The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No.

1, March 2010 61
Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010 pp. 61–76

Assessment of Stator Winding Insulation

Part 1 - Review of Deterioration Mechanisms and Condition Monitoring Techniques

Nageshwar Rao B*, Mallikarjunappa K*, Sundara Rajan J*, Ramachandra B**
and Sudhindra A*

This paper reviews the main ageing and failure mechanisms of stator winding and methods for
extending the useful life of the machine. The symptoms for each failure mechanism are discussed
and an overview of various electrical diagnostic techniques for condition assessment of stator
winding insulation is presented
Keywords: Stator Winding Insulation, Degradation, Condition Monitoring Techniques

1.0 INTRODUCTION destructive techniques like measurement of

Insulation Resistance, Polarization Index,
High voltage rotating electrical machines Dissipation Factor, Loss Angle and Capacitance,
represent vital key components of power plants. Partial Discharge (PD) measurements, mainly
They are quite expensive, form significant for trend analysis [3-9]. Whilst reliable
portions of the plant assets and their reliability assessment of insulation condition cannot
depends to a large extent on the healthy normally be achieved by a single test, a
condition of the insulation. The insulation reasonable indication of the overall condition
can be assessed by obtaining the results of a
systems of high voltage (HV) rotating machines
number of tests. In order to identify the ageing
are a complex combination of materials and have
mechanisms and diagnostic measures for the
undergone few changes in the last few decades.
assessment of degradation, long time accelerated
In the past, natural binding materials were
ageing studies of stator insulation models of HV
employed as stator insulation of HV rotating
machines in the laboratory have been carried
machine. However, with the advent of synthetic out by several researchers. Life models for
materials (Polyester, Epoxy, Silicone resins, etc.) insulation ageing under accelerated electrical,
the development of generator with larger thermal and mechanical multistress have been
capacity became possible. Epoxy-mica is used proposed in literature [10-14]. Further the failure
as ground wall stator insulation of large mechanism due to combined stress have been
generators since 1960 [1,2]. These materials described based on empirical models [15].
used in stator winding do comply with the A new structured methodology developed
required performance at the beginning of their through CIGRE WG 15.11 “Service Aged
life, but due to various stresses during service Materials” [16] has been proposed to link the
condition, undergo ageing and deterioration. The evidence obtained from forensic studies of failed
progressive deterioration of high voltage plant with the theoretical failure modes
machine insulation is assessed through non developed from laboratory studies.
*Central Power Research Institute, Bangalore, INDIA.
**PES College of Engineering, Mandya, INDIA.
email: [email protected]
62 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010

1.1 Insulation System Epoxy resins are valued for their high strength,
good adhesion to most materials including
To fully understand and predict the electrical metals, and resistance to moisture, solvents, and
behaviour of insulation and ageing other chemicals. Epoxies take their name from
characteristics, one must have knowledge of the the epoxide functional group (three-membered
chemistry of materials used: the atomic- oxygen containing ring) which forms part of the
epicholorohydrin molecule, one of the two
molecular arrangement and the nature of the
reactants to make the resin. The molecular
chemical bonds. The stator winding of rotating
structure of basic epoxy resin prepolymer is as
machine usually comprises of mica with organic
shown in Fig. 2. The other component most
reinforcing, bonding and impregnating materials commonly used is dipheyl propane, often called
[1]. Mica paper / synthetic resin combinations Bisphenol A. Many different curing agents are
(polyester, epoxy, silicone resins, etc.) are used to bring about cross linking of
employed almost exclusively in the form of thermosetting epoxy resins.
tapes, which are wrapped around the conductor,
impregnated and cured. Mica’s unique
combination of physical, thermal and electrical
properties and its ability to be split into very
thin, incompressible sheets while maintaining
flexibility, toughness and high tensile strength FIG. 2 MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF BASIC EPOXY
find wide applications in high voltage machines. RESIN PREPOLYMER

The two classes of mica most commonly used

in electrical applications are muscovite 2.0 DETERIORATION MECHANISMS
[KAl 2 (Si 3 Al)O 10 (OH,F) 2 ] and phlogopite
[KMg 3 (Si 3Al)O 10(OH,F) 2] respectively [17]. The epoxy/mica insulation in a generator stator
Mica minerals comprise of layers of silicates winding ages under the conditions of thermal,
separated by alternating layer of metal oxides electrical, vibration and thermo-mechanical
stresses during service [2]. In addition to the
and metal ions. Fig. 1 shows the cross-section
operating stresses, the stator is subjected to
of muscovite mica showing the silicate metal
unforeseen stresses during transient over voltage
oxide-silicate layers where one of every four conditions. Steep fronted over voltages generated
silicon atoms is replaced by an aluminium atom. during switching actions, system disturbances
Each three layer structure is separated by a layer or direct on line starting etc., propagate through
of potassium ions. the winding and have deleterious effects on the
insulation. Ageing process is complex in general
and takes place under stresses simultaneously
or sequentially. Thermal ageing is a chemical
process like molecular decomposition and
oxidation of organic materials. It will lead not
only an increase of internal gas pressure and
decrease of adhesive strength of epoxy to mica
surface, but also results in delamination at the
interface between mica and epoxy [18-20].
Delamination further aggravates under thermo-
mechanical force. Small cracks are likely to be
generated in epoxy rich areas due to thermal
ageing which could trigger electrical trees.

