that it is recognized on the base of solid
logic and arguments, not on power or coercion. In the words of Carl J. Frederik- “The man who
has authority possesses something that I would describe as the capacity for reasoned elaboration,
for giving convincing reasons for what he does or proposes to have other to do.” People
unhesitatingly accept authority only due to this simple fact that it is based on logic.
2. Legitimacy
Legitimacy is essentially present in each and every Authority, otherwise the used power will
become coercive. In fact, it is the legitimacy which determines the effectiveness of authority.
3. Dominance
Another important feature of authority is dominance. The factor of dominance facilitates the
operation and control of the structures, activities and functions of political systems.
4. Not Formal Power
Authority is not formal power, but rather it is informal in character. It implies that authority lacks
that feature which is the main characteristics of power.
5. Feeling of Responsibility
Authority necessarily involves the feeling of responsibility or accountability. If a person or a
group of person enjoys and exercises authority, he is also answerable to some higher authority or
from whom he gets it. In a democratic set up, sense of accountability or responsibility is the most
important feature.
6. Acceptance
Authority is based on acceptance, which means that it should not be obeyed due to fear or the
apprehension of coercion.
Sources of Authority
Generally, there are three sources of authority specifically of the political authority. First is
tradition. Under it the right to rule emerges from a continuous use of political power based on
customs and traditions.

54
The second source of authority, i.e., right to rule springs from the great qualities of head and
heart of the political leader. This type of source is known as charisma. Third and the last source
are legal-rational, in which right to rule originates from constitutional rules.
Functions of Authority
There are innumerable functions of authority, and it is utilized by various systems and
institutions for performing functions under different circumstances. Authority is most often used
for attaining the goals and objectives and fulfilling the responsibilities of systems. In, fact,
authority is significant as an end, means and principle, through which goals can be achieved.
According to Herbert Simon, there are three important functions of authority-
1. It assigns certain responsibilities to authorities;
2. It utilizes specialization for taking decisions; and.
3. It brings coordination among various activities.

Q. 3. Explain the concept of Legitimacy.

Ans. Legitimacy

Meaning of Legitimacy:
The word ‘legitimacy’ has been derived from the Latin world ‘legitimas’. During the middle
ages it was called ‘legitimitas’ which in English language was interpreted as ‘lawful’. Cicero
used the word ‘legitimum’ to denote the power constituted by law. Later on the word
‘legitimacy’ was used for traditional procedures, constitutional principles and adoption to
traditions. At still later a stage the element of ‘consent’ was added to its meaning. Consent was
considered the essence of legitimate rule.

Definitions
According to Lipset – “Legitimacy involves the capacity of the system to engender and maintain
the belief that the existing political institutions are the most appropriate ones for the society.”

55
According to Kuhn Alfred – “Legitimacy has been constructed as the acceptance of major
bargain between the rulers and the ruled.”
According to Jean Blondel –“Legitimacy can be defined as the extent to which the population
accepts naturally without questioning, the organization to which it belongs.”

Characteristics of Legitimacy
On the basis of the above-mentioned definitions, following characteristics features of legitimacy
can be Enumerated-
1. People’s Belief in political System
Legitimacy develops confidence among the people on the functions, policies, decision, laws,
structures, etc. of political system. This procures popular support for political methodology
which is essential for its existence.
2. Converts Power into Authority
Legitimacy is a means for converting in to power into authority. If any authority is not
legitimate, either public will obey of fear or it will not at all obey. If power is covered with
legitimacy, people with themselves accept it. In the words of Robert A. Dahl “Legitimate power
influence generally called authority.
3. Related with effectiveness of political System
Legitimacy is related with the effectiveness of political system. In fact, the confidence over the
political system depends on this fact as to what extent it is active and skilled in working.
4. Natural Acceptance of People
The extent and quantum of legitimacy will be determined on the basis of the limit of the natural
approval of the political system by the people.
5. Based on public Faith and Values
In reality, the bases of political system of legitimacy are public faith and values. Any political
system can be considered to be legitimate only when it is in accordance with public faith and
values, otherwise it cannot remain legitimate.

56
Sources of Legitimacy
According to Max Weber, there are three sources of legitimacy-
Tradition
Legitimacy may rest on an established belief in the sanction of immemorial traditions and on the
need to obey leaders who exercise the authority according to the traditions.
Exceptional Personal Qualities
Legitimacy may secondly be based on “devotion to the specific and exceptional sanctity, or
exemplary character of an individual person.”
Legality
Legitimacy may rest on the belief that power is wielded in a way that is legal. What is done
legally is regarded as legitimate.
Grace A. Jones has described the following sources of legitimacy in the
context of British system-
1. Continuity with the political and social institutions.
2. Tradition of non-violence.
3. Religious beliefs.
4. Belief in values.
5. Electoral process, liberty and unanimity.
6. Coordinated and integrated society and continuity of its traditions.
7. Adaptive political culture.
According to Friedrich, the sources of legitimacy are-
1. Religious,
2. Philosophical and juristic,
3. Traditional,
4. Procedural and
5. Empirical.

57
 Kinds
Legitimacy is "a value whereby something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and
proper".In political science, legitimacy usually is understood as the popular acceptance and
recognition by the public of the authority of a governing régime, whereby authority has political
power through consent and mutual understandings, not coercion. The three types of political
legitimacy described by German sociologist Max Weber are traditional, charismatic, and
rational-legal:
1. Traditional legitimacy derives from societal custom and habit that emphasize the history
of the authority of tradition. Traditionalists understand this form of rule as historically
accepted, hence its continuity, because it is the way society has always been. Therefore,
the institutions of traditional government usually are historically continuous, as
in monarchy and tribalism.
2. Charismatic legitimacy derives from the ideas and personal charisma of the leader, a
person whose authoritative persona charms and psychologically dominates the people of
the society to agreement with the government's régime and rule. A charismatic
government usually features weak political and administrative institutions, because they
derive authority from the persona of the leader, and usually disappear without the leader
in power. However, if the charismatic leader has a successor, a government derived from
charismatic legitimacy might continue.
3. Rational-legal legitimacy derives from a system of institutional procedure, wherein
government institutions establish and enforce law and order in the public interest.
Therefore, it is through public trust that the government will abide the law that confers
rational-legal legitimacy.

Q. 4. What do you understand by the term Liberty? What is the relation between
Liberty and Equality?
Ans. Liberty
Meaning

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The word "liberty" is derived from the Latin word "liber". It means free. Thus liberty means
freedom. Even the champions of absolutism, authoritarianism and slavery pay lip service to
freedom claiming that for ordinary man submission to authority is regarded as the best way to
realize freedom.
Definitions
According to Seeley –“Liberty is the opposite of over- government.”
According to Laski –“Liberty is the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social
conditions, which in modern civilization are the necessary guarantees of individual happiness.”
According to Montesquieu-“Liberty means the power of doing what we ought to do.”
According to T.H.Green –“it is a power to do or enjoy something that is worth doing or
enjoying in common with others. Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which
men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

Kinds of Liberty

The term natural liberty is used to explain a situation in which there was no restriction on the
freedom of man. But this unlimited freedom will lead to chaos and anarchy and lawlessness.
1. Civil Liberty
Civil liberty according to Barker is the liberty of man in the capacity of an individual person - his
personal liberty. This consists in physical freedom from injury or threat to life, health and
movement of the body; intellectual freedom for the expression of thought and belief and practical

59
freedom of the play of will and the exercise of choice in the general field of contractual actions
and relations with other persons.
2. Political Liberty
Man enjoys political liberty in the capacity of a citizen. To Blackstone, political liberty meant the
power of curbing the govt. But in modem democracy, political liberty is not a liberty of curbing
the govt. but of constituting and controlling it. This view postulates the positive right of the
people to be represented in decision-making bodies and to influence their decisions by freely
articulating their views and opinions on issues of public policy.
4. Economic Liberty
Economic liberty belongs to man in his capacity as a worker whether with hand or brain engaged
in some gainful occupation or service. Unless social policy is geared to safeguard the interests of
the vulnerable sections in this sphere, the application of the principle of liberty would be devoid
of any content or substance.
5. National Liberty
The term national liberty is used in the context of a freedom of a country from foreign
domination. Democracy is possible only if there is national liberty. All other freedoms become
meaningful only if a country enjoys freedom from outside.

Concept of Liberty
Negative Concept
Negative liberty means absence of all restrictions. Liberty is the freedom to do whatever one
wants to do. But this concept is dangerous. Complete absence of restraints will lead to a situation
in which mightwill be right. The unrestrained freedom is freedom only for the strong.
Positive Concept
Real or positive liberty is a situation in which man is free to do whatever one he likes, provided
he allows others to do the same. Positive liberty in this sense means the absence of unjust,
oppressive and unequal restrictions. It is the presence of equal opportunities. Reasonable and just
restrictions on freedom are possible when law ensures equal freedom for everyone.

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Q.5. Define Equality. Discuss the relation of equality and liberty.
Ans. Equality
Meaning
1. Equality means that all men are equal and should be entitled equal opportunity and treatment.
2. Equality means all things that are equal when measured by society's standards.
3. Everyone or everything is on the same level in ability, rank, quality, quantity or social
standing.
4. Fairness is an essential feature of equality.
5. The objective is for all people to receive fair treatment regardless of their background or social
status.
6. Government services are one measure of how equality works in everyday life.
For example, when applying for a driver's license, everyone is given the same written and
vehicle operation test.
7. Equality plays a role in both the public and private sectors on issues of employment.
8. Workplaces commonly have non-discrimination policies based on the principle of equality. 9.
9.Ideally, employees are treated equally while on the job.
Equality can also be applied to anything that is uniform in nature.

Definitions
According to D.D Raphall,"The Right to Equality proper is a right of equal satisfaction of basic
human needs, including the need to develop and use capacities which are specifically human."
According to Laski described that"Equality means that no man shall be so placed in society that
he can over-reach his neighbour to the extent which constitutes a denial of latter's citizenship."
According to Barker opined that "Equality means equal rights for all the people and the
abolition of all special rights and privileges".

Characteristics of Equality

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 1. Equality does not stand for absolute equality. It accepts the presence of some natural
dissimilarity.
2. Equality stands for absence of all unnatural manmade inequalities and specially
privileged classes in the society.
3. Equality assumes the grant and guarantee of equal rights and freedoms to all the people.
4. Equality infers the system of equal and adequate opportunities for all the people in
society.
5. Equality means equal satisfaction of basic needs of all the persons before the special
needs', and luxuries of some persons may be met.
6. Equality supports an equitable and fair distribution of wealth and resources i.e. Minimum
possible gap between the rich and poor.
7. Equality accepts the principle of protective discrimination for helping the weaker sections
of society. In the Indian political system, right to equality has been given to all and yet
there stands incorporated provisions for granting special protection facilities and
reservations to persons belonging to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward
classes, minorities, women, and children.

