Chapter 1.

Basic notions on Mining and the Mining Life Cycle

1.1 The History of Mining

- After farming, mining is the second activity of primary human begins.

- Certainly these two activities as the primary or mother of industries in human civilization.

Time range Age

1 Before 4000 Stone Age

2 4000 to 5000 Bronze Age

3 1500 - 1780 Iron Age

4 1780 to 1945 Steel Age

5 1945 to the present Nuclear Age

- In the beginning, mining was a non-separable part of human life from prehistoric times.
- Definition: senso lato as extraction of all natural mineral (solid, liquid and gas) from the
from the earth or other heavenly bodies for utilitarian purposes.

Table 1 most prominent Human’s uses of mineral

- Abundance of minerals also creates wealth

- Minerals can be marketed on the open market, enabling the countries that possess them to
obtain valuable currency from countries that do not.

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- Minerals-rich countries being the great civilizations of the world while the ‘have-not’
countries generally suffer from a lower standard of living.

- This opens the possibility that a given country or countries will attempt to control the entire
market in a particular mineral, that is, to create an economic cartel in that mineral.

- In 1973, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) attempted to control oil
prices in a bold maneuver to obtain windfall profits from the oil they produced.

- Although successful in the short run, the cartel eventually lost effectiveness because of
increased oil production elsewhere and difficulty in controlling their own member countries.

1.2 Mining Terminology

 Mine: an excavation made in the earth to extract minerals

 Mining: the activity, occupation, and industry concerned with the extraction of minerals
 Mining engineering: the practice of applying engineering principles to the development,
planning, operation, closure, and reclamation of mines

Some terms distinguish various types of mined minerals. Geologically, one can distinguish
the following mineral categories:

 Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal

structure and a characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and physical properties
 Rock: any naturally formed aggregate of one or more types of mineral particles

Economic differences in the nature of mineral deposits are evident in the following terms:

 Ore: a mineral deposit that has sufficient utility and value to be mined at a profit.
 Gangue: the valueless mineral particles within an ore deposit that must be discarded.
 Waste: the material associated with an ore deposit that must be mined to get at the ore and
must then be discarded. Gangue is a particular type of waste.
 A mineral deposit is a mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade (concentration) to
enable extraction under the most favorable conditions.
 An ore deposit is a mineral deposit that has been tested and is known to be of sufficient size,
grade, and accessibility to be mined at a profit. Testing commonly consists of surface
mapping and sampling, as well as drilling through the deposit.

A further subdivision of the types of minerals mined by humankind is also common. These
terms are often used in the industry to differentiate between the fuels, metals, and
nonmetallic minerals. The following are the most common terms used in this differentiation:

 Metallic ores: including of the ferrous metals (iron, manganese, molybdenum, and tungsten,
the base metals (Copper, lead, zinc, and tin), the precious metals (gold, silver, the platinum
group metals), and the radioactive minerals (uranium, thorium, and radium).

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 Non-metallic minerals: insulating materials (mica, asbestos), refractory materials (silica,
alumina, zircon. Graphite), industrial minerals (barite, gypsum, phosphate, potash, halite,
trona, sand gravel, limestone, sulphur, and many others)
 Fossil fuels: solid fuels (coal, anthracite, lignite, oil shale), fluid fuels (petroleum oil, natural
gas) It is important that although petroleum oil extraction is a branch of mining industry, but
at present all relevant activities with oil & natural gas extraction would be performed in the
formant of a separate industry and with its special technology.

MINING IS NEVER PROPERLY DONE IN ISOLATION, NOR IS IT AN ENTITY IN ITSELF.

- It is preceded by geologic investigations that locate the deposit and economic analyses that
prove it financially feasible.

- Following extraction of the fuel, industrial mineral, or metallic ore, the run-of-mine material
is generally cleaned or concentrated. This preparation or beneficiation of the mineral into a
higher-quality product is termed mineral processing. The mineral products so produced may
then undergo further concentration, refinement, or fabrication during conversion, smelting,
or refining to provide consumer products. The end step in converting a mineral material into
a useful product is marketing.

Metallic minerals also attracted the attention of prehistoric humans. Initially, metals were
used in their native form, probably obtained by washing river gravel in placer deposits. With
the advent of the Bronze and Iron Ages, however, humans discovered smelting and learned
to reduce ores into pure metals or alloys, which greatly improved their ability to use these
metals.