Electrical stress causes Partial Discharge in

FIG. 1 CROSS-SECTION OF MUSCOVITE MICA
defects, which erode insulating materials [21].
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010 63

Partial discharge occurring with occluded sometimes due to thermal shock in the event of
cavities in the epoxy resin of the insulation can a short circuit. The insulation inside the slot is
lead to breakdown of the insulating system and surrounded by large amounts of iron whose heat
the degradation results from a complex capacity is very large as compared to air.
synergistic action of electronic and ionic surface However in deep slotted machines the
bombardment, of ultra violet radiation and of temperature rise in the middle of the slot could
electro chemical reactions. Among the leading be 180°—185°C, because of low thermal
causes responsible for premature failure of conductivity of the surrounding insulation and
machine insulation are slot discharges which are localized runaway condition may be reached.
characterized by extremely large pulses. In the
past 10 – 20 years significant progress has been The various causes of thermal ageing are
made on research in the area of partial discharge
induced ageing of epoxy-mica insulation. The ● Chemical changes in binder and
amount of literature on partial discharge (PD) backing materials due to operating
and partial discharge induced degradation is vast temperature and with time, ingress of
[18-27]. Several researchers have attempted to moisture and contaminants during
correlate a number of parameters such as periods of shut down, overhaul, relative
discharge amplitude with dielectric damage [23] motion between conductor and core due
or pulse repetition rate with surface deterioration to thermal cycling, inadequate cooling
[24]. Studies based on partial discharge test for due to dead spots, poor distribution and
observing delamination and cracks in the reduction in heat transfer, loss of
insulation are reported [25]. Neural networks / volatiles.
pattern recognition techniques has been applied
to recognize PD problems. [27]. The common symptoms and failure mode due
to thermal ageing are
The physical and chemical nature of the
degradation products formed on the surfaces of ● Burning smell and change in colour and
the epoxy resin are also reported in literature. texture, strand separation, powdering,
Insulation condition can also be affected by puffiness, embitterment flaking and
various factors such as thermally decomposed delamination of insulation, tape
byproducts, moisture absorption, oxidation, separation, cracks and sponginess, flow
electrolytic effects of leakage currents, attack of insulation in case of bitumen,
by electrical discharges and their chemical increase in PD activity, flashover of
byproducts, thermo mechanical stress and surfaces or gaps under electrical stress
mechanical wear and abrasion [25]. Thermal due to nearby arcing or extremely high
analysis techniques have been used to metal temperatures in the presence of
characterize a mica/glass fiber-reinforced contaminated gas.
composite. Furthermore, optical microscopy and
SEM are used to examine surface morphology 2.2 Electrical Ageing Processes
of the insulation.
The electrical stresses occur due to the operating
The various degradation mechanisms [2] leading voltage. Enhanced electrical stresses can occur
to failure are at certain local points due to voids, imperfections
and defects. The insulation being composite in
2.1 Thermal Ageing Processes nature, it is very likely that hollow cavities are
present within the system. The partial discharges
The thermal stress on the insulation occurs due in these cavities are always a source of
to the continuous I2R loss in the conductor and degradation. The occurrence of PD in rotating
64 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010

machine stator insulation is a very common Causes of discharge damage

phenomenon and the origin of failure in many
instances has in fact been traced to this. In Various causes which are responsible for
addition, two other types of degrading damage are:
phenomena can occur in the insulation, namely
the slot discharges and discharges in the end Inadequate resistivity of outer coil surface and
region, called end discharges. that of any slot fill material whenever used, coil
damage, clearance between coil side and slot
2.2.1 Partial discharges wall, level of distribution, loss of effective
electrical contact of coil surface to ground,
Partial discharges are caused by local breakdown thermal cycling etc.
of insulating media. As a result of a high local
electric field, charge carrier swarms are Each individual factor plays its own role and
generated in the dielectric and may produce local finally a few combined effects lead to damage
decomposition of the insulation. of insulation.

