MANAGEMENT

COURSEOUTLI
NE

1.I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOMANAGEMENT

-
Pur
poseofmanagement

-
Managementst
rat
egi
es

2.ORGANI
ZATI
ONANDMANAGEMENT

-
Pri
nci
plesofmanagement

-
Managementf
unct
ions

-
Organi
zat
ionst
ruct
ures

3.OFFI
CEPRACTI
CEANDRECORDSMANAGEMENT

-
Funct
ionsoft
heof
fi
ce

-
Fil
l
ingsy
stems

-
Off
icecommuni
cat
ion

-
Meet
ings

4.PERSONNELMANAGEMENT

-
Def
ini
ti
on

-
Per
sonal
managementf
unct
ions

5.FI
NANCEANDPURCHASI
NG

-
Pur
chasi
ngdepar
tment

-
Pur
chasi
ngpr
ocedur
e

-
Account
s

-
fi
nanci
alcont
rol

1
6.STORESANDCONTROLOFMATERI
ALSANDRESOURSES

-
Typesofst
ores

-
Funct
ionsofst
orekeeper

-
Stor
esmanagementandcont
rol

7.MARKETTI
NGANDQUALI
TYCONTROL

-
Element
sandconcept
sofmar
ket
ing

-
Qual
i
tycont
rol

-
Rol
eofpubl
i
crel
ati
ons

-
Compet
it
ionpol
i
cy

-
Dist
ri
but
ion

8.WORKPLANNI
NGANDCOSTI
NG

-
Impor
tanceofwor
kpl
anni
ng

-
Met
hodsofwor
kpl
anni
ng

-
Fact
orsaf
fect
ingwor
kschedul
i
ng

-
Def
ini
ti
onofcost

-
Cost
ingpr
ocedur
es

9.WORKSTUDY

-
Pur
poseofwor
kst
udy

-
Depar
tmentandl
ayout

-
Met
hodofst
udy

-
Useofmat
eri
als

10.I
NDUSTRI
ALLAW

-Enact
ment
soncondi
ti
onsofempl
oyment

-
Indust
ri
alandl
abourr
elat
ions

-
Indust
ri
aldi
sput
e

-
Rol
eofPKEandCOTU.
2
I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOMANAGEMENT

Managementistheprocessofplanni
ng,or
ganizi
ng,l
eadi
ngandcontr
oll
i
ngtheeff
ortsof
or
ganizat
ional
member sandusingallot
herorgani
zati
onalr
esour
cestoachi
evest
ated
or
ganizat
ional
goals.

Managementasanar
t

Theprocessofmanagi
nginvol
vestheuseofknowledge,
ski
l
lsandcr
eat
ivi
tyt
husseekst
o
achi
eveconcret
epract
ical
ski
ll
ssuchasprofi
t,andgrowt
h.

Managementasasci
ence

Thereisasystemi
zedbodyofknowledgeinmanagement .Pri
nci
plesar
enowav ailabl
einever
y
functi
onofmanagementandtheseprinci
pleshelptoimprovemanagerialef
fect
ivenesse.
g.
severalt
echni
quessuchasbudget
ing,costaccounting,
rati
oanalysi
s,r
ateofret
ur non
i
nv est
mentaresomeofthetechni
queswhi chfaci
li
tatebett
ermanagement .

Pur
poseofmanagement

1Accompl
i
shmentofgr
oupgoal
s

Managementi
sconcer
nedwi
thconv
ersi
onofdi
ver
ser
esour
cesi
ntoausef
ulent
erpr
ise.

2Ef
fi
cientr
unni
ngoft
heor
gani
zat
ion

Effi
cientofanorgani
zat
ionwil
ldependonhowf ari
tsmanagementhasbeensuccessf
uli
n
provi
dingleader
shiptot
hesubordinat
ewor kersandini
nvol
vi
ngthem mental
l
yandemot i
onal
l
yin
theaccompl i
shmentoforgani
zat
ionalobj
ectiv
es.

3Soundor
gani
zat
ional
str
uct
ure

Managementest abl
i
shesasoundorganizationthati
sinaccordancewi t
hthedesiredobjecti
ves
andtheworkertobedonetoaccompl i
sht hem.Itest
ablishesapatter
nofauthori
ty/responsibil
i
ty
i
.e.whowill
commandwhom, whowi l
lber esponsibl
etowhat ,
andwhowi l
lbeaccountableto
whom thenitf
il
lsthi
sstr
uct
urewit
ht herightpersons,havingt
herightqual
ifi
cat
ionsandt rai
ning
fort
hepositi
ontobeassignedtot
hem.

4Assi
sttheorgani
zat
iont
omeett
hesett
arget
se.
g.gr
owt
handexpansi
on,
prof
itmaxi
mizat
ion,
i
mprovedproducti
on.

5Ensur
est
her
eisamot
ivat
edwor
kfor
cei
nanor
gani
zat
ion
3
6Ensur
est
heor
gani
zat
ionoper
atesef
fi
cient
lyandwi
thmi
nimal
cost
.

7Ensur
ether
eishar
monyandmi
nimi
zesconf
li
ctwi
thi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.

8Enabl
etheor
gani
zat
iont
omakeappr
opr
iat
edeci
sionandsol
veconf
li
cts.

9Assi
stt
heor
gani
zat
iont
oremai
ncompet
it
iveandbeaheadofcompet
it
ors.

10Assi
stt
heor
gani
zat
iont
oremai
nfocusedr
athert
hanbei
ngobser
vedbydayt
odaypr
obl
ems.

Managementst
rat
egi
es.

1.Managementbyobj
ect
ives(
M.B.
O)

2.Managementbyexcept
ion(
M.B.
E)

3.Managementt
hroughcr
isi
s(M.
B.C)

4.Managementbywal
ki
ngar
ound(
M.B.
W.A)
/managementbywander
ing

1.Managementbyobj
ect
ives/
managementbyr
esul
ts

I
taimsatimprovi
ngtheper
for
manceofanor gani
zationbyempl
oyeesset
ting
obj
ect
ives/
perfor
mancetar
getatt
hebegi
nningoft heperi
odwhi
chareagreedbyt
he
management.Theai
m ofmanagementbyobjecti
vesisto:

a)Enabl
epar
ti
ci
pat
ionofempl
oyeesandt
hei
rsuper
visori
ndet
ermi
ningper
for
mance.

b)Enabl
esy
stemat
icoper
ati
ont
hrought
hewor
kpl
an.

c)I
ncr
easeef
fi
ci
ency
,mot
ivat
ionandenv
ironment
.

d)Resul
tsobtai
nedcanbeusedinmakingmajordeci
sionsconcer
ningempl
oyeesi
nar
easof
tr
aini
ng,
incent
ives,
promot
ion,
andretr
enchment.

e)I
ncr
easescommunicat
ionandco-
ordi
nat
ioni
nanor
gani
zat
ion.I
tenabl
eseni
ort
oint
eract
wi
thsubor
dinat
es.

2.Managementbyexcept
ion.

I
t’
satypeofmanagementwheremanagersfocusoni
dent i
fyi
ngandhandli
ngsit
uati
ons/cases
t
hatdevi
atefr
om thenor
malbehavi
orinabusi
nessprocess.It
’sapr
acti
ceofinvest
igat
ing,
r
esol
vingandhandli
nguni
queoccur
rencesusi
ngski
ll
edst af
fandsoft
wareforexcepti
onalcases.

4
Empl
oyeesar
eempower edt
otakeact
ioni
nthei
rar
easi
nst
eadofmanager
scost
ingt
imeand
ef
for
tonminori
ssues.

3. Managementt
hroughcr
isi
s/I
nci
dentmanagement
/fi
ref
ight
ing.

Thisisaprocesswher eor gani zati

onal managementdeal swi t
hamaj oreventthatthr
eatenst o
harmt heor
ganization,stakehol ders,thepubli
candt heul t
imat esurvi
v aloft
heor gani
zation.It
couldbeasur pr
iseev entthatr equiresimmedi ateresponset onor malizethesi
t uat
ionandshi el
d
theorgani
zati
onf rom thet hreat.It
si mportantforanor ganizati
ont ohav eacri
sismanagementt o
reduceuncert
aintyandcr isisev entssuchasnat ur
aldisasters,technologycri
sis(datacrushing,
l
ossofcust omerrecor ds,hacki ng),roomersandt err
oristattacks.

4.Managementbywal
kingar
ound.

Thi
sisastyl
eofmanagementi
nvol
vi
ngmanager
smakingi
nfor
mal v
isi
tstoemploy
ees’
work
pl
acetoseewhati
sgoingar
oundorchal
l
engest
heyar
eencount
eredinthei
rpl
aceofwork.

Appr
oachest
omanagement
.

Therear
esever
alschool
soft
hought
sasr
egar
dst
othest
udyofmanagement
.Someoft
hese
school
soft
houghtare;

I
) Cl
assi
cal
/empi
ri
cal
appr
oach

I
I) Behav
ior
al/humanr
elat
ionsappr
oach.

I
II
) Managementsci
ence/quant
it
ati
veappr
oach.

I
V) Cont
ingency
/si
tuat
ional
appr
oach.

I
) Cl
assi
calappr
oach.

I
twasevolv
edintheearl
y2othcent
ury
.Tosomeextenti
tisacceptedandpract
icedbymany
manager
seventoday.Overt
ime3separat
ebr
anchesoft
heclassicalappr
oachhavedevel
oped.

a)Sci
ent
if
icmanagement
.

b)Admi
nist
rat
ivet
heor
y.

5
 c)Bur
eaucr
acy
.

Feat
uresofcl
assi
calappr
oach.

 Managementi
sthest
udyofmanager
ial
exper
iences.

 Managementpr
inci
plescanbededucedf
rom ast
udyofexper
iencesofmanager
s.

 Managementpr
inci
pleshel
ptogui
def
utur
emanager
sinef
fi
cientmanagementpr
act
ices.

 Managementpr
inci
plesar
euni
ver
sal
appl
i
cabl
e.

 Manager
ialexper
iencescanbepassedf
rom pr
act
it
ioner
stot
hest
udent
sforcont
inui
tyi
n
t
heknowledgeofmanagement .

 Theor
eti
cal
resear
chcanbecombi
nedwi
thpr
act
ical
exper
iencesi
nmanagement
.

I
I) Behav
ior
alappr
oach.

I
tfocusesont
hepsy
chol
ogi
cal
andsoci
ologi
cal
processt
hati
nfl
uencesempl
oyeeper
for
mance.

I
II
) Managementsci
enceappr
oach.

I
tisalsoknownasdecisi
ont heor
yapproach,mat
hemati
cscall
approachoroper
ati
onsresear
ch
nd
approach.I
twasevol
vedafterthe2 wor l
dwar.I
tinv
olv
estheappli
cati
onofsophi
sti
cat
ed
quanti
tati
vemathemat
icalt
echniquesforsol
vi
ngmanageri
alpr
oblems.

Feat
uresofmanagementsci
enceappr
oach.

a)Rat
ionaldeci
sionmaki
ng.

Anor gani
zat i
oni
sconsideredadeci si
onmakinguni
tandthemai njobofamanageri
stobe
makedeci sionsandsolveproblems.Thequalit
yofmanageri
aldecisi
onsdet
ermi
nes
organizat
ionalef
fici
ency
.Theref or
emanagementinfor
mationsystem andot
hert
echni
ques
shouldbeusedf ormakingr at
ionaldeci
sions.

b)Mat
hemat
ical
model
s.

Amodel i
sasimplif
iedrepr
esentati
onofareal
li
fesi
tuati
on.Ituti
li
zesmathemati
calsymbolsand
rel
ati
onshiptoreducemanagerialdeci
siont
oamathemat i
calform sot
hatdecisi
onmaking
processcanbest i
mulatedandev al
uat
edbefor
etheactualdecisi
onismade.Itavoi
dtheti
meand
costinvol
vedintri
alanderr
or.

c)Comput
erappl
icat
ions.

Theuseofcomputer
shasbeent hedri
vi
ngf orceinthedevel
opmentofthemanagementsci
ence
appr
oach.Thecomputercanhandlei
nmi nutesextr
emelycomplexprobl
emswithani
mmense
vol
umeofdataandalsocalcul
atenumerousv ar
iati
onsint
hesoluti
on.

6
 d)Ev
aluat
ioncr
it
eri
a.

Deci
sionmakingmodel
sar
eev al
uat
edforef
fect
ivenessagai
nstt
hesetcr
it
eri
asuchasr
educt
ion
ofcost,
ret
urnoninv
est
ment,
schedul
esanddeadlines.

I
V) Thesy
stem appr
oach.

I
twasdev
elopeddur
ingt
he1950s.

Feat
uresofsy
stem appr
oach.

 Anorganizat
ioni
sasy st
em consi
sti
ngofmanyi
nterr
elatedandint
erdependentpar
tsor
subsy
stems.Theseelementsarearr
angedor
der
lyaccordingtosomeschemesucht hat
thewholeismorethanthesum ofpart
s.

 Asasyst
em,anor
ganizat
iondrawsi
nputsfr
om it
senvi
ronment.Itt
ransf
ormstheseinput
s
andr
etur
nst
heoutputbackint
otheenvi
ronmentint
heform ofgoodsandserv
ices.

 Ev
erysy
stem i
spar
toft
heenv
ironment
.

 Organi
zat
ionisanopensy st
em anditi
nter
actswithit
senvir
onment.I
tisadynami
c
syst
em astheequil
i
bri
um initi
salwayschanging.Anorgani
zat
ionoperat
esinady
nami
c
envi
ronmentwhichcannotbepredi
ctedwit
hcer t
aint
ythusit
sprobabi
li
sti
c.

 Managementi
sexpect
edt
oregul
ateandadj
ustt
hesy
stem t
osecur
ebet
terr
esul
ts.

 Managementi
smul
ti
disci
pli
nar
yasi
tdr
awsandi
ntegr
atesknowl
edgef
rom v
ari
ous
di
sci
pli
nes.

ORGANI
SATI
ONANDMANAGEMENT.

Pr
inci
plesofmanagement
.

1)Pr
inci
pleofuni
tofobj
ect
ives.

Organizati
onal
,depart
mentalandindivi
dual
goalsmustbecl earl
ydefi
ned.All
goalsand
object
ivesmusthav euni
for
mi t
yandwhent hereiscont
radicti
onamongdi f
ferentl
evel
sofgoal
s,
thedesiredgoal
scan’tbeachievedthusuni
tyofobject
ivesisnecessar
y.

2)Pr
inci
pleofspeci
ali
zat
ion.

Soundandef fect
iveor
gani
zati
onbel
i
evesonspeci
ali
zati
on.Modernbusi
nessor
gani
zat
ionneeds
thespeci
ali
zationski
ll
sandknowl
edgebythedesi
redsect
orofeconomyandthusef
fi
cientwoul
d
beestabl
ished.

7
 3)Pr
inci
pleofco-
ordi
nat
ion.

Inanor
gani
zat
ion,manyt
oolsar
eused.Co-
ordi
nat
ioncanbeobt
ainedbygr
oupef
for
tthat
emphasi
zeonunit
yofact
ion.

4)Pr
inci
pleofAut
hor
it
y.

Aut
horit
yist
hekindofrightandpowerthroughwhichitguidesanddir
ectstheacti
onsofot
hers
sothatt
heorgani
zat
ionalgoalscanbeachieved.Author
ityfl
owsfrom hi
gherlev
eltol
owerlev
el
ofmanagementandthereshouldbeunbrokenlineofauthori
ty.

5)Pr
inci
pleofdel
egat
ion.

Del
egat
ionofauthor
it
yist
heprocessoft
ransf
err
ingauthor
it
yandcr
eat
ionofr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
bet
weensuperi
orandsubordi
nat
etoaccompli
shacertaint
ask.

6)Pr
inci
pleofef
fi
ciency
.

I
nenter
pri
se,dif
fer
entr
esourcesar
eusedandtheser
esour
cesmustbeusedineff
ecti
vemanner.
Whentheorgani
zati
onful
fi
ll
stheobj
ect
iveswi
thmini
mum costt
heni
tiseff
ecti
veorgani
zat
ion.

7)Pr
inci
pleofuni
tyofcommand.

Subordi
nat
esshoul
dr ecei
veorder
sfr
om si
ngl
esuper
ioratat
imeandal
lsubor
dinat
esshoul
dbe
account
abl
etothatsuperi
or.

8)Pr
inci
pleofspanofcont
rol
.

Unli
mitedsubordi
nat
escannotbesuperv
isedbyonemanagerthust
hispr
inci
plehel
psto
deter
mi nenumeri
cal
li
mit
sofsubordinat
estobesuper
visedbyamanager.Thi
simprov
es
eff
ici
ency.

9)Pr
inci
pleofbal
ance.

Thefunct
ionalact
ivi
ti
es,t
hei
restabl
ishmentandotherperf
ormancesshoul
dbebal
ancedpr
oper
ly.
Aut
horit
y,cent
rali
zat
ion,
decent
rali
zati
onshouldbebalancedequal
ly
.

10) Pr
inci
pleofcommuni
cat
ion.

I
tinvolv
esthesyst
ematicandcont
inuousprocessoft
ell
i
ng,li
steni
ngandunder
standi
ngi
deas,
opini
ons,f
eel
ings,
viewsinafl
owofef f
ect
ivecommunicati
on.

11) Pr
inci
pleofper
sonalabi
li
ty.
8
Forsoundorganizat
ion,humanr
esourcei
simport
ant
.Empl
oyeesmustbecapableofper
for
ming
thei
rduti
esthustrai
ninganddev
elopmentpr
ogramsmustbeencour
agedt
odev el
optheski
ll
sin
theemployees.

12) Pr
inci
pleoff
lexi
bil
it
y.

Organi
zati
onal
str
ucturemustbefl
exibl
econsi
deri
ngtheenv
ironmental
dynamics.Someti
mes
changemayoccurintheor
ganizat
ionandi
nthatsi
tuati
onor
ganizat
ionshoul
dber eadyt
oaccept
thechange.

13) Pr
inci
pleofsi
mpl
ici
ty.

Thi
spri
ncipl
eemphasi
zesonthesi
mplici
tyoforgani
zat
ionst
ruct
ure.Or
gani
zati
onshoul
dbe
si
mplewithmini
mum numberofl
evel
ssot hati
tsmemberscanunderst
andthei
rdut
iesand
aut
hori
ti
es.

Funct
ionsofmanagement
.

a)Cont
rol
li
ng.

