Math 210 Lecture Notes:

Sections 6.1 -6.2

Sets and Counting
Prof Richard Blecksmith
Dept of Mathematical Sciences
Northern Illinois University

1. Sets 2. Set Notation

• A set is a collection of objects. • Curly braces are used for set description.
• The terms “set,” “collection,” and “family” • Sets may be specified by listing,
are synonymous. • for example {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 3, . . . }.
• If A is a set, then “x ∈ A” means that x is an • If P (x) is a proposition about x, {x : P (x)}
element (or member of A, or that x belongs to is the set of exactly those x for which P (x) is
A). true.
• The notation x 6∈ A indicates x is not an ele- • for example {x : x is a positive integer}.
ment of A. • The empty set is denoted by ∅.
• Sets A and B are equal, A = B, if and only if
they have the same elements.
3. Subset 4. Unions
• A set A is a subset of a set B if and only if • Unions of sets are indicated by “∪.”
each element of A is also an element of B. • Thus A ∪ B and A ∪ B ∪ C denote unions.
• A ⊆ B means that A is a subset of B. • A∪B is the set of elements belonging to either
• {a, c} ⊆ {a, b, c, d} set A, set B, or both.
• the set of even integers is a subset of the set • {a, c} ∪ {b, c} = {a, b, c}
of integers • the set of even integers ∪ the set of odd inte-
• the set of primes is not a subset of the set of gers is the set of integers
odd integers Why not?
5. Intersections 6. Complements
• Intersections of sets are indicated by “∩,” with • Frequently one speaks of complements of sets.
usage analogous to those for “∪.” • Let U be the universal set for discussion.
• A ∩ B is the set of elements belonging to both • If A ⊆ U is a set, then Ac = {x : x ∈
set A and set B. U and x 6∈ A}.
• {a, b} ∩ {b, c} = {b} • Ac is called the complement of A (relative to
• the set of even integers ∩ the set of odd inte- the universal set U ).
gers is ∅ • If U = {a, b, c, d, e}, then {a, c}c = {b, d, e}
• If U is the set of integers, then the complement
of the set of odd integers is the set of even
integers.

1
2

7. Combining operations 8. Distributive Laws

If we stick with just one operation, then unions (or The “distributive” rules for multiplication over addi-
intersections) can be performed in all possible orders. tion states
For example,
A∪B∪C =B∪A∪C a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c)
For example,
When we mix unions and intersections, then the order
that we write the sets matters. Even the order in which 3 × (5 + 7) = (3 × 5) + (3 × 7)
we parenthesize matters. that is, 3 × 12 = 15 + 21 = 36
For example, Note that addition does not distribute over multipli-
(A ∪ B) ∩ C 6= A ∪ (B ∩ C) cation:

3 + (5 × 7) 6= (3 + 5) × (3 + 7)
that is, 3 + 35 6= 8 × 10
9. Distributive Laws for Sets
For sets we have the somewhat surprising fact that
we can distribute unions over intersections, and also
intersections over unions:

A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
and

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
10. First Venn Diagram 11. Second Venn Diagram

A A

B C B C

A ∪ (B ∩ C) (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
 3

12. DeMorgan’s Law

The following rules relate complements, unions, and
intersections:

(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c
and

(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c
13. DeMorgan’s Law Example 14. Second Example
c c c
(A ∪ B) = A ∩ B (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B c
c c

(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c U = people living in U. S.

• U = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 8, 9, 10} A = automobile drivers
• A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} B = bicycle riders
• B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} A ∪ B = people who drive or bike (or both)
• A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10} If you are in (A ∪ B)c =
• (A ∪ B)c = {7, 9} equals then you are not in A ∪ B,
• Ac = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} which means
• B c = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} you do not drive
• Ac ∩ B c = {7, 9} equals and you do not bike.
that is, you are in Ac ∩ B c ,
15. Size of a Set 16. Religious Preference
If A is a set, then n(A) denotes the number of elements • Out of 2000 people in a community
in set A. • 500 are Catholics (set C)
n({2, 3, 5, 7}) = 4 • 270 are Baptists (set B)
If A = {n : n is an odd positive integer ≤ 30}, then • 215 are atheists (set A)
n(A) = 15 – n(A) = 215
If P is the set of presidents of the United States, then – n(B) = 270
n(P ) = 43 – n(C) = 500
Even though Barack Obama is the 44th president, the – What’s n(A ∪ B ∪ C)?
count is 43, because Grover Cleveland was elected for – Answer: 215 + 270 + 500 = 985
two non-consecutive terms.
17. Lawyers and Liars 18. Lawyers and Liars Cont’d
• There are 100 people at a meeting. • There are 100 people at a meeting.
• Forty are liars. • Forty are liars.
• Twenty-five are lawyers. • Twenty-five are lawyers.
• If A is the set of liars and B is the set of • Suppose we know that 15 of the lawyers are
lawyers, then liars.
– n(A) = 40 • n(lawyers who are not liars) = n(lawyers) −
– n(B) = 25 n(lawyers who are liars)
– What’s n(A ∪ B)? = 25 − 15 = 10
– Answer: it depends on how many of the • n(liars who are not lawyers) = n(liars) −
lawyers are also liars. Isn’t that all of n(liars who are lawyers)
them? = 40 − 15 = 25
4

19. Lawyer and Liar Picture 20. Another Way

When we add the number of elements of set A to the
number of elements of set B, we are counting the ele-
ments of both sets twice.
To compensate, just subtact the number in both, so
25 both 10 that it is only counted once.
Counting Principle:
15
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

liars lawyers
n(lawyer or liar) = 25 + 15 + 10 = 50

21. Another Way 22. 3 Sets

A = set of liars Things get trickier with three sets.
B = set of lawyers The idea is to write down three overlapping circles
n(A) = 40 representing the three sets.
n(B) = 25 This is called a Venn Diagram.
n(A ∩ B) = 15 Write down all the information about the size of the
By the counting principle, various intersections.
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) Fill in the center n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
= 25 + 40 − 15 = 50 Next fill in the other intersections.
Now fill in the regions of each of the three sets which
do not touch any other set.
Fill in the border.
23. Example
A recent survey at Party–Time U showed that
• 77% tried marijuana
• 32% tried cocaine
• 25% tried LSD
• 25% tried marijuana and cocaine
• 20% tried marijuana and LSD
• 15% tried cocaine and LSD
• 13% tried all three drugs
• What percentage were clean livers (did not try
any of the three)?
• What percentage tried marijuana only?
 5

24. Three Set Picture

M

45

12 7
13

C L
5 3
2

n(M ∩ C ∩ L) = 13

n(M ∩ C) = 25 n(M ) = 77

n(M ∩ C ∩ Lc ) = 12 n(M ∩ Lc ∩ M c ) = 45

n(M ∩ L) = 20 n(C) = 32

n(M ∩ L ∩ C c ) = 7 n(C ∩ M c ∩ Lc ) = 5

n(C ∩ L) = 15 n(L) = 25

n(C ∩ L ∩ M c ) = 2 n(L ∩ M c ∩ C c ) = 3

Answers to the questions:

Size of the union of the three sets:

n(M ∪ C ∪ L) = 13 + 7 + 12 + 2 + 45 + 3 + 5 = 87

n(M ∪ C ∪ L)c = 100 − 87 = 13 clean livers

n(M ∩ C c ∩ Lc ) = 45 marijuana only