Foundation Course

Quantitative Reasoning and Mathematical Thinking

(QRMT)

Lecture # 08
23 September 2024

BBB

Ashoka University
 Announcement for the Mid-Term Exam
Date: Monday, 30 September 2024
Short-Answer type and MCQ; (2-page open notes);
Duration: 1 hr 15 min, In-Class
# Questions = 17; Total points: 100; Credit: 25%
Each MCQ carries 4 points. For correct answer, you
earn 4 points; incorrect answer: 0 point, and no
answer (omission) fetches 1 point.
There will be 14 questions, 4 points each;
Three (3) more questions will carry 8 points, each.
Bonus points: 20
Answers should be written on the Test Paper itself. Calculators
allowed; please bring your own notepapers for rough work.
Coverage: Material taught during 26-08-2024 to 25-09-24;
 3
Science as well as life improves when people
realize they were wrong

Quiz # 2:
Model Solutions

Courtesy: Naomi Oreskes, Scientific American, August 2024

 4

Quiz # 2: Model Solutions

 5

Quiz # 2: Model Solutions

3. There are three Presidential candidates X, Y, Z, and 100 voters

to cast votes. Every voter will cast exactly one vote either to X or
Y, or to Z. For example, {X = 50, Y = 48, Z = 2} is a valid vote
distribution. The total number of election outcomes in terms of
distribution of votes, is (choose one):
A. 3100 ; B. 1003 ; C. 5151; D. 161700;
E. None of these.
Answer: C((100 + 3 – 1), 100)
= C (102, 100) = 5151
 6

Quiz # 2: Model Solutions

4. The area of circular-coin A is four times that of circular-coin B.
Both A and B lie on the plane in non-overlapping fashion and touch
each other on their boundaries. Starting from an initial position
where B touches A, coin B rolls around coin A and returns to its
starting point without slipping. The number of rotations completed
by coin B is (choose one):
A. 1; B. 3 ; C. 4; D. 5; E. None of these.

Solution: Since Area(A) = 4*Area(B),

Circumference(A) = 2*Circumference(B).
So, Coin B will need 2 rotations to cover the
perimeter of A; also, since B rolls on A for full 360
degree, it undergoes one additional rotation.
Hence, Answer = 2 + 1 = 3.
 7

Quiz # 2: Model Solutions

5. A is travelling from Delhi to Dehradun by car with the average
speed of 80 km/hr, and B is returning from Dehradun to Delhi with
the average speed of 60 km/hr, along the same road. The distance
from Delhi to Dehradun is 280 km, and both A and B started their
journey simultaneously at 8 AM, and they are travelling non-stop.
The time when A and B would meet is (fill-up the gap):10 AM.

Solution: Relative speed between A and B = 80 +

60 = 140 km/hr. So, they will take 2 hr to cover
the distance of 280 km. Hence, A and B will meet
at 10 AM.
 8

Quiz # 2: Model Solutions

6. Let X be a set {, {}, {, {}}}. Write down the
power-set P(X) of X.

Solution: P(X) = {, {}, {{}}, {{, {}}}, {, {}},

{, {, {}}}, {{}, {, {}}}, {, {}, {, {}}}};
i.e., |P(X)| = 8
7. Write down the set expression for the shaded
area in terms of A, B, C:
Solution:
 9

Quiz # 2: Model Solutions

8. In DS of QRMT, there are 10 students and the teacher
wants to make one team that comprises at least two
students. The number of the ways the team can be
formed (choose one):

A. 45; B. 100; C. 1013; D. 1024; E. None of these.

Solution: The Power set of a set with cardinality 10

comprises 2^10 = 1024 elements. Out of these, there is
one subset () with cardinality 0, and 10 subsets with
cardinality 1. Thus, Answer = 1024 – (1 + 10) = 1013.
 10