Thisisusefulforensur i
ngallot
herf uncti
onsoft heorgani
zati
onar einplaceandareoper ati
ng
successfull
y.Controll
inginvol
vesest abl
ishi
ngper f
ormancest andardsandmoni tor
ingtheout
ofemploy eestoensur eeachempl oyee’
sperformancemeett hosest andards.Cont
rol
li
ng
processof t
enleadst otheidenti
ficati
onofsituati
onsandpr oblemst hatneedtobeaddr essed
bycreati
ngnewper formancest andards.

b)C0-
ordi
nat
ing

Theco- coordinat
ingf uncti
onofl eadershi
pcontr
olsal
ltheorganizational,pl
anningandstaf
fi
ng
acti
vit
iesoft hecompanyandensur esal l
acti
vi
ti
esfuncti
ontogetherf orthegoodoft he
organi
zat i
on.Coor dinati
ngtypicall
ytakesplacei
nmeet i
ngsandot herplanningsessi
onswiththe
departmentheadsoft hecompanyt oensureal
ldepar
tmentsareont hesamepagei ntermsof
object
ivesandgoal s.Co-coordinati
nginvolv
escommonsuper visionanddi r
ecti
onby
management .

c)St
aff
ing.

I
tcontr
olsallr
ecruit
mentandpersonnel needsoftheorganizati
on.Themai
npur poseofstaf
fi
ng
i
stohir
et heri
ghtpeopleforther
ightjobtoachiev
et heobjectiv
esoftheor
ganizati
on.St
affi
ng
al
soinvol
v est
rai
ning,dev
elopment,perf
ormanceappr ai
sal,promoti
onsandtr
ansfers.

d)Or
gani
zing.

Itcont
rol
stheover
all
str
uctureofthecompany.Theor gani
zat
ionst
ruct
ureist
hefoundat
ionofa
company,wit
houtt
hestruct
uretheday-t
o-dayoperat
ionofthebusi
nessbecomesdif
fi
cul
tand
9
unsuccessf
ul.Or
gani
zat
ioni
nvolv
esdisi
ntegr
ati
ngt
asksandr
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
oempl
oyeeswi
tht
he
speci
ficski
l
lsneededt
ocompl et
ethetasks.

e)Pl
anni
ng.

Contr
ol al
ltheplansthatal
l
owt heorgani
zat
iontorunsmoothly.Pl
anninginvol
vesdefi
ningagoal
anddeterminingthemosteffecti
vecauseofact
iontoreachthatgoal.Pl
anningal
soinvolv
es
knowledgeoft hecompany’sresour
cesandthefut
ureobject
ivesofthebusiness.

f
) Di
rect
ing.

Thi
sisapr ocessinwhi chthemanagersinstr
uct,
guideandoverseet
heper
for
manceoft he
worker
stoachi evepredeterminedgoal
.Dir
ecti
ngisthehear
tofmanagementprocessand
wit
houtit
;planning,
organizingandstaf
fi
nghav egotnoimport
ant.

Or
gani
zat
ionalSt
ruct
ure

Theor ganizat
ionalstructur
e,contr
olsyst
ems,cul
tur
e,andhumanr
esour
cemanagementsy
stems
thattogetherdeterminehow
effi
cient
lyandef fect
ivelyorgani
zati
onalr
esour
cesareused.

Desi
gni
ngOr
gani
zat
ional
Str
uct
ure

• Or
gani
zing

– Theprocessbywhichmanager
sest
abl
i
shwor
kingr
elat
ionshi
psamongempl
oyees
toachi
evegoals.

• Or
gani
zat
ionalSt
ruct
ure

– Formalsyst
em oft
askandr
epor
ti
ngr
elat
ionshi
psshowi
nghowwor
ker
suse
resour
ces.

• Or
gani
zat
ionaldesi
gn

– Theprocessbywhichmanager
screat
easpecif
ict
ypeoforganizat
ionalst
ruct
ure
andcult
uresothatacompanycanoperat
eint
hemosteff
icientandeffect
iveway

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingOr
gani
zat
ional
Str
uct
ure

TheOr
gani
zat
ional
Env
ironment

– Thequi
ckert
heenv
ironmentchanges,
themor
epr
obl
emsf
acemanager
s.
10
 – Str
uctur
emustbemor
efl
exi
ble(
i.
e.,
decent
ral
i
zedaut
hor
it
y)whenenv
ironment
al
changeisr
api
d.

St
rat
egy

– Di
ff
erentst
rat
egi
esr
equi
ret
heuseofdi
ff
erentst
ruct
ures.

• Adi
ff
erent
iat
ionst
rat
egyneedsaf
lexi
blest
ruct
ure,
lowcostmayneeda
mor
eformalstr
uct
ure.

• Increasedver
ti
cal
int
egr
ati
onordi
ver
sif
icat
ional
sor
equi
resamor
efl
exi
ble
structur
e.

Technol
ogy

– Thecombi
nat
ionofski
ll
s,knowl
edge,
tool
s,equi
pment
,comput
ersandmachi
nes
usedi
ntheor
gani
zati
on.

– Mor
ecompl
ext
echnol
ogymakesi
thar
derf
ormanager
sto

r
egul
atet
heor
gani
zat
ion.

– Technol
ogycanbemeasur
edby
:

• Taskv
ari
ety
:thenumberofnewpr
obl
emsamanagerencount
ers.

• Taskanal
yzabi
l
ity
:theav
ail
abi
l
ityofpr
ogr
ammedsol
uti
onst
oamanagert
o
sol
veprobl
ems.

HumanResour
ces

– Highlyski
l
ledworker
swhosej
obsr
equi
rewor
kingi
nteamsusual
l
yneedamor
e
f
lexibl
estruct
ure.

– Higherski
l
ledworker
s(e.
g.,
CPA’
sanddoct
ors)of
tenhav
eint
ernal
i
zedpr
ofessi
onal
normsandv al
ues.

– Managersmusttakeint
oaccountal
lfourfact
ors(
env
ironment
,st
rat
egy
,technol
ogy
andhumanresources)whendesi
gni
ngt he
str
uct
ureoft
heor gani
zati
on.

Thewayanor
gani
zat
ion’
sst
ruct
urewor
ksdependsont
hechoi
cesmanager
smakeabout
:

1.Howt
ogr
oupt
asksi
ntoi
ndi
vi
dual
jobs

2.Howt
ogr
oupj
obsi
ntof
unct
ionsanddi
vi
sions

11
3.Howt
oal
l
ocat
eaut
hor
it
yandcoor
dinat
efunct
ionsanddi
vi
sions

4.JobDesi
gn

1.Thepr
ocessbywhi
chmanager
sdeci
dehowt
odi
vi
det
asksi
ntospeci
fi
cjobs.

2.Theappr
opr
iat
edi
vi
sionofl
aborr
esul
tsi
nanef
fect
iveandef
fi
cientwor
kfor
ce.

Whati
sthepr
ocessofr
educi
ngt
het
askseachwor
kerper
for
ms?

A.Jobsi
mpl
i
ficat
ion

B.Jobenl
argement

C.Jobenr
ichment

D.Jobenhancement

E.JobSi
mpl
if
icat
ion

A.Thepr
ocessofr
educi
ngt
het
askseachwor
kerper
for
ms.

A.Toomuchsi
mpl
i
ficat
ionandbor
edom r
esul
ts.

F.JobEnl
argement

A.I
ncreasi
ngt
henumberofdi
ff
erentt
asksi
nagi
venj
obbychangi
ngt
hedi
vi
sionof
l
abor

G.JobEnr
ichment

A.I
ncr
easi
ngt
hedegr
eeofr
esponsi
bil
i
tyawor
kerhasov
eraj
ob

JobEnr
ichment

1.Empower
ingwor
ker
stoexper
imentt
ofi
ndneworbet
terway
sofdoi
ngt
hej
ob

2.Encour
agi
ngwor
ker
stodev
elopnewski
l
ls

3.Al
l
owi
ngwor
ker
stodeci
dehowt
odot
hewor
k

4.Al
l
owi
ngwor
ker
stomoni
torandmeasur
ethei
rownper
for
mance

Ty
pesofor
gani
zat
ional
str
uct
ure.

12
 1.Funct
ionalSt
ruct
ure

Anorgani
zat
ional
str
uct
urecomposedofal
lthedepar
tment
sthatanor
gani
zat
ionr
equi
rest
o
pr
oduceit
sgoodsorservi
ces.

Adv
ant
ages

 Encour
agesl
ear
ningf
rom ot
her
sdoi
ngsi
mil
arj
obs.

 Easyf
ormanager
stomoni
torandev
aluat
ewor
ker
s.

 All
owsmanagerstocreat
ethesetoff
unct
ionst
heyneedi
nor
dert
oscanandmoni
tort
he
compet
it
iveenv
ironment

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Di
ff
icul
tfordepar
tment
stocommuni
cat
ewi
thot
her
s.

 Pr
eoccupat
ionwi
thowndepar
tmentandl
osi
ngsi
ghtofor
gani
zat
ional
goal
s.

2.Di
vi
sionalSt
ruct
ure

Manager
screat
easer
iesofbusi
nessuni
tst
opr
oduceaspeci
fi
cki
ndofpr
oductf
oraspeci
fi
c
ki
ndofcust
omer

Di
vi
si
onmanager
sbecomeexper
tsi
nthei
rar
ea

Remov
esneedf
ordi
rectsuper
visi
onofdi
vi
sionbycor
por
atemanager
s

Di
vi
si
onal
managementi
mpr
ovest
heuseofr
esour
ces

3.Pr
oductSt
ruct
ure

Al
l
owsf
unct
ional
manager
stospeci
ali
zei
nonepr
oductar
ea

Eachproductstructur
efall
swit
hint
hereporti
ngstruct
ureofanexecut
iveandt
hatper
son
over
seesev er
ythingrel
atedtot
hatpar
ti
cularproductl
ine.

4.Mat
ri
xSt
ruct
ure

Iti
sanor gani
zati
onalstr
uctur
ethatsimul
taneousl
ygroupspeopleandr esourcesbyf uncti
onand
productresul
ti
nginacompl exnet
workofsuperior
-subor
dinat
ereporti
ngr el
ationships.The
struct
ureisveryf
lexi
bleandcanrespondrapi
dlytotheneedforchange.Eachempl oyeehastwo
bosses(functi
onalmanagerandproductmanager)andpossibl
ycannotsat i
sfybot h.

5.Hy
bri
dSt
ruct
ure

13
Thestr
uctureofalar
georgani
zati
ont
hathasmanydi
vi
sionsandsi
mul
taneousl
yusesmany
di
ff
erentorgani
zat
ional
str
uctur
es

Or
gani
zat
ionalEt
hics

Mor
alval
ues,
bel
i
efs,andr
ulesthatest
abl
ishtheappr
opr
iatewayforanor
gani
zat
ionandi
ts
memberst
odealwi
theachotherandpeopleoutsi
det
heorgani
zat
ion

Humanr
esour
cepol
ici
es:

Caninf
luencehowhardemployeeswil
lwor
ktoachi
evetheor
gani
zat
ion’
sgoal
s,howat
tached
theywi
llbetoitwhet
herornottheywi
l
lbuyi
ntoi
tsval
uesandnor
ms.

Depar
tment
ali
zat
ion.

I
sthehori
zontal
processofput
ti
ngtoget
herdi
ff
erentt
y pesofacti
vi
ti
eswhicharerel
atedinone
l
evel
toform adepart
ment.I
t’
sbasedonthepur
pose,functi
ons,pr
ocess,
places,
andregions.

Cent
ral
izat
ion

Iswher
emostofthedeci
sionsi
nanorgani
zat
ioni
smadebytopmanagementand
communicat
eddownwards.Aut
hor
it
yishel
dbytopmanagement
.

Adv
ant
agesofcent
ral
izat
ion

 Costr
educt
ion

 Uni
for
mit
yofact
ion

 Al
l
owsf
lexi
bil
i
ty

 Ther
eisi
mpr
ovedwor
kqual
i
ty

 Bet
tercoor
dinat
ioni
.e.mi
nimi
zesconf
li
ctofaut
hor
it
yanddupl
i
cat
ionofwor
k.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofcent
ral
izat
ion

 Del
ayi
nwor
kespeci
all
yindeci
sionmaki
ng

 Nosecr
ecybecauset
heyhav
etobecommuni
cat
edatl
owerl
evel
s

 Manager
sar
eov
erbur
denedt
husdecr
easi
ngt
hei
ref
fi
ciency

 Possi
bil
i
tyofmi
suseofpowerbyt
opmanager
s

 Reducesempl
oyeesmot
ivat
ion

 I
nappr
opr
iat
eforr
out
inedeci
sion

Decent
ral
izat
ion.
14
Ref
erstowheredecisi
onmakinginanorgani
zat
ioni
sdel
egat
edt
olowerl
evel
s.Aut
hor
it
yis
di
sper
sedtolowerlevelofmanagement
.

Adv
ant
agesofdecent
ral
izat
ion.

 Distr
ibut
ionofbur
densoftopexecut
ivesmakest
hem t
hinkofcr
it
ical
act
ivi
ti
esaboutt
he
futur
eoft heor
gani
zat
ion.

 Pr
omot
esdemocr
ati
cmanagement
.

 I
mpr
ovesmor
aleofempl
oyeesbecausedel
egat
ioni
.e.t
heyf
eel
trust
ed.

 I
ncr
easesef
fi
ci
encyandout
put
.

 I
mpr
ovescoor
dinat
ioni
nanor
gani
zat
ion

 Encour
agesdev
elopmentsofmanager
ial
per
sonnel
i.
e.pr
epar
esmi
ddl
elev
elmanager
sto
takehi
ghlev
elr
esponsi
bil
it
ies.

 Faci
l
itat
escommuni
cat
ionandpar
ti
cipat
ioni
nanor
gani
zat
ion

 I
mpr
ovesoppor
tuni
tyt
olear
npr
act
ical
bydoi
ngespeci
all
yatl
owerl
evel
.

 Qui
ckandbet
terdeci
sionsar
emade.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofdecent
ral
izat
ion

 I
t’
scost
lyespeci
all
yifi
tsadopt
edbysmal
lor
gani
zat
ionduet
odupl
i
cat
ionoff
unct
ions.

 Af
fect
sspeci
ali
zat
ion

 Nouni
for
mit
yofact
ionsbecauseofownway
sofsol
vi
ngpr
obl
ems

 Mayl
eadt
opr
obl
emsofcoor
dinat
ion

 Leadst
oinconsi
stenceduet
odi
ff
erentpol
i
cyandpr
ocedur
es.

 Notpr
act
icabl
eespeci
all
yforsmal
lor
gani
zat
ion.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingcent
ral
izat
ionanddecent
ral
izat
ion

 Hi
stor
yoft
heor
gani
zat
ioni
.e.howt
heor
gani
zat
ionhasbeenbui
l
tov
ert
ime.

 Thesi
zeandcompl
exi
tyoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofcompet
entort
alent
edmanager
s.

 Geogr
aphi
cdi
sper
sionoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.

 Vi
ewsoft
hesubor
dinat
es

15
Spanofcont
rolandhi
erar
chyofaut
hor
it
y.

Spanofcontr
olreferstothenumberofsubordinat
eemploy
eesamanagercandir
ect
lyand
eff
ect
ivel
ycontroli
nanor gani
zati
on.It
’sthenumberofemploy
eeswhi
chareanswer
ablet
oone
managerinahierarchy
.Spanofcontrolcanbenarroworwi
de.Atal
lor
gani
zati
onhasalar
ge
numberofmanager swithanarrowspanofcont r
ol.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingspanofcont
rol
.

 Geogr
aphi
cal
disper
sionofor
gani
zat
ion.

 Capabi
l
ity
/ski
l
lsofwor
ker
sint
ermsofper
for
mance.

 Capabi
l
ityandexper
ienceoft
hemanager

 Thel
evel
ofmanagementatt
het
opi
tsnar
row,
att
hebot
tom i
swi
de.

 Measur
eofwor
ker
-r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenempl
oyeesandt
hei
rsuper
visor
.

 Degr
eeofcent
ral
i
zat
ion/decent
ral
i
zat
ion.

 Technol
ogyi
nuse.

 Fi
nanci
alposi
ti
onoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.

 Cl
ari
tyoft
asksandr
esponsi
bil
i
ties

 Fai
thandt
rustwi
thsubor
dinat
es

 Ti
meav
ail
abl
etoper
for
m at
ask

Chai
nofcommand/l
ineofcommand.

I
tref
erstoorgani
zationshi
erarchyofr
epor
ti
ng.I
t’
stheor
deri
nwhichpowerandaut
hori
tyi
nan
or
ganizat
ioni
sy i
eldedanddelegatedf
rom t
opmanagementt
olowlev
eloftheor
gani
zat
ion.

Benef
it
sofacl
earchai
nofcommand

1.I
test
abl
i
shest
heor
gani
zat
ional
str
uct
ure.

2.Itgi
vesauthori
tyandr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
oreachempl
oyeei
nthei
rpar
ti
cul
arar
eaofoper
ati
onand
theirr
esponsi
bil
i
ties.

3.I
timprovesef
fi
ci
encyandr
educesr
epor
ti
ngandcommuni
cat
ionpr
obl
emsatdi
ff
erentl
evel
sin
anorgani
zati
on

16
4.I
tincreasesthemor
aleofempl
oyeesespeci
all
ymanagerandsuper
visorduet
othei
rposi
ti
on
andr ecognit
ion.

5.
Itr
educesuncer
tai
ntyofchaoswi
thanor
gani
zat
ion.

Del
egat
ionofaut
hor
it
y

Istheacti
onofmanager sgivi
ngall
orsomeauthor
it
ytosubordinate.Manager
salonecannot
perfor
m allt
hetasksassignedtohi
m.Inor
dertomeetthei
rtargetsororgani
zat
ional
tar
gets,
they
shoulddel
egateauthor
itybuttheul
ti
mater
esponsi
bil
it
ycannotbedel egat
ed.

St
epsi
nvol
vedi
ndel
egat
ion

1.I
dent
if
ythecapabl
esubor
dinat
etodel
egat
eto.

2.Assi
gnmentofdut
iesandt
asks

3.Cl
ear
lydef
inet
heexpect
edr
esul
tst
othesubor
dinat
e.

4.Av
ail
ther
esour
cest
hati
srequi
redt
oper
for
mthedut
iesandt
asksef
fect
ivel
y

5.Gr
antf
ull
aut
hor
it
ytot
hesubor
dinat
e.

6.Letot
herempl
oyeesknowwhoi
sinchar
ge.

7.Regul
arcommuni
cat
ion

8.Lett
heper
sonknowt
hathe/shei
saccount
abl
etohi
s/herf
unct
ion.

Benef
it
s/adv
ant
agesofdel
egat
ion.

 Reducesexcessburdenofwor
kloadoft
hemanagerorsuper
visort
hust
opmanager
scan
focusonkeystrat
egici
ssuesi
nanorgani
zat
ion.

