Electrical-Type Temperature Sensors

Resistance Thermometers / (RTD)

Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) are either a metal film deposited on a former or are wire-
wound resistors. The devices are then sealed in a glass-ceramic composite material. A metal
resistance element changes its resistance with temperature. Pure elements have been used for
measurement of temperature by this effect and the method is one of the most accurate ones. The
relation between the resistance and change in temperature (∆𝑡), is expressed by the series
𝑅 = 𝑅 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑡 + 𝛽∆𝑡 + 𝛾∆𝑡 +. . . +𝜔∆𝑡 )
where α, β, γ, ω are temperature coefficients of resistance. In the narrow ranges of operation, β and
higher order coefficients are negligibly small so that R, is given by
𝑅 = 𝑅 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑡)
α is positive for a metal resistance element and is determined experimentally. The commonly used
metals are platinum (-190 °C to 800 °C international scale with second degree relation), copper (-
150 °C to 250 °C) and nickel (0 °C to 325 °C). The resistance temperature relation for these
elements is shown graphically in Figure 5.16.

Fig. 5.16 Resistance-temperature relations for different materials

The choice of the materials will be governed by (a) high temperature coefficient (this gives larger
sensitivity); (b) high resistivity of the material (this ensures small wire length for high resistance,
also a larger resistance for the same wire length and increases output); (c) linearity of relation
between resistance and temperature (this greatly adds to convenience in measurement); (d)
stability of the electrical characteristics of the material and resistance to contamination (this is
necessary for good repeatability); and (e) sufficient mechanical strength (this is necessary as the
wire must be drawn very fine for reducing response time and yet must possess adequate ruggedness
for construction). A comparison of the above three materials on this basis is made in Table 5.1
At low range (<120 °C), a gold-silver alloy has been tried and it has been seen to have the
characteristics similar to platinum. For a temperature below 7 K, a phosphor bronze alloy shows
good change in resistance with temperature. In fact, sensitivity is 55 times as large as in ordinary
types in this range. This large sensitivity has been attributed to the superconductivity effect because
of the presence of traces of lead.
Usually resistance wire with a diameter of 0.1 mm is preferred but depending on the range it varies
from 0.02 to 0.6 mm. The wire is initially tested for purity by measuring resistance coefficient, for
metal characteristic by melting a small length, which must melt without sputtering, scintillating or
evolving volatile materials. The tested wire is then bifilarly wound on a framework to form a coil.
For ordinary measurements the framework may be a mica-cross, ceramic flat or round arbors. In
special cases metal arbors are chosen, in which case the resistance is electrically insulated. For
surface temperature measurement a woven wire-mesh, i.e. a grid form on the flat surface of an
insulating cylinder is chosen. A construction similar to the strain gauge is also not uncommon.
Ribbons and streaks are also used which are fastened to the surface by adhesives or by wrapping.
The surface temperature in the range -200 °C to 500 °C is measurable by resistance thermometers.
The area of the grid mesh may be as small as 1 mm2 and it can be conveniently used for hot spot
temperature measurement. Temperature of air, either stagnant or moving, requires to be measured
in many cases. The design changes according to the degree of mobility and temperature range. A
self-supporting helical form is quite common for these purposes. This is mounted on an insulating
frame as shown in Figure 5.17. Figures 5.17a and b show a mica-cross winding type and a strain
gauge type surface temperature measuring probe respectively.
The resistance thermometers are made either tip sensitive or stem sensitive. Figure 5.17b may be
considered tip sensitive while Figure 5.17a is obviously stem sensitive. Stem-sensitive
constructions are more commonly used whereas tip-sensitive constructions are of use under typical
requirements. The actual tip-sensitive type consists of a silver tip for easy and quick heat transfer
to the winding primarily concentrated close to the tip.
Platinum is used for resistance thermometry in industry for temperatures up to 800 °C. It does not
oxidize but must be protected from contamination. The commonest cause of contamination of
platinum resistance thermometers is contact with silica or silica-bearing refractories in a reducing
atmosphere. in the presence of a reducing atmosphere, silica is reduced to silicon, which alloys