The most significant locations where this can Various causes of electrical ageing are:
occur are
Effect of high dielectric stress during over
● Voids enclosed in the slot insulation voltages, effect of operating dielectric stress over
material or at its boundary with the a period of time, electrical tracking due to
copper conductor surface build up of moisture, oil, carbon dust
● Between the semi-conducting paint on treeing and corona, insufficient insulation on
the bar and the iron core (slot leads.
discharges).
The following are the common symptoms and
● At the damaged spot of the paint i.e. failure mode
where the electric field along the
surface becomes too high. Damage to bar armour and insulation surface,
● Where the stator bar emerges from the White or brown discoloration and powdering
slot and no special stress control is due to corona specially between phases, near
present. blocking and underneath wedges, dark or black
discoloration and powdering due to arcing and
● Between the non-linear and highly burning along creapage paths and along stress
resistive stress grading paint at slot control coatings, higher temperature due to
entry and the low resistance coating on increased dielectric losses, flashover and ground
the bar. fault.

2.2.2 Slot discharges 2.3 Mechanical Ageing Processes

The discharge between the main ground During operation of the machine, the firm
insulation of high voltage coil and the slot wall contact of the bar with the slot walls is disturbed
is termed as the slot discharges. One can easily due to core vibrations, thermal expansion and
distinguish between mechanical slot discharges contraction of the winding and forces imposed
caused by the stator bar movement in the slot, on the winding due to sudden short circuits.
and electrical slot discharges caused by poor
contact between the semi-conducting layer of The mechanical stresses occur due to the load
the stator bar insulation and the stator iron core. changes. These stresses may be amplified many
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010 65

times during a short circuit. In very large windings get affected is the surface deposition
capacity generators, the conductor overhangs (in of chemicals, dust etc and ingress of moisture.
spite of being rigidly supported) are subjected
to enormous vibrations and embrace each other Electrochemical failure will occur if the
upon a severe short circuit. Due to the fact that electrolyte concentration within the insulation
the heat capacity of the surrounding medium is high enough. Poor electrical design or the
(air) near the conductor overhangs is very less, inclusion of gas pockets in the insulation can
the insulation in the conductor overhangs is lead to erosion of the insulation by discharges
subjected to tearing stress due to differential and to subsequent failures.
thermal expansion and contraction. Due to the
load changes, the temperature of the conductor 2.5 Causes of Failures of Windings of the
increases or decreases quite rapidly, giving rise Machines during Manufacture Stage
to thermal expansion and contraction. The
insulating materials over the conductors cannot Quality deficiencies of the insulating materials
sustain these sudden expansions or contractions (mica tapes, varnishes, enamels etc.)
and cracks on the surface of the insulation may
be formed, which may become a site of PD.
● Improper storages, defective method of
Performance under mechanical stress is one of
application (loose taping, causing voids
the most important aspects in deciding the
and formation of wrinkles), non-
materials for rotating machine insulation. uniform pressing of insulation during
baking and curing, non-adherence to
The probable causes of insulation ageing due to established process of regimes with
mechanical stresses are reference to temperature and time,
inclusion of foreign particles during
● End winding vibration due to magnetic application of insulation, development
forces between phase belts, resonance of cracks, sharp corners, mechanical
and mechanical support, inadequate damage caused while inserting the
support and axial restraint of end winding into the slots, sharp edges /
winding, deterioration of radial support burrs in the stator slots, mishandling
in slots, wedges, springs and packing. of the machine during manufacture,
overheating of insulation during
The common symptoms and failure mode are brazing of end joints, loose core
causing vibration and damage,
● Loosening of slot wedges, strand magnetic particles inside stator,
separation and cavitations, rubbing and inadequate corona protection, defective
looseness at end winding blocking, inter-turn insulation, lack of or
higher temperature due to bar bouncing inadequate quality control and different
and consequent reduction in heat manufacturing stages
transfer especially at cross over-leading
to flashover and ground fault 3.0 EVALUATION OF DAMAGE DUE TO
DIFFERENT AGEING PROCESSES
2.4 Ageing Due to Environmental Influence
Periodic tests are generally conducted to monitor
Machines operating in aggressive atmosphere ageing of the insulation, diagnose the problems,
e.g. cement and chemical plants, rubber factories or provide some assurance that the stator
etc. would suffer rapid deterioration of their winding has a minimum level of insulation
insulation system, if not designed properly. strength. Test methods like measurement of
Further hazard from which majority of stator Insulation Resistance, Polarisation Index,
66 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010