 I
timprov
esoppor
tuni
tyf
orgr
owt
handsel
f-
dev
elopmentt
othet
opandmi
ddl
elev
el
managers.

 I
tnur
tur
esf
utur
eor
gani
zat
ional
manager
s.

 I
timpr
ovesi
ndi
vi
dual
aswel
lasov
eral
lor
gani
zat
ional
eff
ici
ency
.

Benef
it
sofdel
egat
iont
oempl
oyees.
17
  I
tshowst
rustandconf
idencei
nthei
rabi
l
ityi
njudgment
.

 Encouragesempl
oyeest
odev
elopv
ari
edski
l
lsandexpandt
heknowl
edget
heyal
ready
have.

 Providebr
oaderexper
ienceswhi
chall
owemploy
eestolookbeyondt
hei
rjoband
responsi
bil
i
tyandthusseethebi
gpict
ureoft
heorgani
zati
on.

 Mot
ivat
esempl oyeesbypr
ovi
dingt
hem wi
thchal
l
engi
ngmoodsandhel
pthem achi
eve
t
hei
rcareergoals.

 Pr
epar
eempl
oyeest
oadv
ancei
nthei
rcar
eer
s.

Benef
it
sofdel
egat
iont
oor
gani
zat
ion

 I
ncr
easespr
oduct
ivi
tyandef
fi
ciency
.

 I
mpr
ovesr
eput
ati
onofanor
gani
zat
ionast
heempl
oyeesar
eoft
hei
rchoi
ce.

 Ensur
escont
inuousi
nsuccessi
onpl
anni
ng.

Benef
it
sofdel
egat
iont
omanager
.

 Iti
ncr
easesti
meavail
abl
etoperfor
m mor
est
rat
egi
cthi
nki
ng,
dev
elopmentofoppor
tuni
ty
andfocusi
ngoncr
it
icali
ssues.

 I
ncaseofabsence,
ther
eisnost
oppageofwor
k.

 Ther
eisf
ast
erdeci
sionmaki
ng.

 I
mpr
ovesr
eput
ati
onoft
hemanager
.

 Bui
l
dteam wor
ker
.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenaut
hor
it
yandr
esponsi
bil
it
y.

Aut
hor
it
y Responsi
bil
i
ty

1.I
t’
sthel
egal
rightofasuper
iort
o I
tsobl
i
gat
iont
oper
for
mthewor
kassi
gnedt
ohi
m/her
commandhissubordinat
e

2.I
tsatt
achedt
otheposi
ti
onoft
he Itar
isesoutofsuper
ior
-subor
dinat
erel
ati
onshi
pinwhi
ch
superv
isor subordi
nateagreest
ocarryoutduti
esonthei
rown.

Author
itycanbedelegat
edby Responsi
bil
i
tycannotbeshi
ft
ed
superi
ortosubor
dinat
e

Aut
hor
it
yfl
owsf
rom t
opt
obot
tom Responsi
bil
i
tyf
lowsf
rom bot
tom t
otop

18
OFFI
CEPRACTI
CEANDRECORDSMANAGEMENT.

FUNCTI
ONSOFANOFFI
CE

Thef
unct
ionsofamoder
nof
fi
cecanbedi
vi
dedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
ies;
andt
heyar
e:

1.Basi
corr
out
inef
unct
ions.

2.Admi
nist
rat
ivemanagementf
unct
ionsoranci
l
lar
yfunct
ions.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethebasi
cfunct
ionsofanof
fi
ce:

19
1.Tor
ecei
veorcol
lect
inf
ormat
ion:

Theprimaryf uncti
onoft heoffi
ceistoreceiveinformati
onf r
om thev ari
ousdepartment
soft he
organi
zat
ionorf r
om outsidethroughenqui
ries,report
s,orders,ci
rcul
ars,complai
nts,messages
etc.I
ftheinformationreceivedi
snotcompl ete,theoffi
cetri
est ocoll
ectinfor
mationbysending
outenqui
riesofclarif
icat
ions.

2.Topr
epar
erecor
dsofi
nfor
mat
ion:

I
nformati
on is usuall
yr ecei
ved i
nt he f
orm ofl et
ters,enquir
ies,phone call
s etc.and thi
s
i
nformati
on has to be conv er
ted i
nto otherforms,whi ch can easil
y be foll
owed by the
management .These are order
s,quotati
ons,price-
li
sts,repl
i
es to enquir
ies and complai
nts,
accountbooks,
etc.,wit
hintheorgani
zat
ion.All
theserecordswil
lberetai
nedf orf
urt
herrefer
ence.

Thebooksl i
kecash-
book,pur
chasebook,sal
es-
book,goodsr et
urnsbook,pr oducti
veexpense
andot
herledger
saretobekeptbyeveryof
fi
ce.Besi
destheaccount-books,
ot herbookswil
lhave
tobemaintai
nedbytheoff
icei
nordert
ohaveasmoot hfunct
ionoftheorganizati
on.

3.Topr
ocessandar
rangei
nfor
mat
ion:

Thei
nfor
mati
onrecei
vedbyt
heoff
icemaybel
engt
hyandt
hesamei
nit
sor
igi
nalf
orm maynot
bemuchusef
ult
othemanagement
.

4.Tosuppl
yready
madei
nfor
mat
iont
otheaut
hor
it
ies:

Anoffi
ceisamachinewhichreceiv
esrawmat er
ial
s(scatt
eredinf
ormati
on)andpr
oducesv
ari
ous
i
temst hr
oughprocesses(
compi l
edandti
ll
able)
.Theof f
icerecei
vesinf
ormati
onthr
oughl
ett
ers,
phones,meet
ings,
complai
nts,busi
nesst
ransacti
ons,et
c.

Admi
nist
rat
iveandManagementFunct
ions:

1.Managementf
unct
ion:

The mostimportantadmini
strat
ivefunct
ions ofthe manageri ncl
ude pl
anni
ng,organizi
ng,
st
aff
ing,di
recti
ng,communi cating,cont
roll
ing,co¬or
dinat
ing and mot i
vati
ng.The of f
ice
managermustorgani
zetheoff
iceonmoder nli
nesfort
heeffi
cientandeff
ecti
veperf
ormance.

2.Dev
elopmentofof
fi
cesy
stemsandpr
ocedur
es:

Allt
hejobsi ntheoffi
cear ei
nter
rel
atedandint
erdependent.Assuchanoffi
cemustprovi
de
bett
erserv
icestointer
rel
ateddepart
ments.Forasmoot hflow ofwor
k,dev
elopmentofof
fi
ce
syst
em andprocedur
esisessent
ial
.

3.For
m desi
gni
ngandcont
rol
:
20
Formsaret hebasictool
sforallty
pesofofficework.Ther earemanyoperati
onswhichcanbe
syst
emat i
zedwiththeuseofprint
edforms.Besides,theuseofthefor
mssav esti
meandener gy
ateveryoper at
ion.I
nfor
mationcanbecol l
ected,recorded orpr
ocessed syst
ematical
lyand
eff
ecti
vel
ywi t
hthehelpofoff
iceforms.Ther
efore,i
tisthetaskoft
hemanagementt odesignand
tocontr
oltheforms.

4.Sel
ect
ionandpur
chaseofof
fi
ceappl
iances:

Theof f
icemanagermustpur chasetheappropri
atemachines,equipmentorfur
nitur
ef orthe
offi
ce.Offi
cewor krequi
resadequateequipment,machi
nesandf urni
tur
eandt heymustbe
maintai
nedpr oper
lyf
ortheeffi
cientwor
kingorder.Appl
i
ancesmustbesel ect
edf orfulland
properuses.

5.Per
sonnelf
unct
ions:

Thepersonnelfunct
ionisper
formedbyt heper
sonneldepart
ment.I
tisassi
stedbyt
heof
fi
ce.I
t
recr
uit
sandselectstheper
sonnel.I
tpl
acesthem i
ndif
ferentj
obsi
ntheoffi
ce.

6.Cont
rol
li
ngof
fi
cecost
s:

7.Mai
ntenanceofr
ecor
ds:

Thisisasecondar yfunct
ionofanof fice.Copiesofallt
hecorr
espondencemustberet
ainedfor
fur
therref
erence.From abusi nessfi
rm,anumberofl et
ter
sgooutdail
yandanumberofr epl
ies
arerecei
ved,andifthecopi esoftheorigi
nallett
ersagai
nstwhi
chtherepl
ieshav
ebeenreceiv
ed,
arenotavail
able,
thedecisioncannotbet akenwi sel
y.

8.Pl
anni
ngschemesandpol
ici
es:

I
nt he presentstage,product
ion i
s al
waysi n ant
ici
pat
ion ofdemand.Theref
orefora
manufact
uringconcer
n,i
thasbecomeessent
ialt
oplantheacti
vi
ti
esoft
heconcer
nforthef
utur
e
per
iod.

9.Saf
eguar
dingt
heasset
s:

Thej obofanof f
icei snotonlyext endedfrom t herecei
ptofinformationt othesupplyof
processedinfor
mation,butal
sotot akecareofv ari
ousassets.Tokeepther ecordofcust
omers
(debtor
s)and keep t he managementt o be informed ofaboutt he doubtfuldebt
s so t
hat
necessarystepsmaybet akentopreventtheoccurrenceofbaddebts.

10.Publ
icr
elat
ions:

Publi
cr el
ati
onssigni
fytherel
ati
onsofabusinessorgani
zat
ionwiththegeneralpubl
ic,usuall
y
thr
ought hedist
ri
buti
onofinf
ormati
on.Publ
i
crel
ati
onsguidebusi
nessenter
pri
se.Publi
crelat
ions
areguidedbypubli
copini
ons.

11.Tocommunicati
on:t
ot hepubl
ict
hecompany '
spoli
ciesandacti
ons.Publ
ici
nteresti
san
essent
ialel
ementf
oranygoodpubl
icr
elat
ions.Offi
cei
stheeyesandearsofabusi
ness.Iti
sthe
21
handwhi
chmakesf
ri
endsf
oracompany
.

TYPESOFOFFICE
A.Offi
ceCubi
cles

Adv
ant
agesofOf
fi
ceCubi
cles

i. Impr ovedCol laborations–I tmakesi teasyf orpeopl etoaskquest i

onsandlearnfr
om one
another
i
i. LessDi st
ract i
on–Cubi clesal l
owsf oramoder atel evelofpriv
acyandper sonalspace
withoutcut ti
ngempl oyeesof ffrom oneanot heralt
oget her.
ii
i. Great erproduct ivi
ty–
iv. Privacy–Wal lsthatdonotr eachthecei l
ingsgiv esempl oyeessenseofpr i
vacywit
hout
feeli
ngl i
ket heyar ebeingwat ched.
v. Social i
nteractionwi thcowor ker smaki ngwor kenv ir
onmenthappi er,
heal
thi
er
vi. Spacesav ing
vi
i. Costef fectivet omakepar t
it
ionsandr efurbishthangi vi
ngeachempl oyeeanoffi
ce.
v
ii
i. Reducenoi sel evelsi
nt asksofhi ghlev elconcentrati
on.

B.OpenPl
anOf
fi
ce

Benef
it
sofopenpl
anof
fi
ce

i
. Creat
easenseofcommuni tyandteam spi
ri
t
ii
. All
owsforf
reefl
owofcommuni cat
ionsandexchangeofinf
ormat
ionamongempl
oyees
i
ii
. All
owsmanagerstoknowwhat ’
sgoi ngoni
nt heoff
ice.
i
v. Reducesr
atesofabsenteei
sm
v. All
owsshari
ngoftools,
equipmentandstat
ioneri
es.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

i. Workersareexposedt omor eger

msandspr eadofi
nfect
iousdi
seasesi
smor
eli
kel
y
i
i. Lessproductivi
tybecauseofdist
racti
ons.
i
i
i. Lessmot i
vationandlowerjobsati
sfacti
on
i
v. Lackofprivacy
v. Reducedsecur i
ty
v
i. Lackofli
ght i
ngandheat i
ngtosuiteall
theempl
oyees

FI
LING

Fact
orst
oConsi
deri
nChoosi
ngFi
li
ngEqui
pment

 Compat
ibi
li
ty

Equi
pmentshouldbecompati
blewit
ht hesi
zeandfor
matofthemater
ial
stobestored.
Suppli
esshouldbecompat
ibl
ewit
ht heequi
pment(
forexampl
e,usesi
detabf
older
sf or
l
ateralshel
vi
ng)
.

22
  Accessi
bil
it
y

Equi
pmentshouldbeeasil
yaccessi
bleandl
ocat
edneartheuser
ssotheydon'
tneedt
ogo
toofartogetthei
rrecor
ds.Thereneedstobesuf
fi
cientroom f
orpeopl
etoaccessthe
materi
alssaf
ely
.

 Cost

Takei nto accountt

heini
ti
alcost,maint
enance,repai
r,and operati
ng cost
sf ort
he
equipment,andcostofaccessor
iesandsuppl
ies.Al
soconsidercostsofconver
ti
ngtoa
di
fferentsystem.

 Secur
it
y

Speci
alequipmentsuch as l
ocks orf
ir
epr
oofcabi
net
s maybe needed f
orv
italor
confi
dent
ialr
ecor
ds.

 Si
te

Cert
aintypesofequipmentwil
lrequi
rer
einf
orcementofthefl
oort ohandl
etheweight
.
Verysensit
iver
ecordsmayneedt obesecuredinareaswit
hl ockeddoorsorli
mited
access.Amountofaisl
espacewi
llvar
ywi
thtypeofequi
pment.

Ty
pesofFi
li
ngEqui
pment

Speci
ali
zedEqui
pment

Largecoll
ecti
onsofmaps,bl
uepr
int
s,char
ts,anddr
awi
ngscanbemor
eef
fi
cient
lyst
oredi
n
cabinet
swith:

 Hori
zont aldr
awerswher
ethedocument
slayfl
at.
 Vert
icaldrawerswher
ethedocument
saresuspendedv
ert
ical
ly.
 Cabi
net sorboxeswit
hpigeonhol
eswhi
chaccommodateroll
eddocument
s.

Magnet i
cmedia(disksandtapes)canbestoredinav ar
iet
yoftypesofequi
pment.Secur
it
y,
stur
diness,
andenvir
onment(
temperatur
eandhumidi
ty)ar
eimpor
tantcr
it
eri
awhenchoosi
ngthis
ty
peofequi pment
.

Microf
orm storagealsocomesinmanysty
les,bot
hautomatedandmanual
.Micr
oformscanbe
housedincabinets,
binder
s,panel
sandt
ray
s.Envir
onmenti
simport
anti
nthi
scasealso.

St
andarddrawercabinets-Thesearet
het r
adi
ti
onalvert
ical
cabinet
swi
thonet
ofi
vepul
lout
dr
awers.Fol
dersareplacedvert
ical
l
y,f
ronttoback,
withtoptabs.

Adv
ant
ages .

Sui
tabl
eforsmal
l
ercol
l
ect
ions.
23
Rel
ati
vel
yeasyt
omov
e.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

Mi
nimum suppl
ypr
obl
ems

Moret i
mei
srequi
redt
oret
ri
eveandr
etr
iev
efol
der
ssi
ncedr
awer
smustbeopenedt
ogai
n
access.

Onl
yonedr
awercanbeaccessedatat
ime.

Li
mit
edadapt
abi
l
ityt
onon-
papermat
eri
als.

Requi
resaddi
ti
onal
spacewhendr
awer
sar
eext
ended.

Di
ff
icul
ttor
eadf
older
sinbackofdr
awer
sandi
ntopdr
awer
sof4and5dr
awercabi
net
s

Openshel
ves

Stor
esrecor
dsonopen,hori
zont
alshelves.Fol
der
sar
epl
acedv
ert
ical
l
y,ar
rangedi
nrows,
f
rom onesi
detot
heother,wi
thsi
det abs.

Adv
ant
ages

Shel
vesdonotext
endi
ntoai
sles.

Can be st
acked hi
ghert
han st
andar
d
cabi
net
s.

Morethanoneper
soncanaccessata
t
ime.

Easi
ly adapt
abl
eto col
orcodi
ng,bar
codi
ng,and comput
erbased t
racki
ng
syst
ems.

Usual
ly less expensi
ve t
han dr
awer
cabi
nets.

Rapi
dret
ri
eval
andf
il
li
ng.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

Mor
edi
ff
icul
ttomov
ethandr
awercabi
net
s.

24
Lat
eralf
il
ing

St
oresr
ecor
dsi
nsamewayasopenshel
ves.Dr
awer
sorshel
vesr
oll
outorext
endf
orwar
d.

Adv
ant
ages

Canbedesi gnedtohavedr awers,orshel

ves
(whichrol
loutorarestat
ionary)
,ortohandle
eit
hersuspensi
onorregul
arf ol
ders.

Canbeequi
ppedwi
thdoor
sandl
ocks.

Adapt
abl
efornon-
papermat
eri
als.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

Onl
yonedr
awerorshel
fcanbeaccessedata
t
ime.

Dr
awer
sorshel v
esmaybepul
l
edouti
nto
ai
sl
esf
oraccess.

25
Mobi
leshel
vi
ng

Shel
vesmovealongatr
ackeit
herhor
izont
all
yorr
otat
ever
ti
cal
l
yli
keaFer
ri
swheel
.Maybe
manual
l
yoperat
edorpowered.

Adv
ant
ages

Canoft
endoubleamountofst
or agespace
si
ncet
herear
efewper
manentai
sles.

Reducest i
mer equir
edtowal ktosearchf or
mat er
ial
s.Inthecaseofv ert
icalpowerfiles,
forexample,theappropr
iat
eshelfisdel
ivered
tot he operator based on the operator's
electr
oni
ccommand.
.
Canbeequi
ppedwi t
hl ocksonshelvesand
ai
sl
est
oimprovesecuri
tyandli
mitaccess.

Easil
yadaptablefornon-
papermateri
alsand
otherspeci
alneedssuchast emper
atureand
humidit
ycontrol
ledcondi
ti
ons.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

Requi
resmoref
loorl
oadcapaci
ty(
abi
l
ityoft
hef
loort
obeart
hewei
ghtoft
heequi
pment
ful
l
yloaded)
.

Mayhav
etowai
ttoaccessdesi
redar
eaunt
ilapar
ti
cul
arai
slei
sav
ail
abl
e.

Mor
eexpensi
vet
hanot
hert
ypesofequi
pment
.