Quiz # 2: Model Solutions

9. Assume A and B are two sets such that no one is a
subset of the other, and A ∩ B  .
Simplify X = (BC ∪ A) ∩ (A \ B)
Answer = A \ B = A ∩ BC
10. Encircle the numbers below which are rational:
A. (5)2 ; B. 10.666….; C. (2.56);
D. (49.16); E. 
11. Suppose N = {1, 2, 3, …} is the universal set, and A
= {n | n ≤ 6}, B = {n | 4 ≤ n ≤ 9}, and C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
What is A ∩ (B ⊕ C)?
Answer: A ∩ (B ⊕ C) = {1, 3, 4, 6}
 11

Quiz # 2: Model Solutions

12. In a batch of 200 students, 100 students took the
course on Modern History, 90 students took the course
on Indian Philosophy, and 20 students took both the
courses. The number of students who neither took
Modern History nor Indian Philosophy is (choose one):
A. 10; B. 30 ; C. 70; D. 80;
E. None of these.

200
MH IP Answer = 200 − (100 + 70)
80 70 = 30

20
 12

The Pizza Puzzle

ACMU 2008-09
ACMU 2008-09

Why pizzas are supplied in square

boxes, round in shape, and eaten
in triangles? Logician

A square-box can be constructed by

folding a single sheet of card board,
with certain cuts!
A round-box cannot be constructed by
folding a single sheet

Monsky's theorem (1970): it is not

possible to dissect a square into
13
an odd number of triangles of equal
area
Ref: Proofs from THE BOOK
 14

Why pizzas are supplied in square

boxes, round in shape, and eaten
in triangles?

Courtesy: Aatish Bhatia, The WIRE, 2017

ACMU 2008-09
 Rational and Irrational Numbers

Rational Numbers: p, q are integers,

q0

(a) 0.73 (b) 0.666…. (c) 3.142 (d) 12.25

= 3.5

How to prove?

Hippasus is credited with the discovery of the irrational

numbers for the first time
 Proof of Claim that 2 is irrational

Proof technique is based

on “reductio ad absurdum”
(Proof by contradiction)

In logic, reductio ad absurdum ("reduction to

absurdity") is the form of argument that establishes
a claim by showing that the opposite scenario
would lead to absurdity or contradiction.
 The Square Root of 2 is Irrational
2
This is a “reductio-ad-absurdum” proof. 1
To prove that 2 is irrational
Assume the contrary: 2 is rational 1
That is, there exist integers p and q with no common factors [gcd(p, q) = 1] such
that: p p2
= 2  2
=2  p 2 = 2 q 2  p is even
q q
(Since 2q2 is even, p2 is even so p even) (odd2 = odd) So, p = 2k for some k

p2 p2
Also , as 2 = 2  q =2
 q is even.
q 2
p2
(Since p is even is even, q2 is even so q is So q = 2m for some m.
even) 2
p 2k p
 =  have a factor of 2 in common.
q 2m q

This contradicts the original assumption.

2 is irrational. QED Proof

 Special Sets related to Numbers
• N: set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
• W: set of whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
• Z: set of all integers, positive, negative, and zero
{.., …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …,..}
• Q: set of all rational numbers {1, - 2, ,, ½, -¾,
59/273,.., p/q (where p, q  Z, q  0)}
• R: set of all real numbers: {…, -3, 5.23, 32/573, -
17, 2, , …}
• C: set of complex numbers
Note that: N ⊆ W ⊆ Z ⊆ Q ⊆ R ⊆ C
 Special Sets related to Numbers
• N: set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
• W: set of whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
• Z: set of all integers, positive, negative, and zero
{.., …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …,..}
• Q: set of all rational numbers {1, - 2, ,, ½, -¾,
59/273,.., a/b (where a, b  Z, b  0)}
In set notation, we can say Does 459/23  Q? Yes
Does 3.141  Q?
• N = {x  Z| x > 0} 3.141 = 3141/1000 Yes
Does 2.25  Q? Yes
Does 2  Q? No
Venn Diagram for the Complex
Number Systems Numbers
(a  i b), i = −1


N⊆W⊆Z⊆Q
⊆R⊆C
Cardinality of a Set X
The number of elements in set X, denoted as |X|