Dissipation Factor, Loss Angle and Capacitance, 4. R F Slot probe automatic

Partial Discharge measurements for condition 5. Partial Discharge analyzer
monitoring of high voltage machine insulation 6. Stator slot coupler (SSC)
were proposed among others by Stark. K.H [6],
Kelen A [4,41], Kurtz [5], G.Stone [8], A.
3.1.1 Over voltage tests
Wichman [28], Schuler and Liptak [29,30], H.
Yoshia and Y Inoue [31], etc. The main features
of the electrical methods are summarized below. Over voltage tests are carried out on full stator
windings and individual phases. These proof
3.1 Electrical Techniques tests simulate two conditions. The permanent
stressing of the insulation by power frequency,
and the action of switching surges. IEEE
IEEE standards and procedures are widely used
standard 56 [32] is an extensive guide for
by Motor and Generator manufacturers and
various tests on stator windings and also
utilities to commission windings in new
discusses the maintenance AC hipot test. A hipot
machines as well as to evaluate the condition of
test is a “high potential” applied to the winding
the winding insulation in operating machines.
and is normally higher than what the winding
The tests can be broadly classified as
experiences in service. Any gross flaws in the
windings is detected during the test and if the
A. Over Voltage tests winding does not fail as a result of high voltage
1 Proof tests test, the winding is not likely to fail when put
1.1 50 Hz into service.
1.2 Direct Voltage
1.3 0.1 Hz A large transformer is required to test the
winding of a large machine at power frequency.
1.4 Half Wave
The DC tests were introduced to overcome the
1.5 Impulse difficulty of portability of testing transformer.
The objective of many investigators was to
B. Direct Current tests determine the ratio between DC/AC test voltage
1. Insulation resistance which would produce the same probability of
2. Polarization Index insulation failure, or the same revealing power
3. Polarization / depolarization versus with regard to weak spots. However, it was
time realized that failures occurring during AC and
DC testing respectively were not always of the
4. Cameron
same kind; end winding failures were more
frequent in DC tests. This is due to the fact that
C. High Voltage AC bridges the electrical stress distribution over a winding
1. Delta tan delta, capacitance tip-up is governed by resistivity in the case of direct
2. Integrated Partial discharge energy voltage and permittivity in the case of AC voltage.
(DLA)
3. R*C In order to attain a realistic stress distribution
4. Goffaux over the winding and the influence of the
dielectric parameters, very low frequency [30]
5. Terase
tests were introduced and frequency on the stress
distribution is analysed. Another approach is the
D. Pulse and HF Measurements power frequency half wave test.
1. Partial Discharge detectors
2. Neutral connection signal analysis Alternatively a resonance power frequency
3. R F Slot probe, manual voltage generator is used in place of portable
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010 67

voltage test equipment. The advantage is that less. The ratio between DC and AC tests varies
when an insulation failure occurs the limited between 1.2 and 2.5. Often a value of 1.6 is
available power causes much less destruction to chosen usually for the machines in operation.
the insulation. The voltage wave has a very low The disadvantage to DC testing is that actual
harmonic distortion, which is extremely service conditions are not simulated during this
important for correct partial discharge tests. test as stress distribution is governed by
resistivity and the insulation is unevenly
Impulse voltage testing of multi-turn windings stressed. On the basis of extensive tests Rushall
will produce a realistic simulation of the stresses and Simons [34] have also concluded that the
produced by surge voltages, but damping will high voltage DC testing method has no valid
confine stresses to a small portion of the winding basis for non-destructivity indicating the service-
near the energized terminal. ability of the insulation of HV machines. IEEE
standard 95 [35] gives the guidelines for
3.1.1.1 Non-linear analysis conducting DC tests and 2002 version highlights
a new variation of the DC hipot test called DC
This is carried out by means of application of Ramp test.
AC voltage on the stator and the leakage current
frequency is monitored [33]. It allows the (a) Conventional DC hipot
assessment of insulation ageing and or
degradation status and the ionic activities In this method a suitable high voltage is applied
intensity inside the slots casued by the presence quickly to stator winding terminal and held for
of voids between the stator core and the winding. either 1 or 5 minutes and after this time the
This current spectrum tends to be displaced from voltage is gradually reduced to zero. If the
the fundamental frequency to higher harmonics insulation is sound, there will be no high current
along the time indicating the presence of ionic surge and power circuit breaker will not trip.
activity. If the power circuit breaker trips then it is likely
a puncture of insulation has occurred.
3.1.2 DC tests
(b) Step stress hipot
To avoid damage due to overheating and intense
partial discharges of the insulation during the In this method the applied DC voltage is
high voltage AC tests, international practice is increased in 1 kV steps, with each voltage level
to subject the windings to DC over voltage tests. being held for 1 minute before it is increased
A variety of direct voltage (DC) testing again. The DC current is measured after the end
techniques have been devised to monitor and of each step and current plots are obtained with
assess the condition of stator winding insulation voltage. The trend is generally a line with a
systems. These methods range from the simple gentle upward curve. An abrupt increase in
withstand or proof tests to more refined rampled current is an indication of weakened insulation.
voltage test in which the DC high voltage is
applied as a linearly increasing ramp function (c) DC Ramp hipot
and the current response is recorded.
In this method, the DC voltage is smoothly and
3.1.2.1 Evaluation of deterioration by hipot linearly increased at a constant rate, usually 1
method or 2 kV/minute and there are no discrete steps
in voltage or current. The current vs voltage
The DC hipot tests are performed by several plot is automatically graphed and displayed.
methods. DC test sets being of lower capacity The advantage of this method is that it is by far
are portable and power consumption is much the most sensitive way to detect when a current
68 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010