I
fyourequi
pmenti
spower
edbyel
ect
ri
cit
yandt
hepowergoesout
,youcannotaccessy
our
mater
ial
s

Ty
pesofFi
li
ngSy
stems/Fi
li
ngAr
rangement
s

26
Toor
gani
zet
hef
il
ingsy
stem,
oneoft
hemet
hodscoul
dbef
oll
owed.

1. Al
phabet
ic 2. Numer
ic

3. Geogr
aphi
c 4. Subj
ect

5. Chr
onol
ogi
cal 6. Col
orCodi
ng

a.Al
phabet
icsy
stems-
--
fi
lebyt
henameoft
hecor
respondentordocument
.
b.Numer
icsy
stems-codei
temswi
thnumber
s.
c.Al
phanumer
icsy
stems-
--codei
temswi
thl
ett
ersandnumber
s.
d.Subj
ectsy
stems-
--f
il
ebyt
opi
c.
e.Geogr
aphi
csy
stems-
--f
il
ebyl
ocat
ion.
f
. Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionsy
stems-
--shoul
dbest
andar
dizedandconsi
stent
.

Adv
ant
agesofnumer
icf
il
ing

1. I
tsgr
eat
estbenef
iti
sit
sspeed

2. I
tcani
ncr
easepr
oduct
iont
ime

3. Pr
ovi
desaposi
ti
vei
dent
if
icat
ionoft
her
ecor
dandadegr
eeofconf
ident
ial
i
tyt
oo

Geogr
aphi
cfi
li
ng

I
tisoper
atedgener
all
ybypr
ovi
nceorcount
ryandt
henal
phabet
ical
l
yornumer
ical
l
ybyaccount
nameornumbers.

Subj
ectFi
li
ng

Thisinvolv
esarrangi
ngofmaterial
byagi vensubject.Iti
sdonewi
tht
hehelpofdescri
pti
ve
feat
ur eschoosi
ngawor dorphraseforeachsubject.Itist
hemostdi
ff
icul
tofal
lfi
l
ingmethods,
mor eoveri
tisexpensi
vetomaintai
nalso.

Chr
onol
ogi
calf
il
ing

Thisi
sfi
l
ingbydateusedf
orbil
l
soflanding,
copi
esoffrei
ghtbi
l
ls,
canceledchecksorasa
reser
vef
il
e.I
tisusedwher
etherei
sli
ttl
eornoref
erencemadetotherecord.

Col
orCodi
ng

Duri
ngthepastf
ewy ear
scol
or-
codi
nghasbecomeext
remel
ypopul
ar.I
tconv
ert
sthenumberor
al
phabetst
ocolors.

27
Benef
it
sofFi
lesManagement

Thebasi
cobjecti
veofagoodfil
i
ngsyst
em i
stobeabl
etofi
ndther
ecordy
ouneedqui
ckl
yand
economi
call
y,regar
dlessofi
tsfor
mat.Thegoalofagoodfi
l
ingsyst
em ist
oprovi
dequi
ck
accesst
oinfor
mat i
on.

Benef
it
sofAwel
ldesi
gnedFi
lesManagementsy
stem/
Fil
ingSy
stem

 Makef
il
ingl
essdi
ff
icul
t,t
edi
ous,
andunat
tract
ive
 Of
ferqui
ckandeasyf
il
ingandr
etr
iev
alofi
nfor
mat
ionwi
thami
nimum ofwast
edt
imeand
ef
for
t(i
.e.
,30secondr
etr
iev
alt
ime)
 Ensur
eint
egr
it
yandcont
inui
tyofr
ecor
dkeepi
ngdespi
techangesi
nof
fi
ceper
sonnel
 Hav
euni
for
m pr
act
ices
 Al
l
owf
ort
heeasyi
dent
if
icat
ionandpur
gingofi
nact
iver
ecor
ds
 Pr
ovi
decl
earandsi
mpl
efi
lecat
egor
ies
 Expandabl
eandf
lexi
bleenought
omeetev
ery
one'
sneeds
 Higherproduct
ivi
tyandstaf
feff
ici
ency
 LowerCost s
 Timesav i
ngs:
 Fasterf
il
ingandretr
iev
alofi
nfor
mat i
on

 Fewermi
sfi
l
es/
lossesoff
il
esandr
ecor
ds.

Costsav
ings:
 Lessfrequentpur
chaseoff
il
ingequi
pmentandsuppl
i
es

 Lessoffi
cespaceusedf orfi
li
ngequi pment
 Lessti
mespentonf i
li
ng
 Lessl
ikel
ihoodofli
tigat
ionlossesresult
ingfr
om lostdocuments
 Lessl
ikel
ihoodoflostdocument sleadi
ngt ounf
avorableaudi
tfi
ndi
ngsandpenal
ti
es
 Lesscostl
yrecoveryofvit
alrecords

Specif
icBenef
it
s
 E st
abli
shi
ngandmai
ntai
ningcont
rol
overf
il
eswi
l
lbr
ingspeci
fi
cbenef
it
s:

 Easiert
rai
ningofnewper sonnel
 Expandabil
i
tyandf lexi
bil
i
tytomeett heneedsoft heoff
ice
 Standardproceduresfordisposalofobsol
eterecords
 I
mpr ovedservicetocli
ents/publi
c
 Protect
ionofvital
records
 Compl i
ancewi thl
egalandaudi tr
etent
ionrequi
rements
28
 ELECTRONI
CFILINGSYSTEMS
 SaveSpaceandMoney

 Recordsstor
agecaneatupneededspace.Wi t
htheleasecostofoffi
cespace,r
ecor
d
stor
agemaynotbethebestuseofy
ourspace.
 Dev el
opi
nganelect
roni
cfi
li
ngsyst
em canalsosaveontheoffi
ceexpensessuchasfi
l
e
cabi
nets,
drawer
setc.

ELECTRONI
CFI
LINGSYSTEMSVERSUSPAPERBASEDRECORDSTORAGESYSTEMS

SomeBenef
it
sofEl
ect
roni
cFi
li
ngSy
stemsar
e:

 Savestimespentlookingf orfi
l
es(theywi l
lbeavai
labl
eonyourdeskt
op)
 Preventslostorst
olenf i
les
 Createpeaceofmindknowi ngthatal
lfi
lesarebackedup
 Savestimespentre-fi
li
ng
 All
owsmul t
ipl
eempl oyeestoretri
evethesamedocumentatt hesameti
me
 El
ectronical
lyfi
l
eddocument sareacceptedbyalll
egalst
andar
ds
 Savestimebecausef il
escanbeemai l
edorf axeddir
ectl
y
 Easeofaccess.
 Speedofaccess.
 I
ncr
easedsear
chf
aci
l
iti
es.
 Capabi
l
ityt
ost
orehugeamount
sofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nasmal
lspace.
 Por
tabi
li
ty-apendr
iveordi
scenabl
esy
out
otr
anspor
tenor
mousamount
sofdat
aeasi
l
y
anddi
scr
eet
ly.
 Accesst
odat
acanbemoni
tor
edand/
orr
est
ri
cted.
 Easyt
ocor
rectami
stake,
canhol
dmuchmor
efi
l
esi
nasmal
l
erpl
ace

Di
sadv
ant
ages
 El
ect
ri
cal
/El
ect
roni
cfai
lur
ecancauset
empor
arysuspensi
onofbusi
nessorper
manent
l
ossofdat
a.
 Por
tabi
li
ty-copi
edi
nfor
mat
ioncanbeeasi
l
yhi
ddenonadi
scorpendr
ive.
 Dat
aisnotal
way
ssecur
edbycor
rectmoni
tor
ingofaccess.
 I
nfor
mat
ioncanbeper
manent
lydel
etedi
ner
ror
.
 Hacki
ngcanr
eleasei
nfor
mat
iont
hati
sdatapr
otect
ed.
29
  Hi
ghcostofi
nst
all
i
ngsy
stem,
pur
chaseofsy
stem andsof
twar
e.
 Pot
ent
ial
lossofdat
athr
oughsof
twar
e,el
ect
ri
cal
,humanf
ail
ure.

 El
ect
roni
csy
stemscanf
ail
inapowercut
,har
ddr
ivesgocor
rupt
,CDsgetscr
atched.

COMMUNI
CATI
ON

Upwar
dandDownwar
dCommuni
cat
ions

Downwardcommunicati
on(Ver
ti
cal)i
scommunicati
oncreatedbydir
ector
sandmanagersand
passeddownthehi
erar
chyofworkersi
ntheor
ganizati
on.i
.e.Managersdeci
dewhatthe
syst
ems,rul
esandpr
ocedur
eswillbeandt
hentheypassthesedownt oemployeest
heymanage
andsupervi
se.

Ty
pesofdownwardcommunicat
ioni
ncl
ude:j
obdescr
ipti
ons,appr
aisal
s/ev
aluat
ions,
or
gani
zat
ionalpol
icy
,memos,warni
ngandpromot
ionlet
terandorgani
zati
onalsyst
ems.

Ver
ti
calcommuni cationiscommunicat
ionbetweenpeopleonvari
antlev
elsofauthori
tyi
nan
or
ganizati
onorcompany .Thecommunicati
onf l
owsinorderofhi
erar
chyfrom t
hemostsenior
employerorempl
oy ee,downtojuni
oremployees.I
timpr
ov est
heworkingrel
ati
onshipbet
ween

UpwardCommuni cationThi
siscommuni cati
onwhichorigi
natesatthelowerlevelofthe
employmenthi erarchyandisthencommuni catedupthrought heli
ne.Organi
zations’
encouragi
ngupwar dcommuni cati
onbelievethatever
ybodyiscapableofgener ati
ngthought
s
andideaswhi chmayhel pt
heorganizat
iont oprogr
ess,part
icul
arlywhentheyar eworki
ngclosel
y
i
nt heareathatthei deaappl
iesto.

Upwar dcommunicationmayincreasemotivati
onandmakeempl oy eesf
eelvaluedand
respectedwhil
stenablingmanagerstounderstandhowempl oyeesar ef
eeli
ng.Fur t
hermoreif
problemsoccurattheyar emorel
ikel
ytobeidentif
iedear
li
erbythosewor ki
ngcl osel
yinthearea
thattheyoccur
.Typesofupwar dcommunicationsincl
udesuggestionschemes, feedback
forums/ sur
vey
s,gri
ev ancepr
oceduresandempl oyee-
managerdi scussi
ons,compl ai
ntslet
ter.

Later
alCommuni cati
on
Thisi
scommuni cati
ont hatoccursbetweenemployeesonthesamel evel
int
heor gani
zati
on.As
thi
scaninvol
vedecisionmaki ngitcancreat
eeff
ici
encyasemployeesdonothavet owaitf
or
manageri
alapproval
.Ont heot herhandi
fthemanagerisnotkepti
nformedorift
hemanagerf ai
l
s
tosetboundar
iesthereispotentialf
orconfl
i
ct

DiagonalCommunicati
on
Thisoccurswhencommunicati
onoccursbet
weenwor ker
sinadif
ferentsect
ionofthe
organi
zati
onandwher eoneoftheworkersi
nvol
vedisonahigherleveli
ntheorganizat
ion.For
exampleinabank,di
agonalcommunicat
ionwil
loccurwhenadepartmentmanagerinheadof fi
ce

30
conv
erseswi
thacashi
eri
nabr
anchoft
hebankbasedont
hehi
ghst
reet
.

METHODS/
FORMSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
.

1.Or
alCommuni
cat
ion/v
erbal
:

Oralcommuni cati
oncouldbesaidt obethemostusedf orm ofcommunicati
on.I
tuseswords
verbal
lytoinfor
m subordi
natesofadecisi
on,pr
ovi
deinformati
on,andsoon.Thisi
sdoneeit
her
byphoneorf ace-t
o-f
ace.Useoffacetoface,vi
deoconfer
encingandmulti
plewayphonecall
s
withseverali
ndivi
dual
ssimult
aneousl
y.

Thereisaneedtocul ti
vat
ebothyourl
isteni
ngandspeakingski
ll
s,asy
ouwoul dhavetocarr
yout
bothrolesinthewor kpl
ace,wi
thdif
ferentpeopl
e.Itcanbeseeni nr
ecentyears,howev
er,that
ver
balcommuni cat
ion has been r
eplaced to a gr
eatextentby a fast
erf orm ofwr i
tten
communi cat
ionandthatisemail
.

2.Wr
it
tenCommuni
cat
ion
Wri
ti
ngisusedwheny ouhav
etopr
ovi
dedet
ail
edi
nfor
mat
ionsuchasf
igur
esandf
act
s,ev
en
whi
legi
vi
ngapresent
ati
on.

Iti
salsogeneral
l
yusedtosenddocument
sandotheri
mport
antmat
eri
alt
ost akeholder
swhich
couldthenbestoredf
orlat
eruseasitcanberefer
redt
oeasil
yasitisrecorded.Import
ant
documentssuchascontr
act
s,memosandminut
esofmeeti
ngsareal
soinwritt
enf ormfort
his
purpose

3.Non-
ver
bal
/BodyLanguage:

Incl
udeuseof,smil
e,yourgest
ures,si
gns,
col
our
,faci
alexpr
essi
ons,bodypostur
e,bodycont
act
andsev er
alot
herbodymov ementssendoutamessaget othepeopl
ewhi l
edeali
ngwithyour
employeesandcustomers.

Alwaysremembertomaint
ainey
econt
act
.Thi
swoul
dshowt
haty
ouar
eser
iousandconf
ident
aboutwhati
sbeingsai
d.

31
4.Tradi
ti
onalformsofcommunicati
on;dr
ums, horns,
smokeandf ir
e,songs
5.AudioVisualCommunicat
ione.
g.tel
evi
sion,
fil
m, pr
oject
ors,
sli
des

Fact
orsConsi
der
edWhenChoosi
ngaMet
hodofCommuni
cat
ion?
 Recipient
 Distance
 Ti
me
 Urgencyofmessage
 Cost
 Conf i
dentiali
tyofmessage
 Safely&Secur i
tyofthemessage
 Availabi
lit
yoft hemet hod
 Technol ogyav ai
labl
e
 Natur e&si zeoftheMessage
 Knowl edgeofSender&Recei vers
 I
nf l
uence&Responseoft heCommuni
cat
ion

FACTORSCONSI DEREDINSELECTI NGCOMMUNI CATIONSYSTEM/ MEDI A/CHANNEL/

VEHICLE
1.Qui
ckness/Speed
Ther
ear emanyt ypesoft
ransact
ionsconductedduringthebusinesshours.Onemustspeedup
thet
ransmissi
onofmessageont hebasisofimportanceandurgencyoftransact
ion.

2.Accuracy
Ift
heaccur acyofthemessageist
hepri
memot i
ve,al
ett
erwi
l
lser
vet
hepur
poseTel
ephoni
c
conver
sationmightbemi
sheardbyt
heot
herpar
ty.

Eventelegr
amssomet i
mesleadt owrongconclusion.Theref
ore,successcanbereapedbya
l
etter
,provi
dedthelett
erisproperl
ywrit
ten.Therefore,t
hecommuni cat
ionmedi
um whichi
s
sel
ectedshoul
densureaccur
acyinthet
ransmissi
onofmessages.

3.Safet
y
Thereisal
waysri
skwhenvaluablesaresentbypost.Theref
ore,forsafet
ypurposes,i
mport
ant
documentsmaybesentbyr
egisteredpost
;forf
urt
hersafet
ybyr egi
ster
edandinsuredpost
.

4.Secrecy
I
nbusi nessfi
eld,cer
tai
ntr
ansacti
onshav
etobekeptconfi
denti
al.Whenoneai
msatsecr
ecy,
l
etterwil
lachi
ev etheai
m.Inothercommuni
cat
ionsy
stems,secr
ecymayleakoutt
ounwant
ed
persons.

5.Recor
d

32
Recordofthemessagei sessentialandi spossi
bleonl
yifi
tisinwr it
ing.Forthi
spurpose,
dupli
cat
ecopiesofthel
etter
scanbepr eserv
edandtheyar
egoodproofagainstdi
sput
es,
rel
ati
ng
tothetr
ansact
ion,
infut
ure.Ther
eisnor ecor
dforor
alcommuni
cat
ion.

6.Cost
Thecostofcommuni cati
onisalsoi mportant
.Bef
oreadopti
nganysy st
em,theexpensesi
n
di
fferentmeansmayal so beconsidered.Themater
ialcost(st
ati
oner
y)andlabourcosti
n
prepari
ngthel
ett
erwi
l
lalsobeconsidered.

7.Dist
ance
Dist
ancebetweenthepersonswhoar eparti
estocommunicati
onisani mport
antfact
or.I
f
di
stanceist
ooshort
,facet
ofacecommunicat
ioni
ssui
tabl
e.I
fther
eisdi
stance,
messagecanbe
tr
ansmitt
edthr
oughphoneortel
egr
am orl
ett
er.

BARRI ERSTOEFFECTI VECOMMUNI CATION

Therear emanyreasonswhyinter
per
sonalcommuni cat
ionsmayfail
.I nmanycommuni cat
ions,
themessage( whati ssaid)maynotber eceiv
edexact lyt
hewayt hesenderi
ntended.Itis,
ther
efore,i
mport
antthatthecommunicat
orseeksfeedbacktocheckthatt
hei
rmessageisclearl
y
understood.

CommonBar
ri
erst
oEf
fect
iveCommuni
cat
ion:
 Theuseofj argon.Ov er-complicated, unfami li
arand/ ortechnical ter ms.
 Emot i
onalbar rier
sandt aboos.Somepeopl emayf i
ndi tdiffi
cultt oexpr essthei
remot i
ons
andsomet opicsmaybecompl etel y'off
-li
mits' ortaboo.
 Lackofat tention,int
erest ,
distract i
ons, orirrelevancet otherecei v er.
 Dif
ferencesi nper cepti
onandv i
ewpoi nt.
 Physical disabili
ti
essuchashear ingpr oblemsorspeechdi f
ficulties.
 Physicalbar ri
erst onon- verbalcommuni cation.Notbei ngabl et oseet henon- v
erbalcues,
gestures, postureandgener albodyl anguagecanmakecommuni cat ionl
essef f
ecti
ve.
 Languagedi fferencesandt hedi fficult
yinunder standi ngunf ami l
iaraccent s.
 Expect at
ionsandpr ejudiceswhi chmayl eadt ofal seassumpt ionsorst ereotypi
ng.Peopl e
oft
enhearwhatt heyexpectt ohearr athert hanwhati sactuallysai dandj umpt oincorrect
conclusions.
 Culturaldi f
ferences.Thenor msofsoci ali
nt eractionv arygr eatl
yi ndif
ferentcult
ures,asdo
thewayi nwhi chemot ionsar eexpr essed.Forexampl e,theconceptofper sonalspacev aries
betweencul turesandbet weendi fferentsoci alsettings.

EncodingBarr
ier
s Theprocessofsel
ect
ingandorgani
zi
ngsymbol
storepr
esentamessage
requi
resski
ll
andknowledge.Obstacl
esli
stedbel
owcanint
erf
erewi
thaneffect
ivemessage.

1.LackofSensi
ti
vi
tyt
oRecei
ver
.