Let X be a set,

If X =  (the empty set), then |X| = 0

If X has exactly n elements, n a natural number,

then |X| = n; X is called a finite set

Otherwise, X is called an infinite set

Cardinality of Sets: Finite and Infinite Sets
If |X| = n, where n is a non-negative integer,
then X is called a finite set with n elements
Examples:
Y = {2,3,9,45} is a finite set, because |Y| = 4
A = {cat-dad, cat-mom, cat-me} is a finite set,
because |A| = 3
 is a finite set as ||= 0
If a set is not finite, then it is an infinite set, e.g.,
N: the set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, …, ..}
Z: set of all integers ={…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …,..}
Examples:

X = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}; |X| = 8 Finite set

N: the set of natural numbers; |N| =  Infinite

set

Q: the set of rational numbers; |Q| =  Infinite

set

E = {2n | n is a +ve integer}; |E| =  Infinite

(the set of positive even integers) set
Let X and Y be two sets. Then, |X| = |Y| if there is a
“one-to-one” and “onto” (bijective) correspondence
between the elements of X and the elements of Y.

Example:

1. X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} |X| = 5

Y ={a, e, i, o, u}

1  a, 2  e, 3  i, 4  o, 5  u; |Y| = 5
 Countable Sets : Definition
1. A finite set is countable;

2. An infinite set S is said to be countably infinite

if there is a bijection (pairing of elements)
between S and the set of natural numbers:
N = {1, 2, 3, ….};

3. A set S is countable if it is either finite or

countably infinite;

3. A set S is uncountable if it is not countable.

Sets with infinite cardinality
Example: N, Z, Q, R, etc.,….
Comparing cardinality of two sets:
Two sets A and B have the same cardinality if
there exists a bijection (or a one-to-one and onto
correspondence) between them, A  B
We categorize infinite sets into two groups:

Sets with the same Sets with different

cardinality as that of N cardinality as that of N
(countably infinite set) (uncountably infinite sets)
e.g., E, Z, Q e.g., R: Set of real numbers
Comparing Cardinality of Infinite Sets
N: the set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,…, ..}
E+: set of all non-negative even integers
={2, 4, 6, …….} E+: Countably infinite set
Question: Which set is bigger in size, N or E?
N and E are of
same cardinality!

Is E  N?? |N| = |E+| = 0 (aleph null)

N: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ……. }

E+: { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, …... }

Mapping Bijective Function N → E+: f(x) = 2x, x  N
Bijective: one-to-one and onto
Comparing Cardinality of N and Z

Logician

They have the

same cardinality!
Comparing Cardinality of N and Z
|N| = |E| = |Z| = 0 (aleph null)
N: the set of natural numbers N f(x) Z
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7,..}
Z: set of all integers,
+ve, -ve, and zero
={…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …,..}
Z: countably
infinite set; Z
and N have
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x  N;
the same
f(x) = x/2, when x is even
cardinality = − x/2, when x is odd
 Claim: Q+ is a Countably Infinite Set: Amazing Proof!
Difficult Issue: How to arrange the rational numbers so
that a bijection to N can be established …??
Q+ 1 2 3 4 5 6 …... Claim: This arrangement is
1 1 1 1 1 1 exhaustive, i.e., every +ve
rational number (p/q), p, q 
1 2 3 4 5 6 …... N, appears in the array.
2 2 2 2 2 2  The same rational number, however, may
1 2 3 4 5 6 …... appear multiple times in this array such as
3 3 3 ½, 2/4, etc…
3 3 3
49 appears in row #523
1 2 3 4 5 6 …... 523 and column #49, i.e., as
4 4 4 4 4 4 (523, 49)-th element of
1 2 3 4 5 6 …... the array
5 5 5 5 5 5
How to linearize the array so that
….
….
….
….
….
….

 bijection to N can be visualized?

Claim: Q is a Countably Infinite Set: Amazing Proof!

|N| = |E| = |Z| = |Q| = 0 (aleph null)

Q: set of all rational Q+
numbers
{1, - 2, ,, ½, -¾,.., p/q}
(where p, q  Z, q  0)
Let Q+: Positive rational
numbers
N: the set of natural numbers
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7,..}
(N, Q+) pairings: (1  1/1), (2  1/2), (3  2/1), (4  3/1),
(5  2/2), (6  1/3), (7  ¼), (8  2/3), ….