instability is occurring, since the capacitive at each step of DC test is plotted against voltage;
charging current is not changing with time. instability is predicted from an upward curving
However the disadvantage is that it does not slope. A forecast of the RBDV of the insulation
duplicate the voltage stresses applied across the is derived from the current voltage characteristic
insulation when it is in operation [36]. at voltages exceeding the normal test levels.

3.1.2.2 Insulation resistance 3.1.2.4 Recovery voltage

IR tests are made to determine current leakage Recovery or return voltage measurements
through insulation and over its surfaces under (RVM) have been used to evaluate the
specific conditions of voltage and time. DC polarization and discharge characteristics of an
insulation resistance also provides information insulation system since these processes are
on humidity, contamination and certain types of strongly influenced by the quality and condition
mechanical damage of insulation. This is of the dielectric materials. This technique is
probably the most widely used test for stator widely used for determination of moisture and
windings of motors and generators. This test is the extent of ageing of oil-paper insulation in
performed as per IEEE-43-2000 standard [35]
transformers and cables. Experience using RVM
“guidelines and the minimum acceptable
on rotating machine insulation is very limited
corrected insulation resistance (in MÙ ) to be
and no guidelines or standards exist for this
equal to the kilovolt rating of the insulation
application. Some preliminary work on stator
system plus one”, that is Rmin = VLL + 1.
winding using RVM techniques are reported
[38, 39] The principle of the measurement is as
3.1.2.3 Polarisation index
follows:

Determination of current to earth and its rate

1. A DC voltage of 2 kV charges
of change with time: A commonly used
the insulation under test for a
characteristic is the PI, the ratio of observed
predetermined time of tc sec.
currents at two times i.e. the ratio of the
observed currents at two times 1 min and 10
min. PI is a recognized criterion for judging the 2. The test object is short circuited for
insulation dryness or humidity, contamination, pre-selected time of td.
cure and physical integrity of a new winding or
after a service interruption. A low value of PI 3. Open the short circuit and allow the
indicates a humid insulation. IEEE std. 43-2000 residual polarization to build up
recommends a polarization index greater than recovery voltage across the test object.
or equal to 2 for class F insulation.
4. Measure the maximum recovery
The variation of polarization or depolarization voltage and its rise time. Under this
current with time follows a power law in most condition the test object discharges
of the cases. The value of the exponent might through its own DC resistance. These
provide useful information on the state of the parameters are strictly related to the
insulation or contaminated with oil, dirt, etc. polarization processes and their
intensities.
An attempt at producing a general judgement of
the state of the ageing of insulation in terms of 5. Changing tc and td in a time range of
its remnant breakdown voltage (RBDV) has been 20msec to 10,000 sec. while tc/td = 2,
based on measurements of the current during an constant, a series of values Vr and tr
over-voltage DC test [9]. The stationary current are obtained.
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010 69