2.LackofBasi
cCommuni
cat
ionSki
ll
s.Ther
ecei
veri
slessl
i
kel
ytounder
standt
hemessagei
f
33
 thesenderhastroublechoosi
ngthepr
eci
sewor
dsneededandar
rangi
ngt
hosewor
dsi
na
grammatical
ly
-correctsent
ence.

3.I
nsuff
ici
entKnowl
edgeoftheSubject.I
fthesenderl
acksspeci
fi
cinf
ormat
ionabout
somethi
ng,ther
ecei
verwi
l
lli
kel
yreceiveanuncl
earormixedmessage.

4.I
nfor
mat i
onOv er
load.Ify
oureceiv
eamessagewi tht
oomuchinf
ormati
on,
youmaytendt
o
putupabarri
erbecausetheamountofi nfor
mationi
scomingsof
astthaty
oumayhav
e
di
ffi
cul
tycomfort
ablyint
erpr
eti
ngthatinformat
ion.

5.Emoti
onalI
nterf
erence.Anemot ionali
ndivi
dualmaynotbeabl et
ocommuni cat
ewel l
.If
someoneisangry
,hosti
le,
r esent
ful
,j
oyful
,orfearf
ul,
thatpersonmaybetoopreoccupiedwi
th
emoti
onstorecei
vetheintendedmessage.I fyoudon’tl
ikesomeone,f
orexample,youmay
havet
roubl
e“heari
ng”them.

Transmitt
ingBar
ri
ers:Thingsthatgeti
nthewayofmessaget r
ansmissi
onar
esometimes
call
ed“noise.
”Communi cati
onmaybedi ff
icul
tbecauseofnoi
seandsomeoftheseprobl
ems:

1.Physi
calDist
ract
ions.Abadcellul
arphoneli
neoranoisyrestaurantcandestr
oy
communicati
on.IfanE-mailmessageorlett
eri
snotfor
mat t
edpr operl
y,orifi
tcont
ains
grammatical
andspelli
ngerr
ors,
thereceiv
ermaynotbeablet oconcentrateonthemessage
becausethephysi
calappear
anceofthelett
erorE-
maili
ssloppyandunpr of
essi
onal
.

2.Confli
ctingMessages.Messagesthatcauseaconfl
ictinper
ceptionfort
hereceivermay
resul
tinincompl
etecommunicati
on.Forexampl e,
ifapersonconstantl
yusesj
argonorsl angt
o
communi catewi
thsomeonefrom anothercount
rywhohasnev erheardsuchexpressions,
mixedmessagesar esuret
oresult
.

3.ChannelBarr
iers.I
fthesenderchoosesaninappr
opriatechannelofcommunicat
ion,
communicati
onmaycease.Det ail
edinstr
uct
ionspresentedoverthetel
ephone,
forexampl
e,
maybef r
ustrat
ingforbot
hcommuni cator
s.

FORMSOFWRI TTENCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
1.LETTERS–

(a)Busi nessLet ter

Abusi nessl et
terisusuall
yal et
terf
rom onecompanytoanot
her,orbetweensuchor
gani
zati
ons
andt hei rcustomer s,cl
ientsandot herexter
nalpar
ti
es.Abusinesslett
erissomet
imesuseful
becausei tproducesaper manentwritt
enrecord,
andmaybetakenmor eseri
ousl
ybyt
hereci
pient
thanot herf ormsofcommuni cati
on

PARTSOFABUSI
NESSLETTER

34
Let
terHead:Cont
aincompanyl
ogoandwhatgi
vesi
tlegal
ident
it
y.

Dat
eLi
ne:Usemont
h,day
,yearf
ormat
,e.
g.,
Mar
ch3,
2014or3Mar
ch2014

Ref
erences:
Quoteearl
i
ercommuni
cat
ionorpr
oceedi
ngt
obeusedi
nref
erencet
oeel
i
er
communicat
iononthesubj
ect

Sender
'sAddress:I
tisagoodi deatoi
ncl
udesender'
semaili
favai
l
able.Don'
tincl
udethi
s
i
nformati
onifit
'sal
readyincor
porat
edint
othel
etter
headdesi
gn.Thiswil
lal
lowcustomerst
o
l
ocateorrespondmor equickl
y.

I
nsi
deAddr
ess:Usef
ull
name.Mr
./Ms.i
sopt
ional

Sal
utat
ion:Dearsi
r/Madam Besur
etouseacol
onatt
heendoft
hename,
notacommaasi
n
per
sonallet
ter
s

Ref
erence:
Ist
hesubj
ectmat
teroft
hel
ett
erbei
ngsent
.

BodyText:Statewhyyouarewri
ting.Est
abl
i
shanyconnect
ion/
mutualrel
ati
onshipupfr
ont.
Outl
i
nethesol uti
on,
provi
dingpr
oofinthewayofexampl
esandexpertopi
nions.Groupr
elat
ed
i
nfor
mationintoparagr
aphs.

Closi
ng/
Concussi
on"
Cal
ltoAct
ion"
:St
atewhatt
her
eaderneedst
odoandwhaty
ouwi
l
ldot
o
fol
lowup

Si
gnat
ureBl
ock:Si
gny
ourl
ett
eri
nbl
ueorbl
acki
nk

Enclosur
es:
Usei
fyouhav
eanencl
osur
e/at
tacheddocument
se.
g.CV,
cer
ti
fi
cat
es,
test
imoni
als
etc

Car
bonCopy
(cc)
:Usei
fyouar
esendi
ngacopyt
oaddi
ti
onal
per
son(
s)

(b)Appl i
cati
onLetter
(c)Cov erLett
er
A cov erlett
erandappl icat
ionl ett
erisnott hesamet hing.A cov erlet
terislikeal etterof
transmi t
tal
;i
ttell
stherecipi
entwhosentt her esume, whom itwassentt o,andthereasonwhyi t
wassent .I
talsoservesasar ecordofthet ransmit
tal
.Cov erlet
tershouldbebr i
ef.Usey our
openi ngtoexplai
nwhaty ouaresendi ngandwhyy ouar esendi ngit.I
nt hesecondpar agraph,
i
ncl udeasummar yofthedocumenty ouaresending.Thelettercouldgoont oexplai
nbriefl
ywhy
youwoul dbeagr eatassett ot hecompany .Onlyuseoneort wokeypoi nt
st ostat ey our
reasoning.Alett
eroftransmitt
al accompaniesadetail
edrepor t.

35
(d)Lett
erofRecommendat i
on
Wr i
tt
en fora f r
iend,empl oyee ora co- workerThe f ormatis stil
lt he same forletters of
recommendation:y ournameandaddr ess,dateofletter,r
ecipi
ent’
snameandaddr ess,salutat
ion,
bodyandclosing.Bef or
et hesalutat
ion,youshouldwr it
e“ RE:Let
terofRecommendat i
onf or”and
theperson’
sname.Gett othepoi ntinyourlet
ter;provi
der easonsandexampl eswhytheper son
wouldbenefi
tt hecompany .Explaintheperson’sposi t
ionandr esponsibil
i
tiesandhowl ongshe
workedforyourcompany .Closeyourlett
erbyst ati
ngwhyy ouwouldrecommendt hi
sper son.

OtherTy pesofl etter

Thereareanumberofdi f
ferenttypesofl
ett
er:
 So li
cit
ati
onLet ter  Let
t erofi ntroducti
on
 Bu sinessletter
/commer cial  Let
t erofi ntent
 Re signati
onLet ter  Let
t eroft hanks
 Co verlett
er  Let
t erspat ent
 L et t
eroft r
ansmi ttal-Accompaniesadetai
ledrepor
t  Lovel etter
 F riendlyLetter  Openl et t
er
 F or ml et
ter/Applicationform  Let
t ert otheedi t
or
 Ha temai l  Poisonpenl et
ter
 L et t
erofcr edit  Quer yletter
 Co mpl ai
ntsLet t
er  Recommendat i
onlett
er
 F or malLet t
er/Of f
icialand wellpunctuated use of
fi
cial  RefereeLet ter
language  Sal
esl etter

2.MEMORANDUM ( MEMO)
Shortmessageused f orcorr
esponding int
ernal
lywith otherdepartment
sori n cal
li
ng f
or
i
nformat i
onf rom orconv eyi
nginformationtoemployees.Itmayal sobeusedincor
respondi
ng
wit
hat tachedandsubor di
nateoff
ices.I
ti swri
tt
eninthethir
dper sonandbearsnosalut
ati
onor
supersessionexceptt henameanddesi gnati
onoftheoff
icersigningi
t
UsesofaMemo
i
. Conv eyInst
ructi
ons/Dir
ecti
ves
ii
. Ser vesasar emi nder
i
ii
. Usedf orrequest/pr
oposal
i
v. Usedasanot ice

36
 v. Usedasacaut i
on
v i
. Repri
manding
vii
. Recordi
ng/confi
rmingtel
ephonemessages
v
iii
. Sendinst
ructi
onsdownchai nofcommand
ix. Passi
ngnewi nformati
on

3.REPORTS
Coveredinthepr
evioushandout
4.NOTI CE
War ni
ngofsomething announcementtheannouncementofapart
y'
sintent
iontoqui
tan
agreementorrel
ati
onataspecifi
edt i
met hecondit
ionofbei
ngwar
nedornot i
fi
edusual
l
yusedi
n
thephraseonnoti
ce,creat
eawar eness,
caution,
usedtocallf
orameeti
ng.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofanef
fect
ivenot
ice
 Usebol dl
ett
ers/
pri
nts
 Bri
eftot hepoint-A goodnot i
ceisalwaystothepoi
ntandl eav
esnoscopef
orf
urt
her
enqui
rieswit
houtcompromisi
ngont hewordli
mit(
50words)
.
 Languageshouldbeformal
.Selectwordswit
hmaximum eff
ect

 Pl acedi naconspi cuousl ocation

 Cl earl
yst atedpur pose
Anot i
ceshoul dcont ainallthenecessar ydet ai
lssuchas:
1.Nameoft heissuingagency( school,etc)
2.Subj ectanddat eofi ssue/releaseofthenot i
ce
3.Ev ent(what ?)
4.Dat e/ti
me/ durat
ion( when?)
5.Pl ace/Venue( wher e?)
6.Aut horizedsi gnator y:
Nameandsi gnature
5.CI RCULAR
Circul
arletterisawr i
ttendocumentt hatisaddr essedtoaclosedgr
oupofpeopl
eonaspecif
ic
subject.Mai nlyusedi nbusinessdeal ingsandmeantt obereadbyalar
genumberofpeopl
eand
theyaremeantt oobtai npublici
tyformer chandiseandsti
mul at
esal
es.

Cir
cul
arl
ett
eri
salsoaki
ndofal
ett
ert
hati
sissuedf
oranumberofpeopl
eusedt
osendt
he
sameinf
ormat
ion.

Whenanyi nformati
on/
instructi
ons/guideli
nesaretobesentt oalli
tsbranchesbyt heHead
Off
ice,ci
rcularsareusuall
yi ssuedbyt heHeadOf ficet
oit
sbr anchesorbyhigherof
fi
certoi
ts
j
unioroff
icersforcompliance.Itisexternalfor
m ofcommunicati
on

Of
fi
cialCi
rcul
ars
I
nst
ruct
ions/
gui
del
i
nesi
ssuedbyheadoft
hedepar
tmentt
oal
argenumberofsubor
dinat
e
37
empl
oyeesar
eusual
l
ycircul
atedthr
oughof f
icialci
rcul
ars.Offi
cialci
rcul
arsarei
ssuedgener
all
y
fr
om HeadOf
fi
cet
oitsbr
anches.Off
ici
alci
rcularsareusuall
yissuedasf ol
lowi
ng:

1.Fr
om HeadOf fi
cetoitsbranches,
2.Fr
om aCent ralMinistr
ytoSt ateMini
stri
es,orof
fi
ces/depart
ment
swor
kingundert
he
Mini
str
y,
3.Fr
om ChiefEl
ectionCommi ssiontoal
ltheStat
eCommissi
ons,and
4.Li
ketheotherci
rculars.

BusinessCi
r cul
ars
Businessci
rcular
sareissuedbyabusi
nessenti
tytoit
scl
ients,deal
ers,sub-
deal
ers,
branches,
etc.
Fol
lowingtypesofinf
ormat i
onar
eusual
lysentt
hroughbusinesscir
culars:

 I
nformat ionaboutchangeofaddr essoft heregi
steredof f
iceofacompanyt oitsshar
e
holders,
 Announce an i mpor t
ant dev el
opment , pol
icy change or a r equi
rement to be
fol
lowed/ compli
ed/adopt ed.
 Communi cat
epol i
cychange
 I
nvitef orameeting
 Updat emember sordepar t
ment sonnewchanges/ development
 Askf orsuggesti
ons/ comment s,
 I
nformat ionaboutremov alf r
om ser vi
ceofanempl oyeef r
om aninst
it
uti
ontoall
itsof
fi
ces,
dealersandsub-dealers,
 I
nformat ionaboutapol i
cyofi ncentiv
ef orachi
evi
ngsal estarget
setc.t
odealer
sandsub-
dealers,and
 Anyot herinf
ormat i
onr el
atingtobusi ness.

St
ruct
ureofaCi
rcul
ar
i. Addr essoftheissui
ngagency:
Usuall
yi n allkinds of cir
cul
ars,the addr
ess,phone no.
,et
c.of t
he i
ssui
ng of
fi
ce/
agency/depar
tmentispri
ntedatt
hetop.

i
i
. Ref er
ence:
Ref
erencei
susual
lywr
it
tenatt
hel
eftsi
de.I
tisdi
ff
erentf
oreachci
rcul
ar.

38
 ii
i
. Dateli
ne:
Datei
swr
it
tenatthel
eftsi
de.

iv. Subj
ect
:
Subj
ect
,onwhi
cht
heci
rcul
ari
sbei
ngi
ssued,
iswr
it
ten,
insi
mpl
elet
ter
s.

v. For :
Aftersubject,'
For
'iswr i
tt
en,thatindi
cat
es,forwhom,thecir
cularisbei
ngissued/meant.For
exampl e:I
fthecir
cularisi
ssuedbyt heHeadOf f
iceofabankforallt
heZonal
/Regionalof
fices,
then'For'mustbeinv
ariabl
yexplai
nedasfoll
ows:

For:Al
lZonal/Regi
onalOffi
ces
I
fthecir
cularismeantforal
lit
sbr
anches,
theni
tshoul
dbement
ionedasf
oll
owi
ng:
For:Al
lbranchesCC

vi. Sal utati

on:
General
ly,nosal ut
ati
on;li
ke—DearSi
r,DearSirsetc.isusedincir
culars.Whent hecircul
ari
s
meantt ot heaut hor
it
ies,theuseofsalutat
ion can bedone.In Businesscircul
ars,usual
l
y
sal
utati
ons;like–DearDealers,
DearCust
omer s,DearVal
uedCustomer s,et
c.ar
eused.

vi
i. Body :
Thebodyoft heci r
cul
arcontai
nswhateveriswishedt
obeconv eyedbythecir
culari
ssuing
authori
ty.Thelanguageusedshouldbestrai
ght
,unambi
guous,f
ormalandsi
mplethatconveys
theinst
ructi
ons/guidel
inesi
ncleart
erms.

v
ii
i. Signat
ure:
Atthebott
om,theci
rcul
arissui
ngauthori
typutshissignature.Thedesignat
ionoft
heissui
ng
author
it
yisal
sowrit
tenbelowthesi
gnature.
N.BTheuseofsubscri
pti
on;yoursf
aithf
ull
y,oryourssincerelyi
savoidedincir
cul
ars.

6.E-MAIL-Thisisapaper lessf orm ofcommuni cati

ont obeusedbydepart
menthavi
ng
computerfaci
li
tiessupportedbyint
ernetorint
ranetconnect
ivi
tyandcanbewi
del
yusedf
or
subj
ectswherelegalorf
inancial
implicat
ionsar
enotinvolv
ed.

7.PROPOSAL
A proposalisaplan orsuggest
ion,especi
all
yaf
ormalorwr
it
ten one,putf
orwar
dfor
consider
ati
onbyot
hersoranot
herparty
.
39
Itisawr i
tt
enof fertoundert
akeapr oj
ect,desi
gn,creat
esomethingnew,modi f
yorchange
exist
ingproduct/proj
ect/
procedur
eswi thi
naspeci f
iedper
iod.Examplesi
nclude;academi
c
researchproposal,
busi
nessplanproposal,
Fundi
ngproposal
,Budgetpr
oposaletc

Adv antagesofwr it
tenCommuni cation
a)Itservesasev idenceofev entsandpr oceedings.
b)Itprov i
desaper manencyofr ecordf orf utureref
erences.
c)Itreducest hepossibi
lit
yofmi sunder standingandmi sinter
pret
ati
on.
d)Itcansav et i
mewhenmanyper sonsmustbecont act
ed.
e)Itisreli
ablefortransmitt
inglengt hyst atisti
caldata.
f)Itappearsformal andaut hori
tativeforact i
on.
(g)Wr i
ttencommuni cat
ionst r
engt hensandcl ar
ifi
esav erbalmessage.

(
h)Wr i
ttencommuni cat
ioncanbev er yusef ulasadef enseduringlegalissues.
(
i)Wr i
ttencommuni cat
ionismor er eliablethanor alcommuni cati
on.
(
j) Awr it
tenandsi gneddocumentcar ri
esmor ewei ghtandvalidi
tythanspokenwor ds.
(
k)Wr i
ttencommuni cat
ionismor epr ecisethanot hermeansofcommuni cati
on.
(
l)Canbest or edforanalysi stobemadei nor derforonetogetabet t
erunderstandingoft
he
messagei tcont ai
ns.
(
m) I
tcanbeeasi l
ydi ssemi nat edt orecipientsthatarei
ndi ffer
entlocati
ons.
(
n)Ithasper manentef f
ectont hereci pi
ent.
(
o)Itgi
v est i
met otherecipienttot hink, analyzeandt hendecidet hecourseofaction.
(
p)Itishel pfulinreducingt ension,di sputeset c.
(
q)Policymat t
ers,servi
cecondi ti
ons, secretorderscanbecommuni cated.

Disadvant agesofWr it
tenCommuni cati
on
(
a)Cant akeaconsi derableamountoft imet oprepareandproduce.
(
b)Somet imesl imitedtopeopl ewhohav esi ght.Bl
indpeopleort hevisual
lyimpair
ed,f
or
i
nstancecannotr eceivecert
aintypesofwr i
t t
encommuni cati
on.Forexampl e,abl
i
ndman
cannotr eceivei
nf or
mat i
onfrom aposterornot i
ce.
(
c)Notflexible.Iti
sav eryri
gidmeansofcommuni cat
ion.
(
d)Feedbacki snotimmedi ate.
(
e)Poorwr iti
ngskill
scanhampert heeffecti
venessoft hewr
itt
encommuni cat
ion.