- The first challenge for early miners was to break the ore and loosen it from the surrounding
rock mass. Often, their crude tools made of bone, wood, and stone were no match for the
harder rock, unless the rock contained crevices or cracks that could be opened by wedging
or prying

- As a result, they soon devised a revolutionary technique called fire setting, whereby they
first heated the rock to expand it and then doused it with cold water to contract and break
it.

- This was one of the first great advances in the science of rock breakage and had a greater
impact than any other discovery until dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel in 1867.

1.3. THE LIFE CYCLE OF A MINE

Introduction

The overall sequence of activities in modern mining is often compared with the five stages in the
life of a mine: prospecting, exploration, development, exploitation, and reclamation. These stages

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are summarized in table 2,1 at the end of this chapter, Prospecting and exploration, precursors to
actual mining, are linked and sometimes combined. Geologists and mining engineers often share
responsibility for these two stages geologists more involved with the former, mining engineers
more with the latter. Likewise, development and exploitation are closely related stages; they are
usually considered to constitute mining proper and are the main province of the mining engineer.
Reclamation has been added to these stages since the first edition, to reflect the times. Closure and
reclamation of the mine site has become a necessary part of the mine life cycle because of the
demands of society for a cleaner environment and stricter laws regulating the abandonment of a
mine. The overall process of developing a mine with the future uses of the land in mind is termed
sustainable development.

1.3.1 Prospecting

Prospecting, the first stage in the utilization of a mineral deposit, is the search for ores or other
valuable minerals (coal or nonmetallic). Because mineral deposits may be located either at or below
the surface of the earth, both direct and indirect prospecting techniques are employed. The direct
method of discovery, normally limited to surface deposits, consists of visual examination of either
the exposure (outcrop) of the deposit or the loose fragments (float) that have weathered away from
the outcrop. Geologic studies of the entire area augment this simple, direct technique. By means of
aerial photography, geologic maps, and structural assessment of an area, the geologist gathers
evidence by direct methods to locate mineral deposits. Precise mapping and structural analysis plus
microscopic studies of samples also enable the geologist to locate the hidden as well as surface
mineralization. The most valuable scientific tool employed in the indirect search for hidden mineral
deposits is geophysics, the science of detecting anomalies using physical measurements of
gravitational, seismic ,magnetic ,electrical, electromagnetic ,and radiometric variables of the earth.
The methods are applied from the air, using aircraft and satellites; on the surface of the earth; and
beneath the earth, using methods that probe below the topography. Geochemistry, the quantitative
analysis of soil, rock, and water samples, and geobotany, the analysis of plant growth patterns, can
also be employed as prospecting tools.

1.3.2 Exploration

The second stage in the life of a mine, exploration, determines as accurately as possible the size and
value of a mineral deposit, utilizing techniques similar to but more refined than those used in
prospecting. The line of demarcation between prospecting and exploration is not sharp; in fact ,a
distinction may not be possible in some cases. Exploration generally shifts to surface and subsurface
locations, using a variety of measurements to obtain a more positive picture of the extent and grade
of the ore body. Representative samples may be subjected to chemical, metallurgical, X ray,
spectrographic or radiometric evaluation techniques that are meant to enhance the investigator’s
knowledge of the mineral deposit. Samples are obtained by chipping outcrops, trenching, tunneling,
and drilling; in addition, borehole logs may be provided to study the geologic and structural makeup
of the deposit. Rotary, percussion, or diamond drills can be used for exploration purposes. However,
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diamond drills are favored because the cores they yield provide knowledge of the geologic
structure. The core is normally split along its axis; one half is analyzed, and the other half is retained
intact for further geologic study.

An evaluation of the samples enables the geologist or mining engineer to calculate the tonnage and
grade, or richness, of the mineral deposit. He or she estimates the mining costs, evaluates the
recovery of the valuable minerals, determines the environmental costs, and assesses other
foreseeable factors in an effort to reach a conclusion about the profitability of the mineral deposit.
The crux of the analysis is the question of whether the property is just another mineral deposit or an
ore body. For an ore deposit, the overall process is called reserve estimation, that is ,the
examination and valuation of the ore body. At the conclusion of this stage ,the project is developed,
traded to another party, or abandoned.

1.3.3 Development

In the third stage, development, the work of opening a mineral deposit for exploitation is
performed. With it begins the actual mining of the deposit, now called the ore. Access to the deposit
must be gained either(1)by stripping the overburden, which is the soil and/or rock covering the
deposit, to expose the near-surface ore for mining or(2) by excavating openings from the surface to
access more deeply buried deposits to prepare for underground mining.