3.1.2.5 Surge comparison Dissipation factor is determined at several levels

of the test voltage. The first test voltage is
Surge comparison test is used to determine usually 0.2 times the rated phase to phase
condition of inter turn insulation of the stator voltage Vph where PD is just below inception
winding. An impulse voltage of appropriate level and is taken as the reference value (tan
δo). The inception voltage may decrease due to
magnitude is applied synchronously to the two
reversal of charges or presence of homopolar
winding sections. The resultant damped
charges at the interface or on the system or due
oscillatory waves are superimposed on an to a single large void. Tan δ and capacitance
oscilloscope. The two waveforms will be measured at low voltage are a function of the
identical if both the phase windings are state of the cure of the resin, the presence of
electrically identical and free from faults. Any moisture or contamination in the windings, loss
discrepancy in the two waveforms indicates inter of contact of the coil outer surface with the core
turn fault in one of the windings. due to erosion of slot discharge preventing
coating, non linear effect of slot end stress
3.1.3 HV AC bridge measurements of grading systems, the influence of inter winding
dielectric loss capacitances and losses, besides other factors
[35]. The higher levels often in steps of 0.2
Vph are interpreted as revealing the gradual
Discharge measurements provide a sensitive, non
ignition of PD in voids and imperfections [41].
destructive means of detecting minute defects
These measurements are performed by balancing
in insulation. The successful application of
the bridge with appropriate earthing and guard
discharge technique depends on the following; circuitry. The settings of a balanced bridge give
The conditions at which discharges occur, factors values of the capacitance of the test object as
which affect the discharge magnitude, recurrence well as the dissipation factor. Information about
frequency, and the various mechanisms of PD activity is contained not only in Delta tan δ
deterioration and breakdown by discharges. but in capacitance tip-up as well. Different
shapes of the voltage wave will at constant
The Schering bridge and modifications of HV amplitude produce different values of delta tan
AC bridge circuit represents the next step of delta for a particular test object.
development which branches in several, slightly
different directions, mostly with the purpose of Capacitance tip-up is another important
revealing the extent of PD activity. diagnostic tool. A change in capacitance may
occur due to change in the size, shape or distance
between the two conductors. As insulation
3.1.3.1 Dissipation factor tip-up (Delta tan
system cures or ages, the dielectric constant may
delta)
change causing a change in the measured
capacitance.
Dissipation factor, also called tan delta is a
measure of dielectric losses in the insulation. It 3.1.3.2 Partial discharge test
is the property of the insulating material used.
IEEE 286-2000 [40] gives the guidelines for
Partial discharge test is another important
measurement of power factor tip-up of electric diagnostic test for HV machines as it is capable
machinery coil insulation. For a given insulating of revealing incipient faults in the stator winding
system the tan delta shall be as small as possible. structure. Partial discharges in stator windings
An AC bridge such as a Schering bridge or are manifest by positive and negative current
transformer ratio arm bridge is used to measure pulses of a few nanoseconds in duration. IEEE
the tan delta and capacitance of the stator std. 1434 – 2000 [42], “Guide to the
winding. Measurement of Partial Discharges in Rotating
70 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010

Machinery” describes typical systems for recorded. This voltage is called discharge
conducting off-line partial (PD) measurements extinction voltage (DEV) and is usually lower
on individual form-wound coils. than the DIV.

In HV electrical rotating machines three types 3.1.3.3 Integrated partial discharge energy
of discharges can be identified.
Another method of deriving more direct
a) Internal discharges that occur in voids information on PD activity is by dielectric loss
occluded in the bulk volume of the analyzer (integrating capacitance bridge)
winding insulation. developed in UK [43]. This bridge is balanced
at a voltage below PD inception. A signal
b) Slot discharges that occur in the air proportional to the test voltage is connected to
gaps between the core laminations and the X-Plates of an oscilloscope and the signal
adjacent coil sides in the slots. across the bridge detector to Y-Plates. When the
test voltage is increased above PD inception
c) End winding discharges that occur at lissajou figure on the oscilloscope screen opens
the extremity of the conducting coating up to a loop typically in the form of a
outside the end of the slot where there parallelogram. Information is derived from the
is an interface on the coil surface dimensions and shape of this figure as a function
between ground and high voltages. of the test voltage. An overall judgement is
expressed in terms of dissipated loss power per
The slot and end winding discharges are known microfarad of winding capacitance and per AC
to be more detrimental to the insulation than cycle. This test is becoming obsolete now.
internal discharges. The internal discharges
cause slow but gradual deterioration of the
3.1.3.4 R*C
insulation in the course of service. The slot and
end winding discharges are severe and can cause
The product of the insulation resistance of one
deterioration and eventual breakdown of the
minute and the capacitance of the winding at
insulation within the span of few months.
0.2 VL is another diagnostic tool. It has the
dimension of time, the insulation time constant.
The PD test involves energizing the individual
It decrease with time in service is sometimes
phase winding to phase to earth voltage from
interpreted to indicate deterioration.
an external source. The blocking capacitor Cb
blocks the power frequency high voltage and
allows the high frequency current impulses of 3.1.3.5 Goffaux
PD to be coupled to the discharge detector. The
magnitudes of PD are calibrated in pico Modification of the traditional AC bridge
coulombs. diagnostics has been proposed by Goffaux [44].
Band-pass bridge detectors tuned to two
The AC test voltage is raised gradually until frequencies above power-frequency are used in
PD pulses are observed on the detector. The addition to the 50 Hz detector. Based on a
voltage at which PD starts occurring is called physical model of polarization and conduction
discharge inception voltage (DIV). The test in sound and damaged insulation, the variation
voltage is increased up to the maximum of phase of different recorded signals with voltage are
to earth voltage and magnitude of the PD pulses interpreted. The usefulness of this method
is noted down. As the test voltage is decreased depends on the response of the insulation to PD
the voltage at which the PD pulses disappear is pulses, rather than the PD pulses themselves.
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010 71