40
 (
f)Iti
stimeconsumingandcanbever
yexpensi
vet
oproduceandtodi
ssemi
nat
e.
(
g)Somei l
li
terat
esorpeopl
ewhocannotreadandwrit
ev er
ywellwi
l
lhavei
tprett
ydi
ffi
cul
t
gett
ingandunderst
andi
ngthei
nfor
mati
onormessagecontai
nedwi
thi
nawri
ttenmeansof
communi cati
on.

EFFECTI
VEMEETI
NG

Ty
pesofmeet
ings

Def. A meet
ingisagatheri
ngoft woormorepeopl
econvenedtoachi
eveacommongoal
t
hroughver
bali
nter
act
ion(
e.g.shar
ingi
nfor
mat
ion,
maki
ngadecisi
on)
.

Meeti
ngswi
llbemoreeff
ect
ivei
fpar t
ici
pant
sar
ecl
eari
nadv
anceaboutwhati
sit
sdesi
red
out
comeandthet
ypeofmeet
ingi
tis.

Mostor
gani
zat
ional
meet
ingsar
econv
enedf
oroneormor
eoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpur
poses:

 Sharinginfor
mation
 Planning
 Problem solv
ing
 Decisionmaking
 Team br i
efs
 Combi nati
on

Thefol
l
owi
ngar
esomet
ipst
ohel
pyoumakey
ournextmeet
ingsuccessf
ul,
product
iveandev
en
fun.

Bef
oreTheMeet
ing

1.Def i
net hepur poseoft hemeet ing.
2.Dev elopanagendawi t
ht heofficersandadv i
sor.
3.Distribut et heagendaandci r
cul atebackgr oundmat erial,lengthydocument sorar t
icles
priort ot hemeet i
ngsomember swi ll
bepr eparedandf eel i
nv ol
vedandup- t
o-date.
4.Chooseanappr opri
atemeet ingt i
me.Setat i
mel imitandst icktoit,ifpossi
ble.Remember ,
member shav eot hercommi t
ment s.Theywi l
lbemor el ikelytoat tendmeet ingsi fy ou
maket hem pr oductive,pr edi
ctabl eandasshor taspossi ble.
5.Ifpossi ble,ar r
anget her oom sot hatmember sfaceeachot her,i
.e.,acircl
eorsemi -circle.
Forl argegr oups, tryU-shapedr ows.
6.Chooseal ocationsui tabl etoy ourgr oup'
ssi ze.Smal lr oomswi t
ht oomanypeopl eget
stuffyandcr eatet ension.Al ar gerroom i smor ecomf ortableandencour agesindividual
expr essi on.
7.Usev isualai dsf orinter est(e.g.,posters,diagrams,et c.).Postal argeagendaupf rontt o
whi chmember scanr ef er.
8.Var ymeet ingpl acesi fpossi blet oaccommodat edi fferentmember s.Besur eev eryone
knowswher eandwhent henextmeet i
ngwi llbeheld.
41
Dur
ingt
heMeet
ing

1.Gr eetmember sandmaket hem feelwel come, evenl atemember swhenappr opriate.
2.I fpossibl e,serv el i
ghtr ef
reshment s;t heyar egoodi cebreakersandmakey ourmember s
feelspeci alandcomf ortable.
3.St artont ime.Endont ime.
4.Rev i
ewt heagendaandsetpr i
orit
iesf ort hemeet ing.
5.St icktot heagenda.
6.Encour agegr oupdi scussiont ogetal lpoi nt
sofv iewandi deas.Youwi l
lhav ebet terqual i
ty
decisi
onsaswel lashi ghlymot i
vatedmember s;theywi l
lfeelthatat tendingmeet i
ngsi s
wor t
hthei rwhi le.
7.Encour agef eedback.I deas,act iv
iti
esandcommi tmentt otheor ganizationimpr ovewhen
member sseet hei rimpactont hedeci sionmaki ngpr ocess.
8.Keepconv ersationf ocusedont het opi c.Feelf r
eet oaskf oronl yconst r
uct i
veandnon-
repeti
ti
v e comment s.Tact f
ully end di scussions when t hey are get ti
ng nowher e or
becomi ngdest ruct i
veorunpr oducti
ve.
9.Keepmi nut esoft hemeet ingf orfut
ur er eferenceincaseaquest ionorpr oblem ar ises.
10.Asal eader ,bear olemodelbyl i
steni ng,showi ngi nterest,appreciati
onandconf idencei n
member s.Admi tmistakes.
11.Summar izeagr eement sr eachedandendt hemeet ingonauni fy i
ngorposi ti
venot e.For
exampl e,hav e member sv olunt
eert hought s oft hings theyf eelhav e been good or
successf ul orreiteratetheor ganization'smi ssion.
12.Setadat e,timeandpl acef orthenextmeet ing.

Af
tert
heMeet
ing

1.Wr i
teupanddi stri
but eminut eswithi
n3or4day s.Quickactionr einf
orcesi
mportanceof
meet i
ngandr educeser r
orsofmemor y
.
2.Discuss any pr oblems dur ing the meet i
ng wi
th otherof fi
cer s;come up with ways
i
mpr ovement scanbemade.
3.Foll
ow-upondel egationdecisions.Seet hatal
lmember sunder standandcarr
y-outtheir
responsibil
it
ies.
4.Giverecognitionandappr eciat i
ontoexcell
entandti
melypr ogress.
5.Putunfinishedbusi nessont heagendaf orthenextmeet i
ng.
6.Conductaper i
odicev al
uati
onoft hemeet i
ngs.Noteanyar east hatcanbeanalyzedand
i
mpr ovedf ormor epr oduct
ivemeet ings.Asamplemeet i
ngev aluationcheckl
i
sti
sat t
ached.

Meet
ingEv
aluat
ionCheckl
ist

Themeet
ingwaswel
lpl
anned

 Member
swer
enot
if
iedi
nadv
ance
42
  Therewasapre-
arr
angedagenda
 Off
icer
sandcommi t
teeswer
ereadytor
epor
t
 Themeeti
ngroom waspre-
arr
anged

Themeet
ingwaswel
lor
gani
zed

 Themeet ingst artedont ime

 Guest swer eintroducedandwel comed
 Agendaswer eav ailableforallmember s
 Thepur posesf ort hemeet i
ngwer emadeclear
 Ther ewasat ransi ti
onf rom thelastmeeti
ng
 Onet opi cwasdi scussedatat ime
 Oneper sonhast hef looratat i
me
 Discussi onwasr elevant
 Thechai rpersonsummar i
zedthemai npoi
ntsofthedi
scussi
on
 Themeet ingmov edal ongatawor kabl
epace
 Commi tteeassi gnment swer ecompl et
eandclear
 Pl
ansf ort henextmeet i
ngwer eannounced
 Allthatwaspl annedf orthemeet ingwascovered

Par
ti
cipat
ioni
nthemeet
ing

 Member sparti
cipat
edindiscussionandv oti
ng
 Thechairper
sonmadegooduseofquest ions
 Theprosandconsofal lissueswereconsi der
ed
 Member sgavesuggesti
onst ocommi t
tees
 Responsibi
li
ti
eswer eevenlydi
stri
buted
 Member sparti
cipat
edinplanningtheagendaf ort
henextmeet
ing

Gener
alMeet
ingNot
iceCont
ent
s

 Thetime,place,andagendaofthemeet ing
 Aclearandpr eci
sedescri
pti
onofpar t
icipationandvoti
ngpr oceduresandr
equirement
s
 I
ndicatewher etofi
ndafullt
extofresoluti
onsunderconsi derati
on
 Alistofthei ndi
vi
dual
swhowi l
lpr
esideov erthemeeting,togetherwit
hdiscl
osuresast
o
theexperienceofsuchi ndi
v i
dual
sandt heirper
sonalshar ehol
dingsint
hecompanyor
memberoft hecompany’sgroup

TheRol
eoft
heChai
rper
son

I
namor
efor
malmeet
ing,t
hechai
rper
sonwi
l
lout
li
net
hepur
poseoft
hemeet
ingandr
emi
nd

43
member
swhyt
heyar
ether
e.

 Thechairpersoncontrolsthemeeting.
 All
remarksar eaddressedt hr
ought hechai
r.
 Member sdonoti nt
errupteachother .
 Member saimt oreachaconsensus.
 Avoteistakenifconsensusi snotreached.
 Themajor i
tywinsthev ote.
 All
member sacceptthemaj ori
tydecisi
on.

 I
ndicateprogress,orlackof .
 Refocusdiscussionthathaswander edof
fthepoi
nt.
 Concludeonepoi ntandl eadintothenext
.
 Highli
ghtimpor t
antpoi nt
s.
 Assistthesecretar
yifnecessar y.
 Clar
ifyanymi sunderstanding.

Thechai r
personshouldpacet hemeeti
ng,ensuri
ngi trunst oti
me.Iftheplanninghasbeen
properl
yexecuted,
thisshouldnotprov
etobeapr oblem.Att heendofameeti
ng,thechai r
person
shouldremindmember swhatt heyhaveachi
evedandt hankt hem f
ort
hei
rcontr
ibutions.Final
ly,
theti
meanddat eofthenextmeet i
ngshoul
dbear ranged.Agai ni
tist
obenotedthatt hi
sisone
modelandt hatsuccessfuloutcomescanbeachiev edindif
ferentway
swithdif
ferentstrategi
es
fordif
fer
entpurposes.

TheRol
eoft
heMember
s

Whi
leemphasi
shasbeenplacedontherol
eoft
hechairper
son,thepar
ti
cipat
ionofal
lmember
s
i
sofgreati
mpor
tance.Toensur
eaneff
ecti
vemeet
ing,
allpar
ti
cipant
sshould:

 Undert
akeanynecessar ypr eparationpr i
ortot hemeet
ing.
 Arr
iveontime.
 Keepanopenmi nd.
 Li
stentotheopi nionsofot hers.
 Part
ici
pate.
 Avoiddomi nat
ingt hepr oceedi ngs.
 Avoidconfli
ctsituat i
ons.
 Avoidsi
deconv ersationswhi chdi stractothers.
 Askquestionstocl ari
fyunder standing.
 Notedownanyact ionagr eedupon.
 Aft
erthemeet ing, undertakeanyagr eedact ionandbri
efother
sasappr
opr
iat
e.

44
WhyMeet
ingsMaybeI
nef
fect
ive

Ther
ear
emanyr
easonswhymeet
ingsar
enotef
fect
ive,
someofwhi
char
eli
stedbel
ow:

 Themeet i
ngi sunnecessar yandr evolvesar ounddi scussionoft ri
viali
ssues,thuswast i
ng
member s’v aluablet i
me.
 Themeet ingl acksacl arit
yofpur pose, i.e.,t
heai msandobj ectiv
esar enotclearl
ydefined.
 Inappr opr i
atest yleofl eadership,i.e.,t hechai r
persondomi natesandcl osesdownor
disregar dsot hercont ri
but i
ons.
 Thechai rper sonexer ciseslit
tlecont rolandal l
owsoneort womember stodomi natethe
proceedi ngs.
 The meet ing ist oo large therebyl i
mi ti
ng t he fl
ow ofdi scussion and prevent
ing all
member sbei ngabl etocont ri
bute.
 Deci sionsemer get hatar enottrulyrepr esent ativ
e.
 Probl emsar et alkedaboutr atherthanbei ngt alkedthrough.
 Deci sionsar edel ayedornotact edupon.
 Nocl ear-cutdeci sionsar emade.
 Mi nutesar ei naccur ateorseenasbei ngmani pulat
edbyt hechai r
personorsecr et
ar yfor
his/herownpur poses.
 Thewr ongpeopl ear epr esent,t huspr event i
ngt hemeet ingpr oceedingef f
ecti
vel
y ,e.
g.,
thosepr esenthav et oreferbackt oanot herper sonandar ethereforeunabletocomment
effect i
vel

Gener
aldut
iesofachai
rper
son.

The Chai
rper
son i
st he publ
i
cr epr
esent
ati
ve ofthe Committ
ee tothe communi
ty.The
Chai
rper
sonshouldbeawar eofandsignalldocument
sthatsetoutpol
icyorhav
efinanci
al
i
mpli
cati
onsfort
hegroup.

Bef
oreaCommi
tt
eeorGener
alMeet
ing:

 Consultbefor ehandwi tht heSecr et

aryonallt
hebusinesstobediscussedatmeet ings
 Superviseandt oprepare, togetherwit
htheSecretar
y,theagendaforthemeeting
 Checkt hatallrepor t
set c.whi chshouldaccompanyt heagendaandmi nutesaresentoutt
member sinsuf fi
cientti
mebef or
ethemeet i
ng
 checkthemi nutesoft hepr ev
iousmeet i
ngandsignforaccuracy
 Bea cquaintedwi thanyr eports,corr
espondence,busi
nessetc,whichistobepr esentedth
meet i
ng
 Wo r
kwi t
htheSecr etar
yt oensur ethattaskswhichwer et
obecompl etedbetweenmeet ing
arecompl eted.

Dur
ingt
hemeet
ing

45
  Opent hemeet ing,
 Checkf orquorum,
 Conductt hebusi nessoft hemeet i
ngandaccor dingtotheorderoftheagendapaperunl ess
i
tisalteredwi t
ht heconsentoft hemeet i
ng
 Conf i
nediscussi ontot heitem actual
lybefor
et hemeet ingandtoseethati ti
sdealtwi t
hand
sett
ledbef orepassi ngont othenext,
 All
owf reeand, ifnecessar y,for
mal debat
e,
 Giveal lthosewi shingt ospeakanoppor tunitytodoso,t oseet hatt hei
rremar ksar e
addressed tot he Chai rand t o all
ow no pr i
v ate di
scussi
on orper sonalmat tert o be
i
ntroducedi nanegat iveway ,
 Saywhoi stospeak,i ftwopeopl eshoul dspeakatt hesamet i
me-TheChai r per
son's
decisi
ononsuchpoi ntsisfinal
,
 Makeev eryeff
or ttol etanymeet i
ngov er
:whi chshe/ hepresi
desunderstandthereasonsf or
andpur poseofhi s/
herr uli
ngs,
 Closethemeet i
ngwhenal lmatter
sar eatt
endedt o.

TheSecr
etar
y'sRol
eatMeet
ings

Bef
oret
heMeet
ing

 Consul twitht heChai r

personont heor derofbusi nessf orthemeet i
ng,andt hewayi n
whi chitshoul dbedeal twithont heagenda.Deci dewhatbusi nessrequir
esdiscussi
onand
whatr equiresadeci sionbyt heManagementCommi ttee;
 Ensur ethatt henot i
ceoft hemeet ingi sgiv
en,t hatsui tabl
eaccommodat ionisarranged
andconf ir
med, andt hatcopiesoftheagendai spr epared;
 Circulat
et oal lmember s(
a)anypaper stobedi scussedatt heupcomingmeet i
ngand( b)a
copyoft heagenda, mi nut
esoft hepr evi
ousmeet i
ng; and
 Ma kesur et hatanyr eport
sori nfor
mat ionrequest edatt helastmeeti
ngisav ai
labl
eort hat
thereisagoodr easonwhynot .

Att
heMeet
ing

 Arr
iv ein good t ime bef orethe meet ing wi ththe minutes and wi th allthe r
elev
ant
correspondenceandbusi nessmat t
ersfort hatmeet i
ng,ingoodor der. Recordthenames
ofthosewhoar epr esent,andconv eyandr ecordapologi
esr eceivedfrom thosewhoar e
absent;
 Read t he mi nutes oft he pr evious meet ing,and ift hey are appr oved,obtai
nt he
Chairperson'ssignatureont hem;
 Repor tonact i
onormat t
ersar isi
ngf r om t heprevi
ousmi nutes.Readanyi mport
ant
correspondencet hathasbeenr eceived;
 Unlesst hereisaMi nutesSecr etary,takenot esofthemeet ing,recordingthekeypoi nts
andmaki ngsuret hatalldecisi
onsandpr oposalsarerecorded,aswel last henameoft he
personorgr oupr esponsibleforcar r
y i
ngt hem out.Makesur eacti
onpoi ntsareclear;
and
46
  Makesur
ethatt
heChai
rper
soni
ssuppli
edwit
hallthenecessaryinf
ormati
onf
ori
temson
t
heagenda,
andremi
ndtheChai
rper
sonifani
tem hasbeenov er
looked.

Af
tert
heMeet
ing

 Prepareadr aftofthemi nut

es( unlesst her
ei sami nutessecretary)andconsultthe
Chair
personandmostseni orstaf
fmember( whererel
evant)forapproval
;
 Sendar emindernoti
ceofeachdeci sionrequiri
ngact i
ont otherelevantperson;t
hiscan
bedonebyt el
ephone,orbyan‘ actionlist'wit
ht herel
ev antacti
onf oreachpersonduly
marked;and
 Promptlysendallcor
respondenceasdeci dedbyt heManagementCommi tt
ee.

Mai
nresponsi
bil
it
iesoft
heSecr
etar
y

1.Ensur
ingmeet
ingsar
eef
fect
ivel
yor
gani
zedandmi
nut
es

 Li
aisingwiththeChairtopl anmeeti
ngs
 Receivi
ngagendai temsf rom committeemember s
 Cir
culati
ngagendasandr eports
 Takingminutes(unlessther ei
saminut essecret
ary)
 Cir
culati
ngapprovedmi nut es
 Checkingthatagreedactionsarecarr
iedout .

2.Mai
ntai
ningef
fect
iver
ecor
dsandadmi
nist
rat
ion

 Keepi
ngup- to-dat
econt actdetai
ls(i
.e.names,addr essesandtelephonenumbers)forthe
managementcommi tt
eeand( whererelevant)ordi
narymember softheorgani
zat
ion.
 Fi
li
ngmi nutesandr eports
 Compil
inglistsofnamesandaddr essest hatareusef ul
totheorgani
zati
on,i
ncl
udingthose
ofappr
opr i
ateof f
ici
alsoroffi
cersofv ol
untaryorganizati
ons.
 Keepi
ngar ecor doftheorganizat
ion’
sact i
vit
ies
 Keepi
ngadi aryoff ut
ureactiv
iti
es

3.Uphol
dingl
egalr
equi
rement
s

 Acti
ngascust odi anoft heorganizat
ion’sgov er
ningdocument s
 Checki ngquor um ispr esentatmeet ings
 Ensuringelectionsarei nlinewithstipulatedprocedur
es
 Ensuringor ganizati
on’sact i
vi
ti
esar einl i
newi t
hitsobj
ects
 Ensuringchar i
tyandcompanyl awr equi r
ement saremet( whererel
evant
,unl
esst
her
eisa
separat ecompanysecr etary)
 Sit
ti
ngonappr aisal
,recruit
mentanddi scipl
inar
ypanels,asrequi
red.