Equality has three Basic elements

a. Absence of special privileges in society.
b. Presence of adequate and equal opportunities for development of all.
c. Equal satisfaction of basic needs of all.
Kinds

Natural Equality
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Natural equality rests on the principle that nature has created every one as equal. On the
contrary, in reality we can seldom find such equality, as the world is prone with more
inequalities than equality. People differ greatly in their intelligence, height, colour, physical
strength and mental makeup. Natural equality is meant as the provision of equal treatment and
equal opportunities to all human beings, irrespective of natural differences.
Civil Equality
It implies equality of all before law. Irrespective of their status and position, all people should be
treated equal and no discrimination should be made on the basis of caste, creed, sex, place of
birth etc. Equal rights should be available to all the people and nobody should be denied
enjoyment of any right.
Political Equality
Political equality is best guaranteed in a democracy. All citizens should have the right to
participate in all affairs of the state without any discrimination on grounds of sex, race, religion,
creed etc. Everything should be open to all people. It means the enjoyment of political rights
such as right to vote, right to contest in the election, right to hold public Offices etc. It enables
people’s political participation and the principle of universal adult franchise is a manifestation of
political equality.
Social Equality
Social equality implies that no one should be regarded as high or low on the basis of his caste,
colour, race or religion and no one person should be given special privileges on any of these
consideration. It stands for equality of status and absence of social barriers. It implies the
abolition of social distinctions and strives for the establishment of class less society. In reality,
there is no social equality as the Indian society is divided into different castes.
Economic Equality
It means that there should be equal opportunity to all citizens in matters of availability of
consumer goods, wealth and property. Similarly everyone should have the same facility for jobs,
work and in industry. There should be equal wages for equal work. International Equality - It
means the principle of equality shall be extended to all people in all the countries. The same is

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true of nations and states. There cannot be different treatment between states and between
peoples.

Q. 5. Define the Concept of Law. How Liberty and Law is Inter-related?

Ans. Meaning of Law
In the most widely understood sense, the term ‘law’ refers to a body of rules enforced by the
courts. There are as many social laws and physical sciences laws, which are connected with the
behavior of man in a society. Students of political science are not concerned with physical laws
or social laws but with political laws or positive laws. These positive laws command the
individuals to do certain things and not to do certain things. If this is violated, it will be
punishable. Thus, the concerns of political or positive laws are control and regulation, as said
earlier. The study of law is called jurisprudence.

Definitions of Law
According to MacIver -“Without law, there is no order, and without order men are lost, not
knowing where they go, not knowing what they do”.
According to Sidgwick “Law is the system of rights and obligations which the state
enforces.”
According to T.H. Green “Law is any general rule which desires to do or abstain from doing a
class of acts, and for the disobedience of which some penalty may reasonably be expected by the
person disobeying.”

Source of Law
Sources of law- indicate those factors that might have attributed for the origin and evolution of
law. In the words of Mac Iver, “the state is both the child and the parent of law.” Of the three
organs of the government, namely, the legislature, executive and the judiciary, legislature is the
organ empowered to make laws, while the executive 43 and judiciary branches implement and
interpret the laws respectively in the context of a fully developed state. Apart from legislature,
there are other sources of law as well. They are,

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 SOURCES OF LAW

Legislature
Judicial Decisions Equity
Custom or Usages Scientific Commentaries Religion

Custom or Usages
By custom, it is meant that a practice followed repeatedly by people generation after generation.
It is formed in much the same way as a path formed across a field. They were the laws know in
early states. As long as social relationships were simple, and common interests few, all knew and
followed the accepted customs, which were handed down through oral tradition by the elder
members of the group. To the sanction resulting from immemorial custom was often added
religious authority, since law and religion were not distinguished, and all rules were supposed to
have a supernatural sanction. Many of the customs grew out of religious practices, and
superstitious fear of angering the Gods or of arousing evil spirits gave powerful support to all
early rules.
Judicial Decisions
These are also called adjudication. Under changing conditions, such as resulted from new
environment, new methods of life, or contact with other people, several difficulties arose.
Numerous controversies led to doubt as to the relative validity of conflicting customs and many
cases arose concerning for which neither custom furnished nor rule. The evils of uncertain public
opinion and the injustice of the strong, when customary rules were absent, led to an additional
source of law, namely adjudication, or judicial decision. The decisions of the Roman Praetor and
of the English Chancellor were examples of laws thus created.
Scientific Commentaries

65
 The writings of great jurists have sometimes contained legal principles, which have been
incorporated into law. Lawyers and judges attach importance to their carefully considered
opinions. Unlike judges whose decisions apply to particular cases, the commentators deal with
abstract principles; and what the law makers and courts deal within legal science in a piecemeal
fashion, legal science views as a complete system capable of scientific treatment. The influence
exercised by the jurists in Rome, and by Coke, Blackstone in England and Kent in America are
modern times examples.
Legislature
This is the direct source of law at present, and the most important one. Legislatures are regarded
as “law making factories.” New laws are framed, the old ones amended and the existing laws
abolished. In spite of the decrease in the influences of other sources of law, the legislator bears in
mind the customs, religious practices, judicial decisions etc.
Equity
Equity means fairness or justice. It is also one kind of judge made law. It is a non –
conventional method of adopting old laws to new conditions. It supplements the existing law and
makes an addition to it. Sometimes the courts maybe confronted with the disputes about which
the law is silent. Under those circumstances, the courts decide the dispute taking recourse to
equity. Obviously, as a source of law, equity arises from the fact that as time passes and new
conditions of life develop, positive law becomes unsuitable either the old should be changed or
adapted by some informal method. Thus equity enters to fill the void. In the absence of a positive
law, judges decide the cases on general principles of fairness, reasonableness, common sense and
natural justice. The principles of equity thus supplement the premises of law, where they are
subject to specific terms by the state.
Religion
Allied to the source of custom is that of religion. It finds sanctions in the religious scriptures of
the people. Since times immemorial, people have reposed their faith in the power of some
supernatural agencies and tried to lay down rules for the regulation of their behavior. The words
of priests and the contents in holy books also provided some sources to law making.

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 Kinds

1. Natural law
Natural Law is often thought to be as divine law. It is not written anywhere; it is found in the
minds of men. It is abstract and not created by any human agency or authority. Natural law has
its sanction in respect for or fears of some super power.
2. Positive Law
Positive law is called as political law. It is created by human agency. It is written in nature. It is
concrete and can be understood as it is sovereign power of the state. It is determinate and its
violation leads to punishment.
3. National Law
A law formulated by the sovereign authority and applicable to the people living within its
territorial jurisdiction is called national law. It determines the private and public relations of the
people living in a state.
4. International Law
International law regulates the conduct and relations of various statuses in the world. It differs
from national law both in the method of creation and enforcement. The term
“International Law” was coined by Jeremy Bentham in 1780, to designate what had been called
as the “law of nations.”
5. Constitutional Law
It is the basic law according to which the activities of the government in a state are conducted. It
defines and explains the structure of government and the relationships between the various
organs of the government.
6. Ordinary Law
The law according to which the people in a State are governed is called ordinary law. It includes
all the municipal laws excluding the constitutional law. It is enacted by the legislature. It is
subordinate to the constitutional law.
7. Public Law

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 Public law deals with relations between the individuals and the state. It covers all forms of
crime. In cases involving public law, the state is a party to the case. Private Law It deals with
the relations between one individual and another. It covers matters such as libel, slander,
property, marriage, inheritance etc.
8. Rule of Law
Englishmen are ruled by the law, and by the law alone; a man with us may be punished for a
breach of law, but can be punished for nothing else. – Dicey. The concept of rule of law is one of
the distinguished features of the English constitution, later an accepted creed in almostall
democratic countries. It emerged out of the struggles of centuries of Englishmen for political
freedom and individual liberty. It is antithetical to “Administrative law,” which is prevalent in
the continental countries like France. Rule of law has been studied in detail in the book
“introduction to the Law of the Constitution” by A.V.Dicey.

Liberty and Law

It is sometimes felt that law and liberty are opposed to each other. It is said that laws placed
unnecessary restrictions on the freedom of the individual. According to the individualist thinkers,
state is an evil because it does not allow individual to enjoy freedom.
According to 1.S. Mill, the state should perform minimum possible functions so that the liberty
of the individual can be secured. The Marxists are of the opinion that the state is an institution of
the rich. They are in favor of the abolition of the state. There are two different views about the
relation of the law and liberty. One view is that law hinders liberty. This view is that real liberty
can be possible when there is no interference of the state and law in the individual freedom. The
other view is that law is actually the creator of liberty. But all laws don't create liberty. Still it is a
fact that reasonable restrictions provided by law ensure enjoyment of liberty by maximum
number of people. The law does not restrain freedom. But what it restricts is unlimited freedom
or license. The correct view is somewhere between these extreme options. The main purpose of
the state is the protection of that freedom which does not harm other citizens.
1. Laws such as imposing ban on murders or theft actually safeguard liberty of the individuals
by restraining people from committing crimes.
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2. Ina positives way the law insisting on maximum hours of work in the factory, or insisting on
the children being sent to schools or ensuring old-age pensions help the people in the enjoyment
of liberty.
3. The provision of a number of fundamental rights in the constitution is a guarantee against
possible violation of individual liberty by the govt.
4. Thus laws and state sovereignty are not hindrance to liberty. They curtail arbitrary action.
They don't permit license. They promote and protect liberty.

Short Questions Answers

Q.1. Discuss the distinguish between ‘Power’ and ‘Influence.’

Ans. Power
can be best defined as the potential or the ability to influence decisions and control resources. Power
gives the authority to change the behavior of others and make them do things that they might not do
otherwise.
Power can also involve force or coercion as it can carry physical sanctions that can be applied
when needed. When anyone exercises power over a person or a group, there is no alternative for
them, except to comply with it. Power can also evoke fear and it can be exerted to get things
done by others which they might not be so willing to do.
Influence
Influence can be described as the ability to alter others people’s perception of any situation. It is
more about creating such an impact on others so that it affects the way they think or do things,
and makes them do what the other person wants them to do. Influence has some resemblance to
power but it relies on subtle tactics and careful handling of the situation where the person being
influenced does not have to be forced and becomes compliant just with the use of the right words
and strategies.