In either case, certain preliminary development work, such as acquiring water and mineral rights,
buying surface lands, arranging for financing, and preparing permit applications and an
environmental impact statement (EIS), will generally be required before any development takes
place. When these steps have been achieved, the provision of a number of requirements —access
roads, power sources, mineral transportation systems, mineral processing

Facilities, waste disposal areas, offices, and other support facilities —must precede actual mining in
most cases. Stripping of the overburden will then proceed if the minerals are to be mined at the
surface. Economic considerations determine the stripping ratio, the ratio of waste removed to ore
recovered Development for underground mining is generally more complex and expensive. It
requires careful planning and layout of access openings for efficient mining, safety, and
permanence. The principal openings may be shafts, slopes, or adits; each must be planned to allow
passage of workers, machines, ore, waste, air, water, and utilities. Many metal mines are located
along steeply dipping deposits and thus are opened from shafts, while drifts, winzes, and raises
serve the production areas.

1.3.4 Exploitation

Exploitation, the fourth stage of mining, is associated with the actual recovery of minerals from the
earth in quantity. Although development may continue, the emphasis in the production stage is on
production, usually, only enough development is done prior to exploitation to ensure that
production, once started, can continue uninterrupted throughout the life of the mine.

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 The mining method selected for exploitation is determined mainly by the characteristics of the
mineral deposit and the limits imposed by safety, technology, environmental concerns, and
economics. Geologic conditions, such as the dip, shape, and strength of the ore and the surrounding
rock, play a key role in selecting the method. Traditional exploitation methods fall into two broad
categories based on locale: surface or underground. Surface mining includes mechanical excavation
methods such as open pit and open cast (strip mining), and aqueous methods such as placer and
solution mining. Underground mining is Usually classified in three categories of methods:
unsupported, supported, and caving.

- Surface mining .Surface mining is the predominant exploitation procedure worldwide, producing
in the United States about 85% of all minerals, excluding petroleum and natural gas and most of
these are mined by open pit or open cast methods. In open pit mining, a mechanical extraction
method, a thick deposit is generally mined in benches or steps, although thin deposits may require
only a single bench or face. Open pit or open cast mining is usually employed to exploit a near-
surface deposit or one that has a low stripping ratio. It often necessitates a large capital investment
but generally results in high productivity, low operating cost, and good safety conditions.

a) The aqueous extraction methods depend on water or another liquid (e.g., dilute sulfuric
acid, weak cyanide solution, or ammonium carbonate) to extract the mineral.

b) Placer mining is used to exploit loosely consolidated deposits like common sand and
gravel or gravels containing gold, tin, diamonds, platinum, titanium, or coal

c) .Hydraulicking utilizes a high-pressure stream of water that is directed against the

mineral deposit (normally but not always a placer), undercutting it and causing its
removal by the erosive actions of the water.

d) Dredging performed from floating vessels, accomplishes the extraction of the minerals
mechanically or hydraulically.

e) Solution mining includes both borehole mining, such as the methods used to extract
sodium chloride or sulfur, and leaching, either through drill holes or in dumps or heaps
on the surface.

f) Placer and solution mining are among the most economical of all mining methods but
can only be applied to limited categories of mineral deposits.

- Underground Mining.

a) Underground methods —unsupported, supported, and caving —are differentiated by the type of
wall and roof supports used, the configuration and size of production openings ,and the direction in
which mining operations progress. The unsupported methods of mining are used to extract mineral
deposits that are roughly tabular (plus flat or steeply dipping) and are generally associated with
strong ore and surrounding rock. These methods are termed unsupported because they do not use
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 any artificial pillars to assist in the support of the openings. However, generous amounts of roof
bolting and localized support measures are often used. Room-and-pillar mining is the most common
unsupported method, used primarily for flat-lying seams or bedded deposits like coal, trona,
limestone, and salt. Support of the roof is provided by natural pillars of the mineral that are left
standing in a systematic pattern. Stope-and-pillar mining (a stope is a production opening in a metal
mine)is a similar method used in non coal mines where thicker more irregular ore bodies occur; the
pillars are spaced randomly and located in low-grade ore so that the high-grade ore can be
extracted,

b) Supported mining methods are often used in mines with weak rock structure. Cut-and-fill stoping is
the most common of these methods and is used primarily in steeply dipping metal deposits. The cut-
and-fill method is practiced both in the overhand(upward)and in the underhand (downward)
directions. As each horizontal slice is taken, the voids are filled with a variety of fill types to support
the walls. The fill can be rock waste, tailings, cemented tailings ,or other suitable materials