with platinum, making it brittle. Platinum resistance thermometers may be used for temperatures
down to about 20 K.
Generally, resistance thermometers have
resistances varying from 0.1 ohm to a few
hundred ohms; for example, transformer
industry uses copper resistance thermometers
with 10 ohm resistance at 0 °C. The resistance
thermometer is protected from the medium
being measured by encasing tubes which are
made from glass, quartz, porcelain or nickel.
These tubes may be filled with air at high
pressure (higher than the measuring medium
pressure). For high temperatures, the excess
pressure is 1/3 to 1/2 atm., for low
temperatures it is 1 atm or so. For very low
temperatures, air is to be avoided to prevent
condensation, and helium is preferred. The
thermometer winding should be protected
against water vapor for avoiding corrosion and
also to avoid increased leakage resistance between the windings, between the arbor and the
winding and between the protecting sheath and the winding. The insultation material is chosen for
the wire, when not bare, are enamel, silk, paper, special fiber glass, Teflon, and mica.
Resistance thermometers are the most accurate of all temperature sensors and a sensitivity of 0.001
°C can be obtained. They are very convenient for measurement of a small temperature difference
where the more commonly used thermocouple type gives no appreciably measurable output.
Resistance Thermometer Connections
When resistance thermometers are located
at some distance from the measuring
instrument, the electrical resistance of the
connecting cables will introduce errors of
reading. This reading error will, of course,
vary as the temperature of the cables
changes. However, this error can be
compensated by the use of extra
conductors. Normally, the change of
resistance of a resistance thermometer is
measured in a Wheatstone bridge circuit or
a modified Wheatstone bridge, so the
compensating conductors can be connected
in the opposite side of the bridge. In this
way bridge unbalance is only a function of the change of resistance of the thermometer element.
Figure (a) shows three-wire compensation. The resistance of Wire 1 is added to that of the
resistance thermometer but is balanced by Wire 2 in the reference side of the bridge. Wire 3
supplies the power to the bridge.
In Figure (b), four-wire compensation is shown. The resistance of Wires 1 and 2, which connect
to the resistance thermometer, are compensated by the resistance of Wires 3 and 4, which are
connected together at the resistance thermometer and are again in the opposite arm of the bridge.
Shortcomings
1. Self-heating error: the objectionable feature in resistance thermometry is the self-heating
error. This is more pronounced if the measuring current is quite high causing an appreciable
𝐼 𝑅 loss. With the change of current the reading may also change.
2. Thermo emf: the terminal wires of the resistance elements are generally of a material
different from that of the element material. If the terminal junctions are at different
temperature, a thrmo-emf may develop to cause error in the reading. The remedy is to keep
the junctions at close quarters so that they have the same temperature.
3. Leakage current: A leakage current between the resistance element and the ground should
be avoided. This is tested initially as indicated earlier.
4. Lag: resistance thermometers are, in almost all cases, enclosed in protective sheaths called
wells. This increases the response time.

Thermistors
Thermistors are a class of metal oxide (semiconductor material) which typically have a high
negative temperature coefficient of resistance but can also be positive. Thermistors have high
sensitivity which can be up to 10 percent change per degree Celsius, making them the most
sensitive temperature elements available, but with very nonlinear characteristics. They have been
commercially used since 1940 and have a large temperature coefficient of resistance. The negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) type is more commonly used for temperature measurement.
Positive thermistors are used within a limited range of temperature (50 to 225 °C) only.
The negative temperature coefficient resistance thermistor has a resistance temperature relation as
shown in Figure below. This is shown along with the characteristic of platinum for comparison.
A thermistor is an electrical device made of a solid semiconductor with a high temperature
coefficient of resistivity which would exhibit a linear voltage-current characteristic if its
temperature were held constant. When a thermistor is used as a temperature sensing element, the
relationship between resistance and temperature is of primary concern. The relation is
approximately given by the empirical relation