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 Distinguish between ‘Power’ and ‘Influence’

Power Influence

1. Power is the authority to get things done 1. Influence is the ability to create an
by others. impact on the beliefs and actions of
2. Power might not generate respect others without forcing them.
because people are forced to obey 2. Influence generates respect as people
the commands of someone who is act out of their own beliefs and
stronger and has authority over change of heart when they like
them. someone or follow him or her.
3. Power does not contain any emotional 3. Influence is just like a magic and
feelings and without the presence of an
those being influenced keep working
authoritative figure, work may not
continue or its quality may not remain the even when the influential figure is
same. not present.
4. Power is positional as it usually comes 4. Influence is personal and it is due to
with a high post and rank. who the person is, not what rank he
or she holds.
5. Power pushes people to do things. 5. Influence persuades people by
changing their beliefs and
perceptions.
6. Power is imposed by authoritative 6. Influence does not require position or
figures like bosses or teachers. authority and it is wholeheartedly
accepted.

Q. 2. Discuss the relation between equality and liberty.

Ans. Liberty and Equality

Barker maintained that the principle of liberty was a basic principle of politics and that the
principle of equality was a subsidiary one. What he tried to establish was that equality should be
interpreted as the principle of equality of worth of each individual, that it should be applied in
order to allow the full development of the personality of the individual, not to bring about the
uniformity which would necessarily divert and defeat the spontaneous development of all the
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varieties of human personality. Alexis de Tocqueville in his 'Democracy in America' observed
that the principle of equality was the ruling principle of modern history. Equality encouraged the
individual's subservience to public opinion and the extension and the centralization of the state
power. This led to the 'tyranny of majority'. Primacy of public opinion demanded conformity to
generally held attitudes and standards; it led to believe that a dissenting position must be a wrong
one. Lord Acton similarly argued that liberty was endangered by the rival doctrine of equality
with its tendency to erode independent centers of power and to promote the authority of the state.
Thus, both of them are deeply concerned with the anti-thesis between liberty and equality. They
sought to resolve this dilemma through decentralization of power. Tocqueville saw free political
parties and free press as suitable instruments for safeguarding individual liberty. It is significant
that in legal and political sphere reconciliation between the principles of liberty and equality is
not at all difficult. But their relation in the socio-economic field is certainly more complicated.
Even legal and political equality may be rendered ineffective due to socio-economic inequality.

Very short Questions Answers

Q. 1. What is the difference between Authority and Power?

Ans. Power is defined as the ability or potential of an individual to influence others and control
their actions. Authority is the legal and formal right to give orders and commands, and take
decisions.
1. Power is a personal trait, i.e. an acquired ability, whereas authority is a formal right that
vest in the hands of high officials or management personnel.
2. The major source of power is knowledge and expertise. On the other hand, position and
office determine the authority of a person.
3. Power flows in any direction, i.e. it can be upward, downward, crosswise or diagonal,
lateral. As opposed to authority, that flows only in one direction, i.e. downward (from
superior to subordinate).
4. The power lies in person, in essence, a person acquires it, but authority lies in the
designation, i.e. whoever gets the designation, get the authority attached to it.
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 5. Authority is legitimate whereas the power is not.

Q. 2. What is meant by “Negative Freedom”?

Ans. Negative Freedom
Negative Freedom is therefore upheld primarily through checks and government power such a
codified constitution and bills of rights.
According to G.H. Cole – “The freedom is every individual’s to express without external
hindrance to his personality.”
According to D.D. Raphall-“Freedom means absence of restraints. A man is free so far as he is
not restrained from doing what he wants to do or what he would choose to do if he know that he
could.”
Examples of Negative Freedom include
Civil liberties, such as freedom of conscience, freedom of speech freedom of movement and
freedom of religious worship- it is also evident in freedom from (excessive) taxation.

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 UNIT- IV

Detailed Question Answers

Q. 1. Do you understand that there is ‘Democratic system in India’?

Give logic in Support of your answer.
Or
Q. What are the essential conditions for the successful working of a
Democratic Government? Are these conditions available in India?
Discuss.
Or
Q. What is Democracy? Explain the main characteristics of
Democracy?
OR
Q. Explain the term Democracy. What are the main features of the
Elitist and Pluralist Theories of Democracy?

Ans. Democracy
The word ‘democracy» is a term that comes from Greek and it is made up with two other words
demos= People and kratein= to govern, to rule.“Democracy” can then be literally translated by
the following terms: Government of the People or Government of the Majority. Democracy, as a
State form, is to be distinguished from monarchy, aristocracy and dictatorship. You may have
already heard about the most common definition of democracy: ‘the government of the people,
by the people and for the people’ (Abraham Lincoln)? To put it another way we can say that a
government comes from the people; it is exercised by the people, and for the purpose of the
people’s own interests. This description is only a very broad one, to start with, but the pages that
follow will explain to you in a more concise way the different facets of democracy.

Definitions
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According to Herodotus –Democracy is that form of government in which the supreme power of
the State is the hands of community as a whole.
According to Seeley – Democracy means a government in which everyone has a share.
According to Abraham Lincoln- Democracy is a government of the people, for the people and
by the people.
According to C.F. Strong- Democracy implies that government shall rest on active consent of
the governed.

The pillars of democracy

1. Sovereignty of the people.
2. Government based upon consent of the government.
3. Majority rule.
4. Minority rights.
5. Guarantee of basic human rights.
6. Free and fair elections.
7. Equality before the law.
8. Due process of law.
9. Constitutional limits on government.
10. Social, economic, and political pluralism.

Characteristic and Features of Democracy

1. Democracy is based on the principle of equality. It is partnership among equals.
2. What brain is to a man, a good leader is to the democracy. The quality of government depends
on the leader, who is honest, sincere, bold and enlightened.
3. A free, fearless and frank press is one of the attributes of democracy.
4. Constitutional government is an essential attribute of democracy.
5. Honest and efficient administration is essential for the success of democracy.
6. Governments are changed in accordance with the constitution and not through violent
methods.

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7. The removal of all disparities based on the caste, colour, religion, region, language, sex, etc. is
assured in a democracy.
8. The most important element in the presentation of democracy is the spirit of the people. The
people must want democracy.
9. For the success of democracy the habit of tolerance and compromise must be widespread.
10. Participation in democracy should be through adult franchise through which the government
is constituted and representatives are elected.

Democracies fall into two categories

1. Direct Democracy
In a direct democracy, all citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials, can
participate in making public decisions. Such a system is clearly only practical with relatively
small numbers of people in a community organization to tribal council, for example, or the local
unit of a labor union, where members can meet in a single room to discuss issues and arrive at
decisions by consensus or majority vote. Ancient Athens, the world’s first democracy, managed
to practice direct democracy with an assembly of as many as 5,000 to 6,000 persons. In
Switzerland direct democracy is followed even at the national level.
2. Indirect Democracy
Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely
chosen representatives. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government;
this shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections that shall be held by universal and equal
suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or the equivalent free voting procedures. India is the
best example of a representative democracy. Voting is one of the mechanisms that guides a
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democratic state and keeps its leaders on track, and it serves to let the leadership know how they
have performed. During elections, citizens vote for the candidate for their choice. Elected leaders
represent “the people” and govern for a set period of office. Representatives are chosen through
elections based on the constituency or proportional representation systems, or on a combination
of the two.
1. Constitutional Democracy
Democracies are based on a written constitution or a supreme law that serves to guide legislators
and the laws they make. Written constitutions serve as a guarantee to citizens that the
government is required to act in a certain way and uphold certain rights. The strength of a real
democracy depends on certain fundamental rights and freedoms.
These rights and freedoms must be protected to make sure that a democracy will succeed. In
many countries these rights are found in and protected by a constitution. The constitution also
sets out the structures and other laws. It is normally protected from amendment by the whim of a
particular government by having a special majority required before any clause can be changed or
through submitting any changes to voters through a referendum.
1. Perquisites of Democracy
With an upsurge in the number of democracies holding free and fair elections and declaring
them democratic states, some theorists have developed a set of minimum requirements. Election
son their own do not make a country democratic. The following list of minimum requirements
has been extracted by a study of democracies and by reading various theories of democracy. It
provides both a good overview of what democracy means and a standard against which to test
whether or not a country is democratic.
1. Control over government decisions about policy constitutionally vested in elected
representatives.
2. Elected representatives chosen in frequent and fair elections.
3. Elected representatives exercise their constitutional powers.
4. All adults have the right to vote in elections.
5. All adults have the right to run for public office.

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6. Citizens have the right to express themselves on political matters, defined broadly, without the
risk of state punishment.
7. Citizens have the right to seek out alternative sources of information, such as the news media,
and such sources are protected by law.
8. Citizens have the right to form independent associations and organizations, including
independent political parties and interest groups.

Merits of Democracy
1. The participation of the individual members in the government facilitates to enlist their
sympathy and co – operation to the success of the government.
2. It is an effective form to educate the public about political, economic and social affairs.
3. It is helpful to promote patriotism among the people and prevents occurrence of violent
revolutions.
4. It helps to make progress and development and enables changes to take place in a peaceful
manner.
5. It ensures to the people freedom of speech, conscience, assembly and action.
6. It guarantees liberty and equality, which are necessary for human development.

Demerits of Democracy
1. It sometimes leads to establish the majority view over the minority view.
2. Party leaders and political office holders in government control the citizens and the members
of the party.
3. It does not encourage individuals to give their opinions.
4. It is a very expensive form of government because elections have to be conducted periodically
to various offices.
5. It is difficult to prevent corruption and malpractices.
6. It is also known as government by amateurs and lead to domination of masses.

Theories of Democracy
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The Elitist Theory
This theory was originally developed in sociology. This theory holds that every society consists
of two categories of men-
1. The elite or the minority within a social collectivity which exercises a preponderant influence
within that collectivity.
2. The masses or the majority which are subjected to the influence of the elite. Vilferado Pareto
(The Mind and Society) and Gaeta no Mosca (The Ruling Class) pointed out that there may exist
in every society a minority of population which takes the major decisions in society. The
dominant minority mayor may not hold political offices but its decisions are of much major
scope and affect all aspects of the society. Mosca considered the capacity of organizations as the
outstanding quality of the elites and Pareto regarded intelligence and talent as their main asset.

The Pluralist Theory

The gist of pluralist theory may be given as follows: The policy making process however
centralized it may appear in form is in reality a highly decentralized process of bargaining among
relatively autonomous groups. It is an outcome of the interactions of all groups who make claims
upon or express interests in the particular issue. The extent to which different groups will get
their way is a function of the strength of the groups and the intensity of their participation. Policy
making is actually done neither by the representatives of a coherent majority nor by an
unresponsive elite but a product of interactions among the groups. The pluralist theory is more
optimist than elitist theory because they repudiate the authoritarian basis of policy making in a
democracy. But in any case these theories arrive at conclusions which are far removed from the
essence of the democracy.