1.3.5, Reclamation

The final stage in the operation of most mines is reclamation, the process of closing a mine and
recontouring, revegetating, and restoring the water and land values. The best time to begin the
reclamation process of a mine is before the first excavations are initiated. In other words, mine
planning engineers should plan the mine so that the reclamation process is considered and the
overall cost of mining plus reclamation is minimized, not just the cost of mining itself. The new
philosophy in the mining industry is sustainability, that Is ,the meeting of economic and
environmental needs of the present while enhancing the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs

In planning for the reclamation of any given mine ,there are many concerns that must be addressed.
The first of these is the safety of the mine site particularly if the area is open to the general public.
The removal of office buildings, processing facilities, transportation equipment, utilities, and other
surface structures must generally be accomplished. The mining company is then required to seal all
mine shafts, adits, and other openings that may present physical hazards. Any existing high walls or
other geologic structures may require mitigation to prevent injuries or death due to geologic
failures.

The second major issue to be addressed during reclamation of a mine site is restoration of the land
surface ,the water quality, and the waste disposal areas so that long-term water pollution, soil
erosion, dust generation, or vegetation problems do not occur. The restoration of native plants is
often a very important part of this process, as the plants help build a stable soil structure and
naturalize the area. It may be necessary to carefully place any rock or tailings with acid-producing
properties in locations where rainfall has little effect on the material and acid production is
minimized. The same may be true of certain of the heavy metals that pollute streams. Planning of
the waste dumps, tailings ponds ,and other disturbed areas will help prevent pollution problems,

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but remediation work may also be necessary to complete the reclamation stage of mining and
satisfy the regulatory agencies.

The final concern of the mine planning engineer may be the subsequent use of the land after mining
is completed. Old mine sites have been converted to wildlife refuges, shopping malls, golf courses,
airports, lakes, underground storage facilities, real estate developments, solid waste disposal areas,
and other uses that can benefit society. By planning the mine for a subsequent development, mine
planners can enhance the value of the mined land and help convert it to a use that the public will
consider favorable. The successful completion of the reclamation of a mine will enhance public
opinion of the mining industry and keep the mining company in the good graces of the regulatory
agencies. The fifth stage of the mine is thus of paramount importance and should be planned at the
earliest possible time in the life of the mine.

Table 1.1 Stages in the life of a mine

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Fig. 1. Mine features (different terminologies are defined below)

Adit A horizontal mine passage driven in from the surface.

Back/Roof The ceiling of an underground mine working.
Collar The surface opening to a shaft.
Collar set The timber, rock, steel or cement stabilizer of a shaft collar.
Country rock The ground material around an orebody; the ground material into which an
orebody was deposited.
Crosscut A horizontal underground mine passage driven perpendicular to the strike of an
orebody, often to intersect an orebody from a drift.
Decline A mine passage driven from the surface at an upward or downward angle from
horizontal; often called an incline when driven at an upward angle; in hardrock usage a
decline or incline can be driven from an underground level.
Drift Usually a horizontal underground mine.
Dump Waste rock removed by mining and deposited on the surface.
Face The terminus of an adit, drift, or crosscut; usually the horizontal surface that is being
advanced by mining (the working face).
Foot wall The country rock below an orebody.
Hanging wall The country rock above an orebody.
Level Horizontal workings at different elevations (typically numbered 1, 2, 3, etc.).
Manway A vertical underground passage with ladder for upward or downward movement
of miners; can be in a winze, raise, or shaft.
Raise An underground mine opening driven upward from below to access an overlying
orebody or provide access to an upper level.
Rib The side of an underground opening.
Stope Spaces created in the rock where the ore vein is removed.
Winze A winze is an opening in an underground mine that is sunk downward (as opposed to
a raise, which is mined upward) from inside to connect lower levels. The top of a winze is
located underground, in contrast to a shaft where
the top of the excavation is located on surface
Muck Waste rock broken in mining and hauled to the surface dump.
Orebody A mineral deposit removed for its mineral content.
Pillar Usually a column of ore or coal left to support the back or roof or to support the
hanging wall.

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Portal The surface opening of an adit or tunnel.

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