4.Communi
cat
ionandcor
respondence

 Respondi
ngtoal
l commit
teecorr
espondence
 Fi
li
ngallcommit
teecorr
espondencereceiv
edandcopi
esofr
epl
i
essent
47
 Keepingarecor
dofanyoft heorgani zati
on’
spublicati
ons(e.g.l
eafl
etsornewsl
ett
ers)and
 Reporti
ngtheacti
vit
iesoft
heor ganizationandfutureprogramstomember s,t
hepressand
thepubli
c(unl
essthereisI
nformat i
onorPubl i
cit
yOf fi
cer)
.
 Prepari
ngar eportoftheor ganization’sact
ivi
ti
esf orthey ear,f
ort heAnnualGeneral
Meeting.

TYPESOFMEETI NG
a.Annual Gener al Meet i
ng( AGM)
 Af ormalmeet ing,heldannual l
y,wher e,i nthecaseofacompany ,thoseresponsiblefor
runningi t(thedi rect
ors)meetwi ththosewhoowni t(t
heshar eholders).
 Th eAGM f orapubl iclimi t
edcompany( Pl c.
)mustbehel dannual lyandcanbequi teahi gh
-profi
leaf fair.
 Th esemeet i
ngsmaybeopent omedi ascr ut
inyandr equireal otofcar efult
houghtand
planning.
 Forpr ivatel i
mi t
edcompani es,thear ti
clesmayst i
pulatet hatanAGM shoul dbehel d,but
therei snol ongerast atutoryrequirementt odoso( Compani esAct2006) .Similarl
y,with
regardt ochar i
ties,theAGM pr ovidesanoppor t
unityforthemember stomeetwi t
ht hose
runningt hechar ity(tr
ust eesand/ orof f
icers)toaskquest i
onsaboutt hemanagementof
thechar itypr i
ort ovoting.
 Th egov erningdocumentwi l
lstatewhet heranAGM i srequired.Thear t
icl
eswillsti
pulate
whet heranAGM i sr
equi r
edf orcharitablecompani es.
 Mi nutesshoul dbet akenatanAGM.I nter msofst y
leandf ormat

b.ExtraordinaryGeneralMeeti
ng(EGM)
 Thisi sagener almeetingwhichiscall
edtodealwithurgentmatterswhi
chr equi
re
resolutionbetweenAGMs.( Forcompani
esformedundert
heCompani esAct2006,the
word:‘ extr
aordi-
nar
y ’
hasnow beendropped.
)Thesameprinci
plesappl
ywithregardto
minut etaking.

c.BoardMeet ings
 Thedi r
ectorsofacompanyar eresponsibleformanagi ngitsbusi nessonaday -t
o-day
basi
s.itisimportantthatdir
ectorsarenotnegligentint heexecut i
onoft heirduti
esandt he
minutesofboar dmeet i
ngsprovideev i
denceoft hedeci si
onst aken.Accor dingtoICSA’s
CodeofGoodBoar dr
oom Pr acti
ce,themi nutesshoul drecordt hedeci si
onst akenand
provi
de suffici
entbackgr ound t othose decisions.Ther ef
ore,t he mi nutes ofboar d
meetingswi l
lbel engthi
erthant hemi nutesofgener almeet ings,buttheyshoul dst i
llbe
conci
seandpr ovi
deacl earsummar yoft hedecisi
onst aken.

d.Commi tteeMeet i
ngs
 Th esear emeet ingsinvolv
ingagr oupofpeopl ewhohav ebeendr awnf r
om al argergroup
forthe pur poses ofmanagi ng specif
ici ssues.Ther e ar
e many di ffer
entt ypes of
commi tt
eeswi thinorganizati
onsandr equir
ement si ntermsoft hemi nuteswillvary.The
generalpri
nciplesofcl ar
it
yandbr ev i
tywillusuallyapply,al
thoughsomecommi ttees(e.g.
j
ointconsultati
v ecommi ttees)mayr equir
eagr eaterl
evelofbackgrounddet ai
l.
e.Sub-commi tteemeet ing
f. Departmental v
s.Inter–depar t
ment almeetings
g.Rout i
nev s.non-routi
ne

48
 h.For
malv s.Inf
ormalmeeti
ngs
i
. Membersv smembersmeet i
ngs
j
. Publ
icmeetingsandpr
ivat
emeetings

Managementmeet i
ngs
 Ma nagementmeet i
ngs can take many forms depending on t he str
ucture oft he
or
gani zati
on.Thesemeet i
ngsinvolv
emanager i
aldecisi
onmaki ngatv ari
ousl evel
s.For
exampl e,somemeet -
ingswil
linvolvetheseni
ormanagementt eam,whi leot her
swi l
l
i
nvol v
emi ddl
emanagementorwi l
lcoverbot
hgr oups.Thegeneralpri
ncipl
esforef f
ect
ive
minute-takingappl
y;thesty
leandf ormatwil
lbebasedonest abli
shedpracticeandt he
pr
ef erencesofthegroup.


Depart
ment almeeti
ngs
 Thesear eperi
odicorone-offmeet ingsat t
endedbyal ldepar
tmentalstafft
odiscussand
addressdepartmentali
ssues( e.
g.reviewingperformance,set
tingobjecti
ves,r
eport
ingon
theout comeofact i
onst akenanddi scussinganyot hermattersinconnectionwith
departmentaloperat
ions)
.Itisusual t
ot akeminutesatsuchmeet i
ngs.

St
eer
ingGr oupMeetings
 As t
eeringgr
oupmaybef ormedtot akeahigh-l
evelover
view ofaproj
ect.Thegroupi
s
usuall
ycomposedofseniorexecut
ives,pr
ojectleader
sandpossi bl
yext
ernaladv
isorst
o
theorgani
zat
ion.Minut
esshoul
dbekeptofst eer
inggroupmeetings.

Pr
ojectTeam Meet i
ngs
 Pr ojectteamsmaybef ormedf orallmannerofr easons.Inalargeor ganizat i
onther
emay
bemanydi fferentproj
ectsbeingcar ri
edoutatt hesamet ime.Largepr ojects,suchast he
implement ati
onofanew I Tsy stem,woul dnecessar il
yinvolv
et heest ablishmentofsub-
groupst ohandl edif
fer
entaspect softheproject.Inachangemanagementpr ogrammef or
exampl e,one t eam may be f ormed t o dealwi tht he human r esour ces aspects of
organizati
onalchange, whil
eanot herdealswi t
hor ganizat
ionalstr
uctur eandwor kprocess
changes,wi thy etanotherforthedev el
opmentofnew I Ti nf
rastr
uct ures.Itisimpor t
ant
thatmi nut
esar etakenatprojectr ev
iewmeet ingswhi chclearl
yhighl
ightt hesal i
enti
ssues,
thekeydeci sionsandtheagr eedact i
ons.

Team Bri
efings
 Thesear emeet i
ngsheldbyt heteam leadertodiscussissueswithmember softheteam
(e.
g.pr ogress rev i
ews,al l
ocat
ion of t asks,setti
ng obj ect
ives,performance and
mot i
v ationalissues).
 Af ullsetoff ormalmi nutesisnotreall
yr equi
redinsuchameet ingast heemphasi sis
li
kelyt obemor eonact ionsandwhowi l
ltakethem.Therefore,asetofnotesdetail
i
ngt he
keyact ionst obet akenandthoseresponsiblefort
hem willpr
obablysuff
ice.

One-
offi
nfor
malmeet
ings
49
  Thesecant akepl
aceany whereatanytime.Theymaybei nformaldiscussionsbetween
oneortwoempl oy
eesorasmal lgr
oup.I
twouldbeveryunusualforanynotest obet aken
atgat
heri
ngsl i
kethi
s,butthi
sdoesnotmeant hatsuchmeet i
ngscarrynov alue;someof
themostcreati
vei
deasareoftengenerat
edoveracupofcoffee!

Fact
orswhi
chmakeameet
ingef
fect
iveori
nef
fect
ive

 Clearpur poseandobj ectives

 Clearl i
nkt oorgani zationalstrategy
 Goodl evel ofpr eparat i
onbyal l
 Allnecessar ypaper wor ktohand
 Strongchai rperson/ mi nute-t
aker
 Relationshi p
 Cleardeci sions, noambi guit
y,consensus
 Clearlydef i
nedact i
ons
 Willi
ngnesst otaker esponsibili
tyforact
ions
 Activepar ti
cipation
 Freedom t oexpr essv iews
 Activel i
st eningbyal lparti
cipants
 Cont ri
but ionsf rom al lmember sencouraged
 Asser ti
vel ychai red
 Nohi ddenagendas
 Nopol it
ical maneuv ering
 Wel l
-struct uredagenda
 Logical dev elopmentofagendai t
ems
 Cor r
ectuseofAOB
 Meet ingnotov erlylong
 Punct ual start
 Timedagendai tems
 Timingsadher edt of oreachi tem
 Meet ingconcl udedont i
me
 Suitablev enue

50
  Reliabl eequi pment
I
nef
fecti
v eMeet ing
 He ldwhennotr equi red
 He ldt oof requent ly
 No thel df requent lyenough
 He ldsi mpl yasamat terofrouti
ne
 Po orlydef inedpur pose
 L ackofcl earobj ectives
 L ackofpr epar at i
on
 Ke ypar t
icipant smi ssing
 Wr ongpeopl ei nv it
ed
 Un cleardeci sionsandact ions
 Au tocr ati
cchai rper son
 Pa ssiv echai rper son
 Po orpar ticipat i
onf rom somemember s
 St rongper sonal iti
esal l
owedt odomi
nate
 Irrelev antdi scussi on
 Ag gressi vecont ribut i
onst ol
erat
ed
 Di srupt ivebehav iourt oler
ated
 Po orly-structur edagenda
 Mi suseofAOB
 E xcessi velylong
 Not i
mi ngsonagendai tems
 Po orpunct ual i
ty
 Un suitabl ev enue
 Hi ddenagendas
 Po li
ticalmaneuv ering

TheSt
ructureofaMeet ing
 Introduct i
on
 We l
comebyt hechai rperson
 Mi nutet akernot est henamesandanychanges
 Introduct i
onnotusual l
ymi ntedunlessittakesthef
orm ofaspeci
fi
cagendai
tem
 Ap ologiesf orabsence
 Creat eanaccur at elistofat tendeesont heday
 Su bstit
ut i
ng
 No tarrived
 Ap ologies
 Present
 Mi nutesoft hepr ev i
ousmeet i
ng
 Toa pprov ethemi nut esasanaccur at
er ecord
 Th eonl ydiscussi onshoul dr elat
eto:
 Aret hemi nutesaccur at
e?
 Co ncent rateoner rorsoff act
 Mi nutesshoul dhav ebeenr eadbymember s

Bef
oret
heMeet
ing

51
  Thef il
edsetofmi nutesshoul dNOTbeal tered
 Thechai rtosi gn
 Mat t
ersar isi
ng
 Aqui ckpr ogressr eview
 Aconf ir
mat i
ont hatagr eedact i
onshav ebeencompl et
ed
 Anupdat ef r
om ani t
em( s)i nprev
iousmi nutes
 I
nformat iononl y
 Notf ordiscussi onordebat e
 I
fneedf ormaj ordi scussion, i
ncorporat
easpar tofamai nagendai
tem
 Paper sshoul dbeci r
culatedwi ththeagenda
 Awr itt
enr epor tcanbeat tachedtot hemi nutes.Ver
balreport
scanbeminut
ed.
 AgendaI tems
 Thekeyt opicsf ordiscussi onatthemeet ing
 AnyOt herBusi ness
 Prefertot henextmeet i
ng
 Rejectit
 Acceptasgenui neAOB
 Fi
tintot heagenda
 Trashi t
?
 DateofNextMeet ing
 Conf i
rmt hedat eoft henextmeet i
ng

WORKSTUDY

Wor kst
udyisthatbodyofknowl
edgeconcernedwit
htheanal
ysi
softheworkmethodsandt
he
equipmentusedinperfor
mingajob,
thedesignofanopt
imum workmethodandt
he
standar
dizat
ionofproposedwor
kmet hods.

Workstudyhascontr
ibut
edimmeasur abl
ytothebett
ermethod,andtheeffecti
veut
il
izat
ionof
t
hismanagementtoolhashelpedintheaccompl i
shmentofhigherpr
oducti
vity
.Workstudyisa
managementtoolt
oachievehigherproducti
vi
tyinanyor
ganizati
onwhethermanufacturi
ng
t
angi
bleproduct
soroffer
ingservi
cest oit
scustomers

Obj
ect
ivesofwor
kst
udy

• Toanal
yzethepresentmet
hodofdoi
ngaj
ob,
syst
emat
ical
l
yinor
dert
odev
elopanewand
bet
termethod.

• Tomeasuretheworkcontentofajobbymeasuri
ngthet
imer
equi
redt
odot
hej
obf
ora
qual
i
fiedwor
kerandhencetoestabli
shst
andar
dtime.

• Toi
ncreasethepr
oduct
ivi
tybyensur
ingthebestpossi
bleuseofhuman,machi
neand
mat
eri
alresour
cesandtoachiev
ebestquali
typroduct
/servi
ceatmini
mum possi
ble
52
 cost

• Toi
mpr
oveoper
ati
onal
eff
ici
ency

Benef
it
sofwor
kst
udy

• I
ncr
easedpr
oduct
ivi
tyandoper
ati
onal
eff
ici
ency

• Reducedmanuf
act
uri
ngcost
s

• I
mpr
ovedwor
kpl
acel
ayout

• Bet
termanpowerpl
anni
ngandcapaci
typl
anni
ng

• Fai
rwagest
oempl
oyees

• Bet
terwor
kingcondi
ti
onst
oempl
oyees

• I
mpr
ovedwor
kfl
owReducedmat
eri
alhandl
ingcost
s

5.Cont
’d

• Pr
ovi
desast
andar
dofper
for
mancet
omeasur
elabouref
fi
ciency

• Bet
teri
ndust
ri
alr
elat
ionsandempl
oyeemor
ale

• Basi
sforsoundi
ncent
ivescheme

• Pr
ovi
desbet
terj
obsat
isf
act
iont
oempl
oyees

• -thepur
poseofworkstudyi
stodeter
minet hebestormostef
fect
ivemet
hodof
accompli
shi
nganecessaryoper
ati
onorfuncti
on

 Bot
ht i
mestudyandmoti
onstudyresul
tedf
rom thei
ntegrat
ionofconcept
sandpr
act
ices
dev
elopedbyFW Tayl
orandbyFrankandLill
ianGil
bret
h.

 TheywereConcer
nedwi t
hthesy
stemat
icanal
ysi
sandi
mpr
ovementofmanual
l
y
cont
rol
l
edwor ksi
tuat
ions

• Ti
mest
udyi
saquant
it
ati
veanal
ysi
sleadi
ngt
otheest
abl
i
shmentofat
imest
andar
d

• Mot
ionstudyi
saqualit
ati
veanaly
sisofawor
kst
ati
onl
eadi
ngt
othedesi
gnor
i
mprovementofanoperat
ion/acti
vi
ty

• 8.Thegreat
estpr
oducti
onresul
tswheneachworkerisgivenadef
ini
tetaskt
obe
perf
ormedinadefi
nit
etimeinadefi
nit
emanner.Dr.Frederi
ckW.Tayl
or
53
• 9.

• Wor
kDesi
gnorWor
kSy
stem Desi
gn

• I
sSystemati
cinvesti
gat
ionofcontempl at
edandpr esentwor ksyst
emsinordert
o
f
ormulate,
throughthei
dealsystem concept,t
heeasi estandmosteff
ecti
vesyst
emsand
methodsforachiev
ingthenecessar
yf uncti
ons/goals/purposes

• 10.Wor
kst
udy

• Isthegeneri
cterm usedf ort
hoset echni
ques,
parti
cularl
ymet hodstudyandwor k
measur ement,
whichar eusedint heexaminat
ionofhumanwor kinalli
tscontextand
whichleadsystemati
callytotheinvesti
gati
onofthefactswhichaf f
ecteff
ici
encyand
economyoft hesit
uationbeingrev i
ewed,i
nordertoeffecti
mpr ovement

• 11.Met
hodsengi
neer
ing

• I
St hebodyofknowledgeconcernedwiththeanal
ysi
softhemet
hodsandtheequipment
usedinperf
ormingajob,t
hedesi gnofanopti
mum methodandthest
andar
dizat
ionofthe
proposedmethods.Alsof
requentlyr
efer
redtoas“Work St
udy”

• 12.I
ndust
ri
alengi
neer
ing

• I
sConcernedwi
tht
hedesi
gn,
improvementandinst
all
ati
onofi
ntegr
atedsy
stemsofmen,
mater
ial
sandequi
pmentt
oimproveproduct
ivi
ty

• 14.

• Mot
ionst
udyorMot
ionAnal
ysi
s

• Isadet
ail
edstudyofthemanualand/orbodymot i
onsusedinawork-
taskoratonework
areaof
teninv
olvi
ngcomparat
iveanal
ysi
sofrighthandandlef
thandmot i
ons.(Par
tof
methodstudy)

15.Wor
kmeasur
ement

• Theappl
icati
onoft
echni
quesdesi
gnedtoestabl
i
sht
het
imef
oraqual
i
fiedwor
kert
ocar
ry
outaspecif
iedj
obatadefi
nedl
evelofper
for
mance.

• Aqual i
fi
edworkerisonewhoi saccept
edashav i
ngthenecessar
yphy si
calat
tri
butes,
possessi
ngtherequiredintel
l
igenceandtheeducati
onandhavingacquiredt
henecessary
ski
llandknowl
edget ocar r
youttheworkinhandtosati
sfact
orystandardsofsafet
y,
quanti
tyandquali
ty.-ILO

• 16.Wor
ksi
mpl
if
icat
ion

• I
nvol
vesi
mpr
ovementi
nwor
kmet
hodsorwor
kfl
owi
nit
iat
edanddev
elopedbywor
ker
sor

54
 supervi
sor
sonthejobasar
esul
tofmethodst
rai
ningand/oreconomi
cincent
ives.I
tisan
organi
seduseofcommonsensetof
indandappl
ybetterway
sofdoinganyworkatlesser
cost.

17.Ti
mest
udy

• Atechni
queofworkmeasurementusedf
ordetermini
ngaccurat
elyaspossi
blefr
om a
l
imit
ednumberofobser
vati
ons,t
hetimenecessarytocar
ryoutagivenact
ivi
tyatadef
ined
st
andardofper
for
mance.