Marxist and Radical Theory of Democracy

According to the Marxists, real democracy can't be achieved unless the economic system itself
is transformed to serve the interests of the people. Thus liberal democracy in Marxist view is
incapable of averting class exploitation. The proletarian society is more democratic than the
bourgeoisie state. As Henri Lefebvre in his "Sociology of Marx" has elucidated "The dictatorship
78
of the proletariat means concrete democracy i.e. the power of majority over minority."
Dictatorship of the proletariat is required to exist so long as classes exist. But it will function in
such a way that all men will be converted into workers thereby abolishing the divisions in a
society into antagonistic classes. Both Marxists and elitists agree that so long as society is
divided into 'ruling' and 'ruled' classes, real political equality can’t be secured through a
democratic form of govt. However, they differ regarding the nature of the social division and the
scope of social change.

Q. 2. Explain the Parliamentary form of Government.

Ans. Parliamentary form of Government
Is the system of government in which there exists an intimate and harmonious relationship
between the executive and the legislative departments, and the stability and efficacy of the
executive department depend on the legislature? Although the parliamentary government is
broadly defined in the above way, in such a system the supremacy of the legislature has now
been replaced by the supremacy of the Cabinet. Hence, such form of government is also called
Cabinet Government. In a Parliamentary form of government, the head of the state is usually a
different person than the head of the government. A Monarch or a President is usually the head
of the state. However, he or she is the head of state, but not the head of government. The
functions of the head of the state are chiefly formal or ceremonial. The council of ministers or
the cabinet exercises the real executive powers and authority to run the Government. In many
countries, the Prime Minister is the head of the council of ministers. The Parliamentary or the
Cabinet system originated in England. This form of government exists in countries like Britain,
India and Canada. This Parliamentary form of government is also called Responsible
government.
Features
The features of Parliamentary form of Government has been discussed below-
1. Existence of a Titular or Constitutional Ruler
The first characteristic feature of the parliamentary system is the existence of a Titular of
Constitutional Ruler. Legally the administration of all the affairs of the state is conducted by the
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head of the state. In reality, however, the administration is carried by the Council of Ministers.
The Monarch or the President, as the case may be, is the head of the state, but not the head of the
government.
2. Absence of Separation of Powers
In the parliamentary system the principle of separation of powers is not adopted. Here the three
departments of government work in close, intimate contact, sharing some of the powers and
functions of one another.
Main Role of the Lower House in Ministry-formation
In the parliamentary government the lower house of the legislature, i.e., the popular chamber
plays a vital role in the formation of the ministry. The leader of the party or alliance which wins
the majority in this house is appointed the Prime Minister or Chancellor. The constitutional ruler
appoints the other members of the ministry on his advice.
1. Responsibility to the Legislature
In such a system the Cabinet or Ministry has to remain responsible to the legislature for all its
activities and policies. In countries having bi-cameral legislatures, the Cabinet remains
responsible to the lower house composed of the people’s representatives.
2. Collective Responsibility
The ministerial responsibility to the legislature may again be of two kinds:
1. Individual responsibility, 2. Collective responsibility.
Individual responsibility means that the minister in charge of a department must be answerable
for the activities of his department. But when the ministers remain jointly or collectively
responsible to the legislature for the policies and activities of the government, it is called
‘collective responsibility’. Since no individual minister can unilaterally perform any business of
government without the consent of the Cabinet, the entire Ministry or Cabinet has to remain
accountable for the errors of the minister concerned.
1. Intimate relationship between the Legislature and the Executive
In the parliamentary system an intimate relationship exists between the executive and the
legislative departments. So they can easily control each other. The leaders of the majority party
or alliance in the legislature become the members of the Cabinet or Ministry. Naturally, the
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ministers can easily extend their influence on the legislature. Consequently, the programs and
policies of the Cabinet are backed by a majority inside the legislature.
2. Leadership of the Prime Minister
The leadership of the Prime Minister is another major feature of the parliamentary system. The
leader of the majority party in the legislature becomes the Prime Minister.
Though, in theory, he is ‘primus inter pares’, i.e. ‘first among equals’, in reality, he possesses
much greater power and status than the other ministers. As the undisputed leader of the majority
party or alliance in the legislature he plays the most vital role in the determination and execution
of government policies. Indeed, the success of parliamentary democracy depends, to a great
extent, on the personality, efficiency and charisma of the Prime Minister.
3. Existence of a Strong Opposition
The existence of one or more strong and well-organized opposition party or parties is the
hall-mark of the parliamentary system. By criticizing the errors of the government, the
opposition can compel it to adopt welfare measures and prevent it from becoming despotic.
Judged from this angle, the opposition can be called the life-force of parliamentary democracy.
2. Political Homogeneity
Usually members of the council of ministers belong to the same political party, and hence they
share the same political ideology. In case of coalition government, the ministers are bound by the
consensus.
2. Secrecy
The ministers operate on the principle of secrecy of procedure and cannot divulge information
about their proceedings, policies and decisions. They take the oath of secrecy before entering
their office. The oath of secrecy to the ministers is administered by the President.

Merits of the Parliamentary Government

1. Harmony between Legislature and Executive
Parliamentary system ensures harmonious relationship and cooperation between the legislative
and executive organs of the government. The executive is a part of the legislature and both are

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interdependent at work. As a result, there is less scope for disputes and conflicts between the two
organs.
2. Responsible Government
The ministers are responsible to the Parliament for all their acts of omission and commission.
The Parliament exercises control over the ministers through various devices like question hour,
discussions, adjournment motion, no confidence motion etc.
3. Prevents Despotism
Under this system, the executive authority is vested in a group of individuals (council of
ministers) and not in a single person. This dispersal of authority checks the dictatorial tendencies
of the executive. Moreover, the executive is responsible to the Parliament and can be removed by
a no-confidence motion.
4. Ready Alternative Government
In case the ruling party loses its majority, the Head of the State can invite the opposition party to
form the government. This means an alternative government can be formed without fresh
elections. Hence, Dr. Jennings says, ‘the leader of the opposition is the alternative prime
minister’.
5. Wide Representation
In a parliamentary system, the executive consists of a group of individuals (ministers). Hence, it
is possible to provide representation to all sections and regions in the government. The prime
minister while selecting his ministers can take this factor into consideration.

Demerits of the Parliamentary Government

1. Unstable Government
The parliamentary system does not provide a stable government. There is no guarantee that a
government can survive its tenure. The ministers depend on the mercy of the majority legislators
for their continuity and survival in office. A no-confidence motion or political defection or evils
of multiparty coalition can make the government unstable. The Government headed by Morarji

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Desai, Charan Singh, V P Singh, Chandra Sekhar, Deva Gowda and I K Gujral are some such
examples.
2. No Continuity of Policies
This is due to the uncertainty of the tenure of the government. A change in the ruling party is
usually followed by changes in the policies of the government.
Dictatorship of the Cabinet- When the ruling party enjoys absolute majority in the Parliament,
the cabinet becomes autocratic and exercises nearly unlimited powers.
3. against Separation of Powers
In the parliamentary system, the legislature and the executive are together and inseparable. The
cabinet acts as the leader of legislature as well as the executive. As Bagehot points out, ‘the
cabinet is a hyphen that joins the buckle that binds the executive and legislative departments
together’. Hence, the whole system of government goes against the letter and spirit of the theory
of separation of powers.
4. Government by Amateurs
The parliamentary system is not conductive to administrative efficiency as the ministers are not
experts in their fields. The Prime Minister has a limited choice in the selection of ministers. His
choice is restricted to the members of Parliament alone and does not extend to external talent.

Q. 3. What do you understand by Presidential Form of Government? State the

characteristics, merits and demerits of the Presidential Form of Government.

Ans. Presidential From of Government

It is that govt. in which there is one president, who is the chief executive head. He exercises all
the executive powers himself. He runs the administration with the help of secretaries who are
responsible to him alone. There is separation of powers between the legislatures and the
executive. According to Dr. Garner, “Presidential Government is that system in which the
executive (including both the Head of the State and his ministers) is constitutionally independent
of the legislature in respect to the duration of his or their tenure and irresponsible to it for his or

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their political policies. In such a system the chief of the state is not merely the titular executive
but he is real executive and actually exercises the powers which the constitution and laws confer
upon him.”

Features of Presidential Government

(1) Executive is not the member of the legislature.
(2) Executive is not responsible to the legislature.
(3) No collective responsibility.
(4) Fixed tenure of the executive.
(5) Based on the theory of separation of powers.
(6) One executive head.
(7) President is the boss of his cabinet.
(8) Political homogeneity is not essential.

Merits
1. More Democratic
Because of the twin principles of separation of powers and check and balance, there is no
concentration of powers in the same man or in the same body. As a result, there is more of
democracy in this system.
2. Stability and Continuity
As both the President and the legislature enjoy fixed terms of office, there is political stability.
There is continuity of policy. Further, the government can think of long-term policies.
3. People's President
In the USA, the President is directly elected by people. He has thus reason to think that he enjoys
more of people's confidence and support than the Prime Minister in the Parliamentary system.
4. More Efficient
The President is free to choose his ministers. (Or secretaries as they are called in America.)The
Senate, the Upper House of American Congress, may or may not ratify such appointments, but it

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cannot impose its choice on the President. The President has thus the freedom to appoint very
competent persons as his Ministers or Secretaries on the basis of their experience and expertise.
They are accountable only to the President and not to the Congress. As a result, they have time to
concentrate on their work and to do their duty efficiently.
5. Prompt and Bold Decisions
The President, being all powerful, is in a position to take bold and prompt decisions. His
ministers, being subordinate to him, cannot tie hands. They may advise him, but they have to
implement his decisions.
6. Best suited to Deal with Emergencies
This system is more effective in tackling emergencies as there is unity of control and
concentration of executive powers in person (President). He can react quickly to any national
crisis by taking prompt decisions. There is hardly any need for him to convince others on the
spot that the decision he going to take is good for the nation.
7. More Suitable for Multi-Party System
The multiparty system is prone to political instability. Political parties with different interests
pull the political system in diff directions. In order to check this, there is the need of a strong
executive and the President government is best suited to establish stability in a multiparty
system.
8. Symbol of National Unity and Integrity
The Presidential executive is of help in forging unity in the nation consisting of diverse regions,
communities and cult as he is directly elected by people, they look upon him as the symbol of
their unity.

Demerits
1. Dictatorial
The Presidential executive is likely to be authoritarian. As all executive powers are concentrated
in the hands of the President and as he is not accountable to legislature, he may be tempted to
abuse powers and behave in a dictatorial manner.