3.1.3.6 Terase with discrimination by logical circuitry between

PD signals and noise signals.
Another approach has been developed by Terase
[45]. The slope of the active current versus AC Electrical signals in the neutral connection of a
voltage reveals the well known bend when PDs winding are subjected to frequency analysis in
ignite. By increasing the voltage beyond the the range from tens of KHz to tens of MHz.
value used in ordinary over voltage tests, a The signals obtained by means of a coupler in
second bend is often observed, which is stated the neutral connection of a winding are reported
to permit the prediction of the RBDV. The newly to produce information on various deleterious
defined parameter Y, measured in this method conditions.
equal tan delta plus γ, where γ closely relates to
void volume in a sample. If any of the methods which have been
mentioned so far indicates a dangerous level of
A new apparatus to measure Y automatically is PD activity, the geometrical location of its
also developed, which shows experimentally source is important to plan the required
several advantage in a practical test Y-V patterns maintenance. Looking at the energized winding
and γ-V patterns by this method are verified to by means of RF or ultra–acoustical devices is
correlate well to insulation condition and frequently resorted to. This requires access to
residual breakdown voltage of a sample. the winding.

3.1.4 Pulse and High Frequency 3.1.5 Electromagnetic Probes

More recently, advances in digital electronics A more precise location is achieved by means
have made microprocessor based measuring and of the electromagnetic probe which is an
analysis techniques possible. Much progress has inductively coupled detector. Capacitively couple
been made in the development of partial detector probes have also been used. The latter
discharge instrumentation in terms of bandwidth is less safe and less accurate because of difficulty
selection, calibration and pulse discrimination. in reproducing the capacitive coupling. The E
M probe is an insulating rod carrying a sensor
which is isolated axially to scan one slot after
Partial discharges generate short duration current
another while the stator winding is energized.
pulses propagating from the origin towards both
The sensor is in principle, a small radio receiver
ends of the winding and takes place in
and enables the precise localization of PD
activity and slot corona. A modification of this
● a series mode like a travelling wave method is the permanent installation of miniature
on a transmission line with frequency RF receivers on the rotors at various axial
dependent attenuation and reflections. locations; suitable signal processing enables a
continuous scanning for slot PD activity.
● and in a parallel mode mainly by
inductive and capacitance coupling PD pulse distributions from the winding of
between the windings. operating generator are analysed and presented
using specially developed electric circuitry,
Direct observation of PD activity by means of Phase resolving pulse distribution analysis
straight or balance circuits, band-pass filters with (PRPDA). This new technique records amplitude
selected characteristics have been widely used. distributions of PD pulses. The PDA test has
Development in this field continuing in not been applied to turbine generators since the
particular with regard to noise discrimination electrical noise is much greater in turbine
are signal averaging and differential detection generators.
72 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010

Analysis and interpretation of partial discharges 3.1.6.3 Electronic Rotor Temperature

is still a subject of intense research. The PD are Sensors (ERTS)
highly stochastic in nature. Their magnitude,
repetition rate and phase angle of occurrence Electronic Rotor Temperature Sensors is an
on supply waveform change continuously alternative means of measuring rotor temperature
depending on the local conditions such as at specific locations [48].
temperature, pressure and chemical composition
that exist in the voids. 3.1.6.4 Others

3.1.6 Online Monitoring Techniques Thermal life indicator, insulation sniffer, global
motor monitor are some of the other sensors for
3.1.6.1 Stator slot coupler online monitoring of generators [48].