These equations are only best approximations and, therefore, are of limited use in making highly
accurate temperature measurements. However, they do serve to compare thermistor characteristics
and thermistor types.
It should be noted that the resistance of the thermometer is solely a function of its absolute
temperature. Furthermore, it is apparent that the thermistor’s resistance-temperature function has
a characteristic high negative coefficient as well as a high degree of nonlinearity. The value of the
coefficient a for common commercial thermistors is of the order of 2 to 6 percent per kelvin at
room temperature. This value is approximately 10 times that of metals used in the manufacture of
resistance thermometers.
Resultant considerations due to the high coefficient characteristic of thermistors include inherent
high sensitivity and high level of output, eliminating the need for extremely sensitive readout
devices and lead-wire matching techniques, respectively. They provide a low-cost solution to
many temperature control applications. However, limitations on interchangeability (particularly
over wide temperature ranges), calibration, and stability—also inherent in thermistors—are quite
restrictive. The high degree of nonlinearity in the resistance-temperature function usually limits
the range of the readout instrumentation. In many applications, special pre-linearization circuits
must be used before interfacing with related system instrumentation. The negative temperature
coefficient also may require an inversion (to positive form) when interfacing with some analog or
digital instrumentation.
Chemistry and manufacturing
A number of metal oxides and their mixtures, including the oxides of cobalt, copper, iron,
magnesium, manganese, nickel, tin, titanium, uranium, and zinc, are among the most common
semiconducting materials used in the construction of thermistors. Usually individual oxides or
sulfides are well mixed and compressed into the desired shape from the specially formulated
powder, then recrystallized by high temperature sintering, resulting in a dense ceramic body. The
lead-wires are then attached while electric contact is maintained, and the finished thermistor is
then encapsulated. A thermistor can be made in numerous configurations.
Features
 Small Size and fast response
 Long-term stability and reliability
 Excellent tolerance and interchangeability
Applications:

 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning

 Temperature regulation and measurement
 Electronic thermometers
 Liquid level sensing
 Automotive electronics
 Medical equipment and apparatus
 Battery packs and portable electronics

Semiconductor sensors
Silicon diode: Semiconductors have a number of parameters that vary linearly with temperature.
Normally the reference voltage of a Zener diode or the forward bias voltage of a silicon diode are
used for temperature sensing. Semiconductor temperature sensors have a limited operating range
from –50 to 150 °C but are very linear with accuracies of ±1 °C or better. Other advantages are
that electronics can be integrated onto the same die as the sensor giving high sensitivity, easy
interfacing to control systems, and making different digital output configurations possible. The
thermal time constant varies from 1 to 5 s, internal dissipation can also cause up to 0.5 °C offset.
Semiconductor devices are also rugged with good longevity and are inexpensive. For the above
reasons the semiconductor sensor is used extensively in many applications including the
replacement of the mercury in glass thermometer.
Temperature-Sensing Integrated Circuits: Integrated circuits (ICs) are also available
specifically designed for temperature measurement like LM35 IC having higher accuracy than
diode. LM35 is a precision integrated circuit temperature sensor, whose output voltage varies,
based on the temperature around it. It is a small and cheap IC which can be used to measure
temperature anywhere between -55 °C to 150 °C. It can easily be interfaced with any
Microcontroller that has ADC function or any development platform like Arduino.
If the temperature is 0 °C, then the output voltage will also be 0 V. There will be rise of 0.01V
(10mV) for every degree Celsius rise in temperature. The voltage can be converted into
temperature using the below formulae.
𝑉 (𝑚𝑣)
𝑇(°𝐶) = 𝑚𝑣
10 ( )
°𝐶