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2. Conflict and Deadlock
As the President and his ministers are not members of legislature, they find it difficult to
persuade the members of the latter to accept' proposals. The legislature is inclined to find fault
with the President, and vice versa. •conflict between the executive and the legislature leads to
deadlock in the administration.
4. Absence of Accountability
The executive is not accountable to the legislature. Nor is it accountable to people. The people of
America directly elect their President, they cannot recall him even if they find him incompetent
or dishonest or useless. President can be removed from office by the legislature through
impeachment. Impeachment is a very difficult process.
4. Rigidity
The Presidential system is too rigid to adapt itself to sudden changes in circumstances. To
manage a crisis, the ministers including the Prime Minister in Parliamentary system can be
replaced but however great the need, the President in a Presidential system cannot be replaced
during his tenure.
5. Weak Foreign Policy
In the field of foreign policy, the President of the US has handicaps. He has no power to declare
a war even when his country is attacked by enemy. This power belongs to the US Congress.
Similarly, the treaty that he may conclude with another country is not valid if it is not ratified by
the Senate.

Q. 4. What do you understand by the Federal Form of Government? Explain its

characteristics, merits and demerits.
Ans. Federal Government
A federal govt. is a system of govt. in which powers are divided and distributed between the
central governments and governments of political divisions both sets of government.
Exercise powers granted to them by the constitution and are within a sphere, coordinate and
independent. It means equality of status between the two sets of govt. It reconciles national unity

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with state autonomy. The term "Federation" has been derived from the Latin word "Foedus"
which means agreement or treaty. It means a treaty between the small states which form a new
state. The federal system operates in India, USA, and Canada etc.

Definitions
According to Dicey -"A federal state is nothing but a political contrivance intended to reconcile
national unity with maintenance of state rights."
According to Montesquieu - "Federal govt. is a convention by which several similar states agree
to become members of a larger one."
Factors helping the formation of a Federation
1. Geographical contiguity
2. Desire for the formation of a union for certain other purposes.
3. Absence of marked inequality among the federating units.
4. Similarity of political and economic institutions.
5. Adequate economic resources.
6. Political education.
7. National feelings

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF FEDERATION

Supremacy of Constitution Division of Powers

Written Constitution Rigid Constitution Bicameral Legislature
Supremacy and Independence of the Judiciary

1. Written Constitution

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The most important feature of a federation is that it should have a written constitution, so that
both the Union Government as well as the State can refer to that whenever conflict arises. The
Constitution of India is a written and most elaborate Constitution of the world.
2. Supremacy of Constitution
The constitution is the supreme because both the union and the states are given powers by the
Constitution as to be independent in their spheres of governance both make laws conforming to
the provisions of constitution otherwise they can be declared invalid by the supreme court
through its power of judicial review.
3. Rigid Constitution
The procedure of amending the Constitution in a federal system is normally rigid.
Indian Constitution provides that provisions regarding the federal attributes can be amended by a
special majority,i.e. such an amendment has to be passed by majority of total members of each
house of the Parliament as well as, by two-thirds majority of the members present and voting
there. Also, in addition to this process, such amendments must be approved by at least 50% of
the states. After this procedure the amendment is signed by the President.
4. Division of Powers
In our Constitution, there is a clear division of powers so that none violates its limits and tries to
encroach upon the functions of the other and functions within own sphere of responsibilities.
There are three lists enumerated in the Seventh Schedule of constitution, – the Union list, the
State list and the Concurrent List. The Union List consists of 100 subjects of national importance
such as Defiance, Railways, Post and Telegraph, etc. The State List consists of 61 subjects of
local interest such as Public Health, Police etc. The Concurrent List has 52 subjects important to
both the Union and the State. Such as Electricity, Trade Union, Economic and Social Planning,
etc.
5. Supremacy and Independence of the Judiciary
A very important feature of a federation is an independent judiciary to interpret the Constitution
and to maintain its sanctity. The Supreme Court of India has the original jurisdiction to settle
disputes between the Union and the States. It can declare a law as unconstitutional, if it
contravenes any provision of the Constitution.
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 6. Bicameral Legislature
A bicameral system is considered essential in a federation because it is in the Upper House alone
that the units can be given equal representation. The Constitution of India also provides for a
bicameral Legislature at the Centre consisting of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
6. Independent Judiciary
In India, the Constitution has provided for a Supreme Court and every effort has been made to
see that the judiciary in India is independent and supreme. The Supreme Court of India can
declare a law as unconstitutional or ultra Verse, if it contravenes any provisions of the
Constitution. In order to ensure the impartiality of the judiciary, our judges are not removable by
the Executive and their salaries cannot be curtailed by Parliament.

Short Question Answers

Q. 1. What are the main points of difference between the Presidential Form of
Government and the Parliamentary Form of Government?

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Ans. Difference between the Presidential Form of Government and the
Parliamentary Form of Government
Parliamentary Form of Government Presidential Form of Government
1. Under the Parliamentary system, 1. Under the Presidential system there is only
there exists two heads of one executive head, i.e., the President.
executive-nominal i.e., President in
India; king in the U.K. and real Prime
Minister. 2. It works on the principle of separation of
2. It works on the principle of fusion of powers. The three organs of the government
legislative and executive powers. stand independent of each other. The
The Prime Minister and other President and his cabinet secretaries cannot
be members of the legislature nor are they
ministers are members of the
responsible to it.
legislature and are individually as
well as collective responsible to it. 3. In this system the Chief executive is
3. In this system Cabinet is dependent independent of the legislature. He cannot be
on the legislature and the latter can ousted by a vote of no-confidence b
throw it out by a vote of legislature.
no-confidence.
4. The tenure of office of the executive 4. The tenure of office is almost all fixed.
is not guaranteed.
5. The ministers enjoy equal status 5. The secretaries are subordinate to the
with the Prime Minister. president for their powers and function.

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6. The executive is responsible for its acts to 6. The executive is not responsible to the
the Legislature. Legislature for its acts.

7. The Ministers belong to a single political 7. The Ministers or Secretaries need not belong
party. to one party or may belong to any party.

8. Minister from a part of the Legislature. 8. Secretaries or ministers do not from a part of
They enjoy dual membership in both the Legislature.
Legislature and executive.
9. Cabinet is powerless. It is called “Kitchen
9. Cabinet is a real and powerful body. Cabinet.”

10. The President or head of the state can 10. The President or head of the state has no
dissolve the Legislature on the advice of the such powers of dissolution of Legislature.
Prime Minister.
11. Political Parties exercise less and in
11. Political parties play a significant role in significant role under the Presidential system.
the parliamentary system.
12. Decisions can be taken quickly.
12. Quick decisions are not possible in this
system.
13. The Legislature lacks the guidance of the
13. The Legislature has the guidance of the
executive. executive.

14. It is suitable for large states having 14. It is suitable generally to small and
heterogeneous population. moderate Population State.

15. It is not suitable during emergencies. 15. It is suitable during emergencies also.

Q. 2. Discuss the merits and demerits of dictatorship.

Ans. Meaning and Definition
Dictatorship is the government of one man who has not obtained his position by inheritance but
by force or consent a combination of both. Absolute sovereignty vested in him political power
ultimately emanates from his will and is unlimited in scope. It exercised in an arbitrary manner
by decree rather than by law.

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According to Ford – “Dictatorship is the assumption of extra- legal authority by the head of the
state.”
Dictatorship may be defined as a form of government in which the supreme power is exercised
by one man in an autocratic manner. All the power is concentrated in his hands. He exercises
them I an arbitrary manner by decree rather than by law. Such a government can even be
controlled by political party. It is based on the use of force, with unlimited power at the
command of the dictator.
Merits
Establishment of a strong Government
In Dictatorship the weakness of the government is ended and a powerful government is
established at the Centre. The tendencies of decentralization are ended and complete unity is
established. The conflicts of caste, colour, creed, religion and provincialism are ended and a
strong nation emerges, which is honored in foreign countries also.
Stable and efficient Government
The Dictator has not to fight periodical elections. He remains in power for a long time with the
help of his party and military, with the result that the government becomes stable. The Dictator
exercises unlimited powers of the government and he appoints able persons to-high posts and
abolishes red-tapism and nepotism from the administration.
Economic Prosperity
Dictators try to improve the economic condition of the country. For doing so they lay stress on
increasing the production and stopping the strikes in the industries. In Communist countries, the
workers are not allowed to go on strike.
Social Reforms
Dictators bring about social reforms in order to make the country strong and they eradicate social
evils through laws and propaganda. Mustafa Kamal Pasha brought about basic changes in the
social structure of Turkey. Before his coming to power, Turkey was called the sick-man of
Europe. But he made her healthy and strong with tireless efforts.
5. Facing the crisis boldly

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The Dictators face the economic and political crisis firmly because all powers are concentrated in
them. They seek advice from some able persons, take decisions without any delay and keep their
decisions secret. Any leakage of secrets can prove dangerous.

Demerits
Curtailment of the rights and liberties of the people
The main defect of Dictatorship is that liberty and rights are curtailed in it. Dictators cannot
tolerate any opposition and impose restrictions on the press, political parties and adverse
propaganda.
Establishment of Absolute Government
In Dictatorship, an absolute government is established. People are deprived of taking part in the
administration, with the result that they do not take any interest in the government. In such type
of administration the question of training in local self-government does not arise.
Dictators lead the country to war
Dictators believe in victory, war and violence, with the result that the country is engulfed in war.
This brings ruin to the country. The policies of German dictator Hitler and Mussolini of Italy
were responsible for the World War II, in which they were defeated and many other countries
were destroyed.
Dictators do not leave behind capable successors
In a dictatorship, none but the dictator is allowed to show his ability, with the result that after the
death of the dictator the problem of finding out a capable successor becomes acute. In case of
non-availability of a capable successor, the country suffers a great loss.
No importance of individual
No importance is attached to an individual in Dictatorship. Individual is a means and the state is
an end in a Dictatorship; which retards the development of individual. Individual does not enjoy
many rights and adequate liberty for the development of his personality and he is always forced
to act according to the directives of the state.

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Very Short Questions Answers

Q. 1. What is the merit and demerit of Unitary Government?

Ans. Unitary Government
Meaning
It is that form of govt. in which all the powers are conferred upon the Central govt. by the
constitution. There is no constitutional division of powers under such a govt. It has been set up
in many countries like England, France, Denmark, Belgium, Holland, Spain, Norway,Sweden,
Italy etc.
1. According to Finer –“The unitary state is one in which all authority and powers are lodged in
a single centre, whose will and agents are legally omnipotent over the whole area.”
2. According to C.F. Strong –“A unitary state is one in organized under single central
government.”
4.According to Dicey –“Unitary government is the habitual exercise of supreme legislative
authority by one central power.”
Merits
1. Single citizenship.
2. Efficient administration.
3. Strong government.
4. Administrative uniformity.
5. Less expensive.
6. Most suited to the small countries.
7. More flexible.
8. Follow a vigorous home and foreign policy.
9. Prompt decisions.
Demerits
(l) More influence of govt. officials.
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(2) Not suitable for the big states.
(3) Apprehensions of the central govt. becoming despotic.
(4) The central govt. becomes overburdened with work.
(5) Lack of local autonomy.
(6) The people do not get much political education.