4.0 LIFE EXTENSION OPTIONS

Off late a new PD sensor called the stator slot
coupler (SSC) is developed by the Canadian
Electrical association [45,46] which is able to Some of the techniques for condition assessment
and life extension options for generator
differentiate between the PD in the winding and
components are given in Table 1 [49].
all types of electrical interference and permit
online test for turbo generators. The new sensor
5.0 CONCLUSION
requires no HV connection to the winding, and
is easily installed in the stator slot, underneath
This paper reviews the various deterioration
the wedges.
mechanisms of stator winding insulation during
ageing and presents a birds eye view of the
The SSC is essentially a directional various electrical test methods for evaluation of
electromagnetic coupler and consists of a ground health and remaining life of insulation. There
plane and a sense line with co-axial output are several off-line and on-line techniques for
cables at each end. The SSC yields an output condition assessment of stator winding
pulse from each end whenever an insulation of Generators and motors.
electromagnetic wave propagates along the SSC
near the sense line. The dual port nature of the The progressive deterioration of high voltage
SSC permits determination of the direction of machine insulation is assessed through non
PD pulse travel using instrumentation that can destructive techniques like measurement of
indicate which end of the SSC has detected the Insulation Resistance, Polarization Index,
signal first. Dissipation Factor, Loss Angle and Capacitance,
Partial Discharge (PD) measurements, mainly
for trend analysis.
3.1.6.2 Passive Rotor Temperature Sensor
[PRTS]
Based on the literature survey it is concluded
that though there are several diagnostic test
The PRTS is a device to measure the temperature methods, the study of structural and chemical
at specific locations on the rotor of a turbine changes, that insulation undergoes during ageing
generator [47]. The PRTS uses an optical is limited, and not fully explored. It is absolutely
temperature measurement technique. The surface essential and for proper estimation of remaining
of the rotor is painted with a special florescent life of insulation.
paint that, when illuminated with ultra violet
(UV) light (via a fibre optic cable in the stator 6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
that focuses the UV light on the rotor), will
floresec a temperature decay time. Higher the The authors thank the management of CPRI for
temperature faster the decay time. giving permission to publish this paper.
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010 73

TABLE 1
PLANT COMPONENTS, DAMAGE/FAILURE MECHANISM, CONDITION
ASSESSMENT AND LIFE EXTENSION OPTIONS: GENERATOR COMPONENTS
Component Damage/Failure Mode Condition Assessment/Detection Life Extension Options /
Prevention
1. Core/winding insulation
(1) Overheated and shorted strands. Infrared detection end winding Manufacturing quality control.
Change in appearance and colour contamination.
of inter turn insulation.
(2) Turn to turn failures. High frequency tests. Cut and replace failed coils. Voltage
surges, switching surges to be
minimized. Manufacturing quality
control.
(3) Ground wall insulation failure. At the time of installation and when Proper positioning of coils in the
in service AC and or DC electrical slots. Periodic diagnostic testing
tests for insulation resistance/ and maintaining tight packing of
polarization index, diagnostic tests coils and packing materials in the
like PD measurement etc followed slot. Ensure firm contact between
by visual inspection. ground insulation with slot walls
to prevent corona and partial
discharges.
(4) Internal corona PD tests, power factor tip-up test. Remove failed coil or parallel circuit
with failed coil. Manufacturing
quality control.
(5) Corona in slot entry and Extensive visual inspection. Ensure correct length of semi
grading paint not adhering. conductive coating paint from slot
and proper overlapping. Care to be
taken while handling.
(6) Coil vibration, slot discharge Slot corona and PD may indicate Prevent coils from becoming loose
and worm semi-conducting paint. loose coils, visual inspections during by installing coils sufficiently tight.
operation and hollow sounding To establish complete mechanical
wedges when tapped. Sound stability and electrical contact
variation during operation. Migration repack and rewedge.
of wedges or packing materials.
(7) Slot corona and partial Corona probe test. Injection of semi-conductive
discharge. material in liquid or semi-liquid
form between insulation and slot
may be required. Repack and
rewedge to establish electrical
contact between insulation surface
and slot surface.
(8) Semi conducting paint not Visual inspection corona probe test. Prevention of coil vibration in
adhering. Ohm meter resistance coil to core. service. Recoat with semi
conducting paint as completely as
possible.
(9) Loose wedges. Material dust Wedge mapping tests. Visual Periodic inspection Re-tightening
deposits. inspection for insulation damage. of wedges.
(10) Loose wedge packing Inspection for insulation damage. Periodic inspection. Use of spring
type filler.
74 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 2010

Component Damage/Failure Mode Condition Assessment/Detection Life Extension Options /

Prevention
(11) Loose side packing. Visual inspection. Slots with loose side packing
should be replaced and rewedged.
(12) Loose coil separator and Same as wedge packing. -
bottom stick.
(13) Blocking and lashing loose. Inspection. Periodic inspection broken or
loose lashings to be retied.
Blocking should be mechanically
locked in a place.
(14) Connection open circuit or Comparison of resistance of Insulation quality control. Re-
high resistance. parallel circuits. insulation and re-brazing.
(15) Stator lamination. Visual inspection. Core Loss (ring) Periodic inspection of core for
test using infra-red scanning to ferrous oxide deposits. Re-torque
detect hot spots. loose clamping studs. Separate
shorted laminations with mica
sheets or by stacking to prevent
localized heating.

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