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 UNIT- Vth

Detailed Questions Answers

Q. 1. What do you mean by ‘Separation of Powers’? Critically

examine Montesque’s theory of ‘Separation of Powers’.
Or
Q. 1. Explain the Theory of Separation of Powers. What are its merits
and demerits?

Ans. Separation of Powers

Govt. is the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and realized. The
theory of separation of powers belongs to the functional aspect. It desires that the govt. should
have three organs - Executive, Legislature and Judiciary-and that the powers of all of them
should be separated from each other. The theory further stresses that the powers of each
department should be separated from the other if the liberty of the people is to be saved from the
crushing authority of the state. The functions of the govt. should be differentiated and performed
by distinct organs consisting of different bodies of persons so that each department is limited to
its respective sphere of activities and not be able to encroach upon the independence and
jurisdiction of other. The whole idea is based on the maxim that power should be a check to
power.
Thus, the constitution should be so designed that no organ of the govt. be made to do things to
which it is not obliged or empowered. Furthermore, the persons who compose these three
agencies of govt. must be kept separate and distinct, no individual being allowed to be at the
same time a member of more than one branch. In this way, each of the branches will be a check
to other and no single group of people will be able to control the machinery of the state.
Though keeping in his mind the special case of the American constitution, Prof. E.S. Corwin
sum up the following propositions of the doctrine of separation of powers:

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(1) There are three distinct functions of the govt. - the legislature, executive and judicial.
(2) These distinct functions ought to be exercised respectively by 3 separately manned
departments of govt. which
(3) Should be constitutionally equal and mutually independent and
(4) The legislature may not delegate its powers.

MONTESQUIEU'S THEORY OF SEPARATION OF POWERS

The best exposition of this theory is however, contained in the work of Montesquieu. He said
"When: the legislature and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body
of magistrates, there can be no liberty, because apprehension may arise, lest the same monarch
or senate should enact tyrannical laws and execute them in a tyrannical manner. Again there is
no liberty if the judiciary power be not separate from the legislature and the executive. Were it
joined to the executive powers, the judge might behave with violence and oppression. There
would be an end to everything, were the same man or same body ... to exercise those three
powers that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions and of trying the cases of
the individuals." Montesquieu thus, becomes the intellectual father of the American constitution
makers who vested executive powers in the president, legislative powers in the Congress and
judicial powers in the Supreme Court. The separation of powers thus constitutes the hallmark of
the American constitutional system. The fundamental contribution of the American founding
fathers should be seen in their design of checks and balances that they invented to make the
system workable. It is due to this that the 3 organs of the American govt., though separated, is
connected with each other by the system of checks and balances. Though executive authority is
vested in the President, it is required that all appointments made and foreign treaties concluded
by him be confirmed by the Senate. In case the president is found guilty of misbehavior or
violation of the constitution, he can be removed by the process of impeachment. The House of
Representatives shall prepare charge sheet against the president and the senate shall decide by
two-third votes. Executive orders given by the president are subject to the powers of judicial
review. The President takes the oath of his office in the presence of the chief Justice. In this way
the President is under the check of the senate and Supreme Court.

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The congress is also under the check of the president and Supreme Court. All bills passed by the
congress are subject to the presidential veto. The Supreme Court may declare a law in part or
full as null and void in case it is found to be against the constitution. Finally, the Supreme Court
is under the checks of the president and the congress. The judges are appointed by the president
and senate confirms their nomination. The Chief Justice takes the oath of his office in the
presence of the president. The congress may pass a bill to increase the strength of or confer more
Jurisdictions on the court. In case of proved misbehavior, incapacity or violation of the
constitution, a judge may be removed by the process of impeachment. The welfare state assumes
concentration of power on the executive level and consequently supremacy of the executive over
the legislative branch. Of course it becomes alarming unless controlling and balancing devices
are properly developed to keep pace with the ever changing face of the executive power.

Merits
The merits of the theory of separation of powers are stated below.
1. Protection of Liberty and Rights
The theory of separation of powers protection to the liberty and rights of the individual and
protects him from different of despotism and oppression.
2. Increase in Government’s Efficiency
As powers are distributed among the government departments, these departments gain deep
knowledge of the matters they with, and become more efficient.
3. Limited Government
As powers are distributed among different depart these departments enjoy only limited powers.
This prevents rise of dictatorship.
4. Prevents Abuse of Power
Separation of powers accompanied by check and balance is an effective check against abuse of
power and arrogance of power.

Demerits

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This theory, though adopted by most countries, has not escaped criticism. It has criticized not
only as impossible but also as undesirable. According to Sabine, “Montes was guilty of
oversimplification. He united his theory to a hasty and superficial analysis the constitutional
principles of liberty.”
1. Wrong Reading of British System
By the time Montesquieu developed his theory of separation of powers, there had come into
being the Cabinet system of govern” There was not in Britain then separation of powers. On the
contrary, there was ‘concentration of responsibility.’ Having witnessed the British people
enjoying liberty, Montesquieu wrongly concluded that in Britain there was separation of powers.
He misread British politics.
2. Not Fully Possible
This theory is not fully possible. The executive has some role in rule-making, and the legislature
also performs some judicial functions. For example, impeachment which is judicial in nature is
done by the legislature.
3. Administrative Complications
Separation of powers results in administrative complications. It becomes difficult to forge
cooperation, coordination and harmony among the organs of government. The smooth working
of modem governments demands not so much separation of powers as ‘co-ordination’ of
powers.
4. Confusion and Deadlock
Separation of powers leads to jealousy, suspicion and friction among the organs of government.
While producing disharmony and confusion, it may paralyse the administration. As a result, the
administration often fails to take quick decisions even at a time of crisis.
According to Finer, the theory of separation of powers throws “governments into alternating
conditions of coma and convulsion.” Another scholar is of the view that “separation of powers
means confusion of powers.”
5. Inequality of Powers

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This theory is based on the principle of equality of powers, but this principle is flawed. In the
parliamentary system, the legislature which represents the people is most powerful while the
executive is most powerful in the presidential system.
6. Not the Sole Factor of Liberty
Separation of powers may contribute to liberty, but it is not the only factor of liberty. Liberty
also depends a lot on the psyche of people, their outlook, their political awareness, customs and
traditions, fundamental rights, rule of law, independence of judiciary and economic equality.
7. Balance Disturbed
The government, performing various important functions, has become increasingly powerful.
Besides being the problem-solver and crisis-manager, it is also required to provide welfare to
people. All this has made the executive very powerful, and disturbed the balance among the
three organs of government. Planning, security and welfare demand not so much separation of
powers as their ‘fusion’.
8. A Misnomer
This theory is a misnomer, because what it means is separation of function, not separation of
power.

Criticism
i) Complete separation of powers is neither possible nor desirable.
ii) Separation of powers is likely to lead to inefficiency in administration.
iii) The theory is based on the supposition that all the three organs of the government are
equality important, but in reality it is not so.
iv) Liberty of the people largely depends more on factors like their psyche, political culture,
consciousness, and institutions than separation of powers However, separation of power is useful
if used judiciously to bring about a balance between the vigorous action of the welfare state and
the enjoyment of the liberty of the people.

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Q.2. What do you understand by the term Legislature? Explain the types and
functions of the Executive?
Ans. Legislature
In a parliamentary form of govt. the executive is subordinate to the legislature. The will of the
legislature is supreme in almost every sphere of state activity. Such a system prevails in England
and France. A balancing of authority between executive and the legislature may also exist. The
most important functions of the legislature relates to-
Functions of the Legislature
The Legislature discharges various functions in the political system:-
1. Making of the Laws
The primary function of the legislature is legislation. According to the doctrine of the separation
of powers the chief function of the legislative body is to enact laws. The legislature not only
enacts new law, it also abolishes old and vexatious laws.
2. Control of Finance
The financial functions of the legislature are very important. The legislature controls the finance
of the country. It discusses and determines the government’s revenues and expenditures; it lays
down the principles of taxation; it authorizes the imposition of taxes and the modes of raising
them. In other words, it passes budget and financial bills.
3. Public Appointments in High Places
Sometimes the legislature performs certain executive functions as well. For example, in the
U.S.A, the President appoints highly placed government officials it the approval of the Senate,
the Upper House of the legislature. In certain states judges of the higher courts are appointed by
the legislature.
4. Control over the Ministry
In the cabinet form of government the ministers are individually and collectively responsible
and accountable to the legislature. The legislature controls the council of ministers by
discussion, debates and deliberations, and, if necessary, can even force the cabinet to resign by
passing a motion of no-confidence against it.
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5. Election of the Head of State
In some countries the Head of State is elected by the legislature. In India, for example, the
President is elected by the elected members of both the Houses of Parliament and the elected
members of all state legislatures. The vice-President of India is also elected by the members of
both the Houses of Parliament. The Indian Parliament also reserves the right of removing the
President and the vice-President from their offices.
6. Judicial Functions
The legislature performs certain judicial functions also. The British House of Lords acts as the
highest court of appeal with regard to certain cases and the American Senate has the right, like
that of the Indian Parliament, to impeach the highest executive, the President.
7. Amendment of the Constitution
The legislature of certain countries enjoys the exclusive right of amending the constitution.
Parliament of the Indian Union can amend the Indian constitution. Parliament of Switzerland is
the supreme and final interpreter of the federal constitution.
8. Committee and Commission
Legislature forms different committees and commissions on different burning political, social
and economic issues from time to time. The legislature also considers different reports submitted
by various commissions and committees formed under the constitution.

Q. 3. What do you understand by the term Executive? Explain the types and
functions of the Executive?
Ans. Executive
In common parlance, govt. is equated with its executive branch. That organ of the govt. which
executes laws passed by the legislature is known as executive. The term executive is used in two
senses. In the broader sense of the term it stands for the entire staff of the officials which are
concerned with the administration of the public affairs. In the narrower sense it signifies only the
real executive. The executive is prior to other organs of the govt. The govt. in its earlier stage
was purely an executive branch. With the advent of the constitution or democratic politics, the

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judiciary and the legislature arose to provide executive with necessary limits. These institutions
denuded it of some portion of its authority and what remained still made the executive quite
strong. Executive in the contemporary world of politics occupies a pivotal position.
Policy-making is the sole responsibility of the political executive. The political executive is the
small group of persons who presides over the various departments of the govt. They are the
architects of the policies which guide the operation of the governmental machinery.

Different kinds of executives

1. Real and Nominal Executives
In a parliamentary form of government, a definite distinction is made between the nominal and
real executive. The chief executive or of the state may be hereditary monarch as the British King
or Queen, or an elected President as in India, but he exercises only nominal powers. Legally he
possesses all powers the constitution, but in practice he exercises none of them. His position is
titular. He serves as an emblem of national unity. He may at the most use his influence. The real
executive power is enjoyed by the cabinet or the Council of Ministers. The real executive and
titular executive are combined in a single office of the President in a presidential form
government, as in the U. S. A.
2. Single and Plural
Single executive is that in which executive authority is vested in one person. The President of
the USA provides the best example of this type. Council of Ministers or Cabinet in a
parliamentary form of government falls under this category as it works like a team under the
leadership of the Prime Minister. Where the executive authority is vested in a group of persons
who share such authority it is known as plural or collective executive. The Federal Council of
Switzerland consisting of seven members provides the best example of such executive. Almost
all states have single executive except a few. Single and plural executives have their respective
merits and demerits. Single executive is prompt, vigorous and more powerful as authority is not
divided. It works untidily with singleness of purpose. It ensures complete secrecy. However, it
may lead to abuse of power and corruption. The merits of plural executive are: It is a check upon
the abuse of power and it thwarts the possibility of dictatorship. It may bring to the state a higher

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degree of ability. Its demerits are: It lacks promptness of decision and singleness of purpose. It is
weak due to division of responsibility.
1. Hereditary, Elected and Nominated
The executive is hereditary when its power is vested in a person according to hereditary
principle. This type of executive is found in United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
Belgium, Holland, Japan and Nepal. The executive is called elective when the head of the state
is elected directly or indirectly. The chief executives of South American Republics like Bolivia,
Chile, Mexico, Brazil and Peru are elected directly by the people. The President of the USA and
that of India are elected by electoral colleges. In some cantons of Switzerland the executive is
elected by the legislature. Certain executives are nominated. The Viceroys and Governor
Generals in British India were nominated by the British government.
1. Political and Permanent Executives
The executive offices to which politicians are elected or appointed constitute the political
executive. The chief executive and the ministers from this executive the civil servants of all
types, who are appointed through recruitment, are known as nonpolitical, permanent or 'career'
executive. They continue in office usually till retirement. They remain politically neutral and
possess expert knowledge in administration. They advise and assist the political executive. The
political executive formulates policy, while the bureaucracy administers policies.
5. Parliamentary and Non-Parliamentary
Executive can be classified into parliamentary and non-parliamentary on the basis of the
relation between the real executive and the legislature. In a parliamentary executive, the
members of the executive are the members of the legislature. The executive is responsible to the
legislature for its acts. It remains in office so long as it commands the confidence of the
legislature. The parliamentary executive is also known as the cabinet or responsible executive.
U. K, India, Australia, Canada provide examples of parliamentary executive.
Functions of the Executive
The functions of the executive are not the .same everywhere. The functions of the executive
depend on the form of the government. In dictatorship, the functions of the executive are
different from those in democracy.
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 Functions

Legislative Diplomatic Military

Financial Constitutional Judicial Military

Administrative Public Utility

1. Administrative
In every country the Head of the State and the Council of Ministers are responsible for the
maintenance of law and order and for the running of the administration. The Head of the State,
on the recommendation of the Council of Ministers, makes many important political
appointments. The administrators are generally recruited on the basis of competitive
examinations. They are promoted, demoted and dismissed under the Civil Service Rules.
2. Legislative
Generally law making is the responsibility of the legislature, but in every country the executive
has an important role to play in the making of the laws. The executive prepares bills for this
purpose and introduces them in the legislature. There is a Parliamentary Government in England,
India, Japan, Sweden, Norway, France, Italy and West Germany. The leader of the majority
party becomes the Prime Minister. He has influence on both the organs of the government i.e.,
Legislature and Executive. The ministers are also important members of the Parliament.
Therefore, they too have sufficient influence on the legislature or on the Parliament. In England,
India and other Parliamentary countries, the Parliament spends much of its time on the
discussion of the bills.
3. Financial Functions
Though the legislature controls the national finance, yet the executive prepares the budget and
tries to get it passed by the legislature.
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 7. Constitutional Function
In a parliamentary form of Government, the real executive, i.e; the cabinet, performs
constitutional functions as well. The cabinet introduces constitutional amendments and ach
amendment practically means introduction, modification and change in the constitution.
5. Military Functions
In almost all the countries, constitutionally the President or the Head of the State has many
military powers. He is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and has the power to
promote, demote and dismiss high military officers. He himself, or with the consent of the
Parliament, can declare war or peace. In the U.S.A., the President can declare war or peace with
the consent of the Congress. In Britain and India, this right is exercised generally by the Prime
Minister. The Head of the State can declare emergency for the defiance of the country.
6. Judicial Functions
The right of pardon is regarded as a natural necessary part of the executive unction. Although it
is a semi-judicial function, yet it is justified for various reasons.
7. Diplomatic Functions
Another function of modern executive is to perform diplomatic. Each executive is required to
see that our relations with other States are very cordial and that there is proper understanding
and appreciation of our standpoint. For this purpose the executive head appoints representatives
in other countries. Similarly, representatives of other countries are received in our country.
8. Public Utility Functions
Each executive is responsible for seeing that public utility services like railways, posts and
telegraphs, roadways, etc. are properly maintained.

Q.4. Define Public Opinion and discuss the various methods adopted in modem
state to mould Public Opinion.
Or
Q. What do you mean by Public Opinion? What are the agents of the formation
of Public Opinion?
Or

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Q. How Public Opinion is formed? What are the hindrances in the formation of
Public Opinion? Discuss.
Or
Q. Define Public Opinion. What are the necessary conditions for the formation
of healthy public opinion?

Ans. Public Opinion

The meaning of public opinion has from time to time undergone changes. In ancient Greece and
India public opinion was equated with justice and dharma respectively. In the Middle Ages
public opinion was equated with the will of God. Later the modem political thinker Machiavelli
declared that the voice of the people was the voice of god. In contemporary Political Science
public opinion is regarded as that opinion which is in the interest of the whole people and may
be accepted as such by both majority and minority. According to Lord Bryce "Public opinion is
the aggregate of the views man hold. Regarding matters that affect the interest of the community
Public opinion is an opinion based on reason which aims at the welfare of the whole community
and not of any particular section of it.
This definition clearly underlines that public opinion is-
(1) An aggregate of views;
(2) Based on reason;
(3) Aimed at the welfare of the whole community.
But opinion of the majority may not always republic opinion, particularly if it ignores the
interest of the minority. The opinion of the organized minority can also become public opinion
in case it is based on wisdom, justice and public interest. Thus, we may say that people's
collective opinion for common good is called public opinion.
Importance of Public opinion
Public opinion is a tremendous social and political force not be ignored in the modern world. All
parties give greater importance to public opinion. They feel that the money invested to create
public opinion is good for them and the country. Success of any government depends upon how
it wins the opinion of the people. Vigilant public opinion is necessary for a successful

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democracy. Public opinion very much limits the power of rulers. Decision taken against public
opinion will be detrimental to party and the government in power.
Conditions Necessary for Public Opinion
1. Peoples capacity to think.
2. Interest of people in national problem.
3. Formation of groups.
4. Initiative by political leaders.
5. Role of writers.
6. Homogeneity and community interest.

Role of Mass Media

Cinema has been a traditional area of entertainment and learning. In a subtle way it influences
public opinion. It is the most effective mass media. The electronic revolution has penetrated
every part of the country, every locality and household. Radio, TV and VCR have established a
wider communication channel for dissemination of news, information, views, advertisements
and entertainments.
The audio-visual methods, which they employ, can influence even the illiterates. In home, in
office, in market and street corners the media’s presence have altered the entire pattern of
communication and of social life. Electronic media plays direct and indirect part in projecting
and building public opinion, by increasing the level of information, expanding awareness and
making available many points of views and approaches.
The Press
Newspapers, magazines, journals etc. are called print media, which today stand most powerful
single agency molding, influencing and disseminating public opinion. A printed word acquires
greater sanctity, appeal and legitimacy in human consciousness than a spoken word. Newspapers
with their daily dissemination of news, facts and information together with editorial comments,
views of analyst and experts, and leaders provide the daily diet for the formation of public
opinion.
Role of Public Opinion in Democracy
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A democratic govt. is formed, controlled and sustained by public opinion. A democratic govt. is
based is established through elections and elections are always based on public opinion Govt.
cannot act in total disregard of public opinion. Thus public opinion prevents the rulers from
misusing power. It is observed that a democratic government makes laws keeping in view the
people's wishes. It does not frame the any anti people policy for the fear of losing popular
support. If any govt. makes a particular law which deprives the people of their rights, they resist
it and force the govt. either to modify it or to withdraw it. Public opinion not only plays its role
in national sphere but acts as a powerful propelling force in international affairs as well. The
concepts of mutual economic cooperation and peaceful settlement of disputes and the policy of
disarmament have assumed importance due to the mobilization of international public opinion.

Agencies of Public Opinion

(1) Newspaper.
(2) Radio, television and cinema.
(3) Educational institutions.
(4) Religion.
(5) Public meetings.
(6) Political Parties.
(7) Voluntary Associations.
(8) Elections.
(9) Rumors.

Hindrance in the formulation of sound Public Opinion

1. Illiteracy.
2. Poverty.
3. Political parties organized on the basis of the religion.
4. Curb on freedom of press.
5. Restriction on freedom of speech and assembly.
6. Indifferent attitude of the citizens.
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Q. 5. Explain the Theory of Representation.
Ans. Theory of Representation
Introduction
Democratic govt. can be of two types - direct and indirect. Direct democracy was possible in
small city states of ancient times. Even today it is being practiced in some of the very small
cantons of Switzerland. Under this system the will of the state is formulated and expressed by
the people themselves. In indirect democracy or representative democracy,

The Electorate
A citizen who has the right to vote and who can participate in election to choose representatives
is called a voter or an elector. The entire body of voters in a country is known as electorate. The
term adult franchise is used for the system in which all adult men and women, without any
discrimination, are allowed to vote in the election. If all adult men, without property or
educational qualification were given right to vote, the system was known as 'manhood suffrage'.
Universal Adult Franchise is based on the principle of equality. It is based on the rule of "one
man, one vote". Constitution of India has provided for universal adult franchise. Adult Franchise
is a means of political education. Thus, adult franchise is essential to make popular sovereignty
real. People must elect, control and if necessary, remove their representatives.
Direct and Indirect Election
The process of election may be either direct or indirect. When the entire electorate of a
constituency participates in choosing its representatives, we call it direct elections. In most
countries today at least one house of the national legislature is elected directly by al the voters.
When people do not directly elect their representatives, they may do so through their
intermediaries. It only means that certain bodies are elected by certain other directly elected
members of some other bodies. Rajya Sabha is indirectly elected by the people.

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Representation Territorial and Functional
Representatives of people may be elected either on territorial basis or functional basis. Territorial
representation means that all the voters living in a particular territorial constituency are called
upon to elect a representative. Functional representation means that people of the country should
be professionally categorized and each of the professional categories may be called upon to elect
one or more representative. At present in India we have territorial representation. Those who
criticize territorial representation argue that it is unfair to expect of an elected member to
represent divergent interest of voters in his constituency.
All the people cannot have similar aspirations. On the other hand, different citizens having same
occupation generally have complained interests. Therefore, it is argued that functional
representation can ensure representation of all interests. But it is almost impossible to set up
functional constituencies in large countries like India and USA. It will be even more difficult for
elected representatives to keep in touch with their voters spread out in the vast country.
Proportional representation
The idea behind this system is that as far as possible all the people in a country should get
representation in proportion to their voting strength. There is two main systems of proportional
representation –
1. Single Transferable Vote System
In this system each voter can cast only one vote which can be transferred to other candidate, if
necessary according to voter’s choice. Since a voter has a single vote which is transferable, it is
called "single transferable vote system". Voters write his preference against the names of
candidates of his choice. If that candidate who is that voter’s first preference does not need his
vote it may be transferred to the next candidate of his choice. This system is also called
preferential system because votes are transferred according to the Recommended Readings:
indicated. Multi-member constituency can use this system. Its main defect is that it is
complicated and difficult to operate. The members of Indian Rajya Sabha, and Vidhan Parishes
are elected with the help of this method.
2. List System

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Vote is not cast by the voters in favor of individual candidates. They vote in favor of one party
list or the other. This system encourages multi-party system. In this system every voter is
entitled to as many votes as there are seats to be filled. He casts all his votes in favor of one of
the lists put up by the parties while preparing their list party list out names of the candidates in
order of their importance so that if a party becomes entitled to only one seat its first candidate is
declared elected.
3. Cumulative Votes System
This system enables a well-organized minority to secure at least one or two seats in a multi
member constituency. Every voter is entitled to cast as many votes as there are seats to be filled.
Voters have the freedom to use the votes the way they like to cast all the votes' n favor of one
candidate or divide them among two or more candidate. Counting of votes is simple. The
candidates with highest number of votes gats elected.
4. Limited Vote Plan
This system also operates in a multi-member constituency and each voter can cast lesser number
of votes than the number of seats. In case of a five member constituency, the voter is entitled to
3 votes. It is essential that all the 3 votes must not be cast in favor of one candidate. They will
have to be cast in favor of 3 different candidates. This system did not become popular.
5. Alternate Vote System
This system is a combination of a simple majority system and single transferable vote system.
When first preference votes are counted if one of the candidates gets a clear majority, he is
declared elected. Remaining votes go waste. If none gets a clear majority of votes, the candidate
with least votes is eliminated and his votes transferred according to their second Recommended
Readings this process is continued till one of the candidates gets clear majority. This is the
method by which President of India is elected.

Short Questions Answers

Q.1. Write a short note on Judiciary.
Ans. Judiciary

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The security and welfare of the average citizen depend on the prompt, certain and impartial
administration of justice. It is the judiciary which is the shield of innocence and the impartial
guardian of civil rights. Since administration of the justice is the exclusive function of the
freedom of the individual becomes meaningless unless the mechanisms of justice are so
constituted as to ensure impartial administration of justice.
In monarchical state the independence of the judiciary is essential to protect the people from
arbitrary interference and the oppression of the ruler and also to prevent the judges from being
reduced to the position of subservience to the executive. In republic the independence of the
judiciary is also necessary for protecting the constitution and the laws against encroachments in
a partisan spirit and in terms of tyranny of action. When grave political issues excite partisan
feelings, the courage and uprightness of judges become supremely valuable to the nation.
Functions-
1. Prevention of violation of law
In case of violation of law, a suit is filed against the offender. The judge hears both sides and
decides whether there has been a break of the law. In case of violation of law, the judiciary
establishes justice by providing redress and punishing the offender.
2. Making of new law
The judges, by way of interpreting the existing laws, make new laws. The judiciary can follow
precedents established in previous decisions; it can also overrule such precedents, and thereby,
makes new law.
3. Decides on constitutional questions
The highest federal Court, namely the Supreme Court, decides constitutional questions. If there
is any constitutional conflict or dispute between the Union and the States or among different
States, the dispute is brought to the federal Court who decides and acts as the guardian of the
federal constitution. There are hundreds of such constitutional cases decided by the Indian
Judiciary, Gopalan vs. the State of Madras, Golak Nath vs. State of Punjab are few examples.
4. Interprets the constitution and Laws
In addition to adjudication, the responsibility of safeguarding and interpreting the constitution
and law rests on the judiciary. In the United States the power of the interpretation is absolute as
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expressed in the words of Chief Justice Charles Evan Hughes: We are under a constitution but
the constitution is what the judges say it is. But the Indian Court does not enjoy the vast power
in this area.
5. Administrative functions
The judges perform certain executive functions. Appointments of officers and servants,
maintenance of records, administration of staff etc. are performed by the judiciary.
Superintendence over lower courts is another function of the judiciary.
6. Advisory function
The highest court of the country sometimes gives advices to the executive and the legislature on
constitutional points, if sought for. Thus the Judiciary has advisory functions too. If it appears
that a question of law or fact has arisen, it may be referred to the judiciary for its advice.
Protection of fundamental rights
The Judiciary acts as a protector of rights of the citizens guaranteed by the law of the land and
the constitution. The court can declare any law which transgresses a fundamental right as
invalid. In India the judiciary has the power to issue writs in the name of habeas corpus,
prohibition, mandamus, quo warranto and certiorari.
1. Guardian of the constitution
The Judiciary is regarded as the guardian of the constitution. In federal States this function is
discharged by the application of the power of judicial review. The Supreme Court of India
enjoys limited power of judicial review in invalidating laws made by Parliament or State
Legislatures.
Importance of the Judiciary
The importance of the judiciary in a democratic society can hardly be exaggerated. Judiciary is a
part of the democratic process. Judiciary not only administers justice, it protects the rights of the
citizens and it acts as the interpreter and guardian of the constitution. In many states the judiciary
enjoys the power of judicial review by virtue of which the judiciary decides the constitutional
validity of the laws enacted or of the decree issued. It can invalidate such laws and decrees
which are not constitutional.

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Q.2. Explain the Political Participation’s.
Ans. Political participation
Introduction
Political participation is necessary ingredient of every political system. All political systems
encouraged political participation through varying degrees. By involving the people in the
matters of state, political participation fosters stability and order by reinforcing the legitimacy of
political authority.
People living in a particular society participate in the political system, which they develop.
There are many forms of participation and democracy in the form of government that encourages
maximum participation in governmental processes. Participation does not mean more exercise of
political rights like franchise, by the people.
The political system may be any kind, someone must take political decision and do other related
things like appointment, reshuffling and removal of holders from time to time.

Meaning
The term political participation refers to those voluntary activities by which members of a
society share in the selection of their rulers and directly or indirectly in the formation of public
policy. These activities are like casting vote, seeking information, holding discussions, attending
meetings, making financial contributions to political parties, staging strikes and demonstrations,
communicating with the legislators and other leading figures.
the most active part of political participation is to enroll as member of political parties.,
canvassing and registering votes, speech- writing and speech making, working in campaigns and
competing for public and party offices.
It is the involvement of the individual at various levels in the political system.
Political participation is any activity that shapes, affects, or involves the political sphere.
It means their active involvement, which in a real manner influences the decision-making
activity of the government. Democratic theory considers citizens as rational, independent, and
interested political persons capable of expressing their opinion regarding the persons aspiring for

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holding offices and also competent in electing some persons who deal with the policies of
government in a way conducive to the interest of the mass.
Perhaps the most pervasive participation is simply living in a democratic community and where
all government action and policy are publicized in press, radio, and television. In this situation
those in position of authority must conduct themselves in such a fashion as to as appear to the
sensible people.
Political participation derives from the freedom to speak out, assemble and associate; the ability
to take part in the conduct of public affairs; and the opportunity to register as a candidate, to
campaign, to be elected and to hold office at all levels of government. Under international
standards, men and women have an equal right to participate fully in all aspects of the political
process. In practice, however, it is often harder for women to exercise this right. In post-conflict
countries there are frequently extra barriers to women’s participation, and special care is
required to ensure their rights are respected in this regard.
Definitions
According to Almond and Powell –Means the involvement of members of the society in the
decision- making process of the system.
According to H.Mc. Glosky – Political Participation as those voluntary activities by which
members of society share in the selection of rules directly and indirectly, in the formation of
public policy.
According to J.W. Protho – Political Participation as behaviour through which people directly
express their political opinion.
Activities/Methods of Political participation
1. Voting Membership in political parties and groups and active involvement therein
2. Personal contacting (politicians, civil servants, lawyers, associations, media and corporate
actors, friends of officials).
3. Seeking help from political persons who has influence on officials.
4. Organizing a group.

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Very Short Question and Answers

Q. 1. What is meaning of the term Judicial Review?

Ans. Judicial Review
Judicial Review refers to the power of the judiciary to interpret the constitution and to declare
any such law or order of the legislature and executive void, if it finds them in conflict the
Constitution of India.
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the land. The Supreme Court of India has the
supreme responsibility of interpreting and protecting it. It also acts as the guardian-protector of
the Fundamental Rights of the people. For this purpose, the Supreme Court exercises the power
of determining the constitutional validity of all laws.
It has the power to reject any law or any of its part which is found to be unconstitutional. This
power of the Supreme Court is called the Judicial Review power. State High Courts also exercise
this power but their judgments can be rejected or modified or upheld by the Supreme Court.
Meaning and Definition
Judicial Review refers to the power of the judiciary to interpret the constitution and to declare
any such law or order of the legislature and executive void, if it finds them in conflict the
Constitution of India.
Judicial Review is the power of the Judiciary by which
1. The court reviews the laws and rules of the legislature and executive in cases that come before
them; in litigation cases.
2. The court determines the constitutional validity of the laws and rules of the government; and
3. The court rejects that law or any of its part which is found to be unconstitutional or against the
Constitution.

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