• Astopwat chisusedfort
hepurposeofrecor
dingt
heact
ualt
imetakenbyt
hewor
ker
underobservat
iontoperf
ormvari
ouselementsoft
heworkortask

18.Basi
cwor
kst
udypr
ocedur
e

• Sel
ectt
hej
oborpr
ocessort
heoper
ati
ont
obest
udi
ed

• Recor
dal
lrel
evantf
act
saboutt
hej
oborpr
ocessoroper
ati
on

• Exami
necr
it
ical
lyal
lther
ecor
dedf
act
s

• Dev
elopt
henewmet
hod

• Measur
ethewor
kcont
entandest
abl
isht
hest
andar
dti
me

• Def
inet
henewmet
hod

• I
nst
all
thenewmet
hod

• Mai
ntai
nthenewmet
hod

• Met
hodst
udyormet
hodsanal
ysi
s

• Wor
kmet
hodsanal
ysi
sormet
hodst
udyi
sasci
ent
if
ict
echni
queofobser
ving,
recor
ding
55
 andcri
ti
call
yexami
ningthepresentmethodofperf
ormingat
askoroper
ati
onwitht
heai
m
ofimpr
ovingthepr
esentmethodanddev el
opinganewandcheapermet
hod.I
tisal
so
knownasmet hodi
mprovementorwor kimprovement
.

• I
tencompassesthest
udyofwor
kpr
ocesses,
wor
kingcondi
ti
onsandequi
pment
sand
t
oolstocar
ryoutthej
ob.

• Methodst
udymaybeunder st
oodasthesyst
emat i
crecor
dingandcri
ti
cal
examinat
ionof
exi
sti
ngandproposedwaysofdoi
ngwork,asameansofdev elopi
ngandappl
yi
ngeasier
andmoreeff
ecti
vemethodsandreduci
ngcosts.

Obj
ect
ivesofmet
hodst
udy

• Tost
udyt
heexi
sti
ngpr
oposedmet
hodofdoi
nganyj
ob,
oper
ati
onoract
ivi
ty

• Todev
elopani
mpr
ovedmet
hodt
oimpr
ovepr
oduct
ivi
tyandt
oreduceoper
ati
ngcost
s

• Toreduceexcessi
vemat
eri
alhandl
i
ngormov
ementandt
her
ebyr
educef
ati
guet
o
wor
kmen

• Toi
mpr
oveut
il
izat
ionofr
esour
ces

• Toel
i
minat
ewast
eful
andi
nef
fi
cientmot
ions

• Tost
andar
dizewor
kmet
hodsorpr
ocesses,
wor
kingcondi
ti
ons,
machi
ner
y,equi
pment
s
andt
ool
s.

Adv
ant
agesofmet
hodst
udy

• Wor
ksi
mpl
i
ficat
ion

• I
mpr
ovedwor
kingmet
hod(cheapermet
hod)

• Bet
terpr
oductqual
i
ty

• I
mpr
ovedwor
kpl
acel
ayout

• I
mpr
ovedequi
pmentdesi
gn

• Bet
terwor
kingcondi
ti
ons

• Bet
termat
eri
alhandl
i
ng

• I
mpr
ovedwor
kfl
ow

56
 • Lessf
ati
guet
otheoper
ator

• Opt
imum ut
il
izat
ionofal
lresour
ces

• Highersafet
ytoworkmen
Shorterpr
oducti
oncycl
eti
me

• Hi
gherj
obsat
isf
act
ion

• Reducedmat
eri
alconsumpt
ionandwast
ages

• Reducedmanuf
act
uri
ngcostandhi
gherpr
oduct
ivi
ty

Fact
orsf
aci
li
tat
ingMet
hodst
udy

• Hi
ghoper
ati
ngcostHi
ghwast
age&scr
ap

• Excessi
vemov
ementofmat
eri
alsandwor
kmen

• Excessi
vepr
oduct
ionbot
tl
enecks

• Excessi
ver
eject
ionsandr
ewor
k

• Compl
aint
saboutqual
i
ty

• Compl
aint
saboutpoorwor
kingcondi
ti
on

• I
ncr
easi
ngnumberofacci
dent
s

• Excessi
veuseofov
ert
ime

ManagementPr
ocess

 St
rategi
cmanagementi
sapr
ocessrat
herthananev
ent,
becausei
tinvol
vesanumberof
st
ages,asopposedt
obei
ngaonespectacul
arev
ent
.Thest
agesinthei
rlogi
cal
orderar
e
asfoll
ows:

 Det
ermi
nat
ionorconsi
der
ingt
hev
isi
onandmi
ssi
onoft
hef
ir
m

 Si
tuat
ionanalysi
sorSWOTanalysi
si.
e.envi
ronmental
anal
ysi
sofexter
nalenvi
ronmentt
o
i
denti
fyopport
uniti
esandt
hreat
s,andi
nter
nalenvi
ronmentt
oident
if
ystrengt
hsand
weaknesses.

 Sett
ingstr
ategi
cobj
ect
ives–Thesear
ebasedont
heSWOTi
dent
if
iedi
nenv
ironment
al
anal
y si
s

 St
rat
egi
canal
ysi
sandchoi
ce–Thi
sisdoneatbot
hcor
por
ateandbusi
nessl
evel
s.At

57
 corporatel
evel
,theanal
ysi
sandchoiceismai
nlyconcer
nedwi t
hdeter
mini
ngthe
appropri
atebusi
nessportf
oli
o.Atbusi
nessl
evelt
hechiefconcerni
showtocompet
eint
he
business.

 St
rat
egyimplement ati
on–Thi sr equi
resoperat
ionali
zi
ngandi nsti
tuti
onali
zi
ngstrat
egy.A
st
rat
egymaybegood, butsuccessmaynotber eali
zedifthest r
ategyisnotproperl
y
i
mplemented.Evaluat
ionandcont roli
spartandpar celofimplement at
ion.Requi
redherei
s
monit
ori
ngpr ogress,
measur i
ngpr ogressandtakingcorrecti
veact i
oningoodt i
me.
Monit
ori
ngmaybedonei nvariousway srangi
ngf r
om highlyformal methodstohighl
y
i
nfor
malmet hods.Iti
si mportanttoestabli
shgoodcont roll
imits.

 Thest
rat
egi
cmanagementpr
ocessi
sthef
ramewor
kadopt
edi
nthi
scour
se.

Vi
sionandMi
ssi
on

 Vi
sionandmissionprovi
dedir
ecti
onandscopef
orthefi
rm’sact
ivi
ti
es.Vi
sionandmi
ssi
on
al
soprovi
deguidanceforthef
irm’
sstr
ategi
cobj
ect
ivesandstr
ategi
es.

Vi
sion

 Vi
sioni
susual
lyi
ncor
por
atedi
nthef
ir
m’smi
ssi
ondocument
.

 Vi
sionaddressesthequesti
on,wher
edowewantt
obe?Thi
sist
hef
ir
stquest
iont
oask
i
nast r
ategi
cplanningprocess.

 Visionref
erst
owhataf
ir
mist
ryi
ngt
odoort
obei
.e.whatt
hef
ir
m aspi
rest
obei
nthe
future.

 Visi
oni sthefi
rm’sidealfuture.Itisadream r efl
ecti
ngthebestofanorganizationi
.e.an
organi
zat i
onatitsbeste.g.thev isionofBrit
ishAi r
waysistobet he“
worldsfavouri
te
air
li
ne,”whilethatoftheUni v
er sit
yofNairobii stobe“Awor l
dclassUniversit
y
commi ttedtoacademi cexcellenceandt ransformationoft
helivesofKenyansand
servi
ngsoci et
ywi t
hdisti
nction. ”

58
  Char
act
eri
sti
csofagoodv
isi
onar
easf
oll
ows:

 I
ncor porat
esal evelorstandardsofperf
ormancewhichlev
elorstandardshoul
d
representtheverybestat t
ainabl
ebytheorgani
zat
ione.g.‘
worl
d’sfavouri
te’
forBr
it
ish
Airways,and‘worldclass’forUniv
ersi
tyofNair
obi
.

 Shor
tandmemor
abl
e–mor
ethansev
enwor
dswoul
dbet
ool
ong.

 Doesnoti
ncl
udeelement
sofmissi
oninthewayiti
sst
atedi
.e.doesnoti
ncl
ude
st
atement
srel
atedtowhatt
heorgani
zat
iondoes.

 Knownandshar
edbymember
soft
heor
gani
zat
ion.

Mi
ssi
on

 Whi
l
east atementofv
isi
onf
ocusesont
hef
utur
e,ami
ssi
onst
atementi
sconcer
nedwi
th
t
hepresent
.

 Vi
sionr
efer
stowhatt
hef
ir
m want
stobe,
whi
l
emi
ssi
onr
efer
stowhatt
hef
ir
misdoi
ngt
o
bewhati
twantst
obe.

 Pr
evi
ouscl
assescameupwi
tht
hef
oll
owi
ngsuggest
ions:

 Pr
ovi
deexcel
l
enton-
boar
dser
vice

 Pr
ovi
deexcel
l
enti
nter
connect
ionst
oanypar
toft
hewor
ld

 Pr
ovi
deexcel
l
entbooki
ngsandr
eser
vat
ionsi
.e.onl
i
neser
vices

– Hav
eon-
ti
medepar
tur
esandar
ri
val
s

– Hav
ereasonabl
efar
es

– Pr
ovi
decomf
ort
abl
eli
ght
s

– Pr
ovi
deexcel
l
entsaf
etyandsecur
it
y

– Usest
ate-
of-
the-
artai
rcr
aft
s

– Excel
l
entbaggageandcar
gohandl
i
ng

– Compet
entcr
ew

– On-
li
nechecki
ngi
n

– Cust
omeri
ncent
ives,
Etc.

 Mostoft
heseser
viceswoul
dneedt
obei
ncor
por
atedi
nBr
it
ishAi
rway
smi
ssi
onst
atement
.
59
 Whatafi
rm doest
oreal
i
zei
tsv
isi
onconst
it
utest
hebusi
nessoft
hef
ir
msi
.e.whatt
hef
ir
m
ex
ist
sfor
.

 Amissionstat
ementmustbef ormulat
edcaref
ull
yift
hevisi
onist
obe‘
real
i
zed’
.The
f
oll
owingissuesorquest
ions,
theref
ore,hav
etobeaddressed:

1.Whati
sthef
ir
m’sbusi
ness?–Thescopeofaf
ir
m’sbusi
nessmaybedef
inedi
nter
msof
:

– Pr
oduct
si.
e.goodsandser
vices

– Mar
ket
s

– Act
ivi
ti
es

2.Whatar ethefir
m’ scor
ev al
ues?–Whyar ecorev
aluesanimport
antcomponentoft
he
mission?Corev al
uesgovernhowt hefir
m doesit
sbusinesse.
g.nor
mst obeobserved,
andreflectt
hef i
rm’scul
tureandatti
tude.Todayi
tisimport
antt
oincl
udeissuesof
corporategovernanceandethicsi
naf i
rm’scoreval
ues

3.Howwi l
lthefi
rmrelatetoitsmaj orstakehol
ders-e.
g.customer s,employees,government,
communityandthegener alpublic?Relati
onshi
pwithstakeholdersispartandparcel ofa
fi
rm’
scorporatesocialr
esponsi bil
i
ty(CSR).Whyisrelat
ionshi
pwi thstakeholder
s
i
mportant?Thegoodwi llofstakeholdersisimpor
tantforafir
mi nr eal
i
zingit
sv i
sion.

4.Whatcor
por
atepol
i
ciesshoul
dthef
ir
m adopt
?

 Whyar
epol
i
ciesi
mpor
tant
?

 Poli
ciesfacil
it
ateper
for
mancethr
oughstandar
dizat
ionofpr
ocedur
esandr
educi
ng
uncertai
nty.Poli
ci
escanser
veasaninst
rumentofempowerment.

 Agoodmi ssi
onisuniqueandgi v
esident
itytot
heorgani
zat
ion.I
tdi
sti
ngui
shest
he
organi
zat
ionf
rom otheror
ganizati
ons.Vi
sionsmaybesimil
aramongsever
alcompet
it
ors,
butmissi
onsshouldbeunique.

 Uni
quenessi
simpor
tantbecauseiti
mpl
i
esthatt
heorgani
zat
ion’
sactiv
iti
esorwhatt
he
or
gani
zati
onexi
stsf
orisuniqueandmayhel
pingai
ningacompetit
iveedge.

 Ev
erybodyintheorgani
zati
onshoul
dshar
eandchampi
ont
hev
isi
onandmi
ssi
onoft
he
or
ganizat
ion.Thi
srequi
res:

– I
ncor
por
ati
ngt
hev
isi
onandmi
ssi
oni
nopeni
ngr
emar
ksi
nsemi
nar
sandwor
kshops

– Recr
uit
ingpeopl
ewi
tht
her
ightapt
it
ude

– Maki
ngv
isi
onandmi
ssi
onpar
tofor
ient
ati
on
60
 – Recogni
zi
ngbehav
iorandper
for
mancet
hatgi
vepr
omi
nencet
othev
isi
onandmi
ssi
on

– Conspi
cuousl
ydi
spl
ayi
ngt
hev
isi
onandmi
ssi
onwi
thi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion’
spr
emi
ses

– I
ncludingthevi
sionandmi
ssi
oni
ntheor
gani
zat
ion’
spamphl
ets,
bul
l
eti
nsandot
her
publi
cati
ons.

– Di
spl
ayi
ngv
isi
onandmi
ssi
oni
ntheor
gani
zat
ion’
sweb

– Maki
ngv
isi
onandmi
ssi
onpar
toft
henamet
agandcor
por
atewear

WORKPLANNI
NGANDNETWORKANALYSI
S

Wor
kPl
anni
ng

Aworkplanisadocumentshowi
nghowaf
ir
m wi
l
lgoabouti
naccompl
i
shi
ngspeci
fi
ctasksor
obj
ect
ivesofaproj
ect
.

Itout
li
nest
hegoalsandpr
ocesstobefol
lowed,
theacti
vi
tiesi
nvol
ved,t
heirdependenci
es,
the
schedul
e(wor
kbreakdownst
ruct
ures)
,ti
meli
neandtheresour
cesthatwil
lberequir
edto
undert
akeapr
oject
.

Met
hodsofwor
kpl
anni
ng

1.Cr
it
ical
pat
hanal
ysi
s(Net
wor
kanal
ysi
s)
2.Gant
tchar
ts
3.Budget
sandest
imat
es
4.Fl
owchar
ts
5.Wor
kschedul
es
6.Dut
yroast
ers
7.Deci
sionf
ree
8.Pr
ojectev
aluat
ionandr
evi
ewt
echni
ques
1.Cr
it
ical
Pat
hAnal
ysi
s

61
I
tisat
oolusedt
oplanacti
vi
ti
esofacomplexprojectt
hatconsumeal
otofr
esour
cessot
hata
j
obcanbecomplet
edintheshor
testt
imepossi
ble.

I
tbr
eaksaj
obdowni
ntoanumberoft
asksandl
ookatt
hedependencybet
weent
hoseact
ivi
ti
es.

I
tisusedf
orschedul
i
ngasetofpr
ojectact
ivi
ti
esi
edev
elopi
ngwor
kbr
eakdownst
ruct
ure.

Requi
rement
s

1.Al
i
stofal
lact
ivi
ti
est
obeunder
taken
2.Ti
medur
ati
oneachact
ivi
tywi
l
ltaket
ocompl
ete.
3.Rel
ati
onshi
psbet
weenv
ari
ousact
ivi
ti
es.
4.St
artandf
ini
sht
imeofeachact
ivi
ty.
Const
it
uent
sofanet
wor
kdi
agr
am

1.Anact
ivi
ty

I
tisaj
oborat
askt
obeunder
takeni
napr
ojectwhi
chhasdef
ini
test
artandend.

2.Not
eorev
ent

I
tdenot
esbegi
nni
ngandt
heendofanact
ivi
tyoragr
oupofact
ivi
ti
esr
epr
esent
edbyaci
rcl
e.

I
tisj
ustamomenti
nti
mehencei
tdoesnotr
equi
reanyt
imeorr
esour
ce.

Anet
wor
kmustst
artandendwi
thanode.

3.Dummyact
ivi
ty

I
tisusedi
nanet
wor
kdi
agr
am f
ort
wor
easons:

-
Toenabl
eal
ltheact
ivi
ti
est
obeuni
quel
ydescr
ibedasaconnect
ionoft
woev
ent
s.

-
Tof
aci
l
itat
ethel
ogi
cal
flowofact
ivi
ti
esoft
henet
wor
kincer
tai
ncases.

Theyar
epur
elycr
eat
edt
oshowdependenci
es.

Theyarenotl
abel
ed;
don’
ttakeanyt
imeorr
esour
cer
epr
esent
edbydot
ted,
col
oredordoubl
e
l
ines.

Theydonotexi
sti
nreal
i
tyandt
her
efor
ethei
rdur
ati
oni
szer
o.

4.Net
wor
k

I
tisacombinati
onofacti
vi
ties,event
s,nodesandt
hedummyact
ivi
ti
esr
epr
esent
edi
nadi
agr
am
f
oraproj
ecttogetherwi
thresources.

62
5.Apr
oject

I
tisanunder
takingwhi
chconsi
stsofaser
iesofinter
rel
atedt
asksaimedatachiev
ingdef
ined
obj
ect
iveswi
thinaconsi
der
ableti
meandresources.I
thasstar
tconstr
aintandendti
me.

I
tinv
olvesaconsi
der
abl
euseoft
imeandr
esour
cesf
ori
tar
eacompl
eti
onandhav
edef
ini
test
art
andending.

Exampl
e1

Aconst
ruct
ori
stobui
l
daf
act
ory
.Thef
oll
owi
ngact
ivi
ti
eswi
l
lbeunder
takeni
nthepr
oject
:

Act
ivi
ty Descr
ipt
ion Dur
ati
on

A Pr
epar
efoundat
ion 7day
s

B Makeandf
itdoorf
rames 2day
s

C Laydr
ainsf
low 15day
s

E Bui
l
dthewal
l
s 10day
s

F Pl
ast
ert
hecei
l
ing 2day
s

G Er
ectr
oof 5day
s

H Fi
tandpai
ntdoor
sandwi
ndows 8day
s

I Fi
tgut
ter
sandpi
pes 2day
s

J Pai
ntout
side 3day
s

Surel
y,someoftheseacti
vit
iescannotbestar
tedbef
oreot
heract
ivi
ti
eshav
ebeencompl
etedf
or
exampleact
ivi
tycannotbegi
nunt i
lact
ivi
tyEhasbeencomplet
ed.

Thef
oll
owi
ngt
abl
eshowswhi
chact
ivi
tymustpr
ecedet
heot
her

B mustbeaf
terE

Cmustbeaf
terA

Dmustbeaf
terB

I
MPORTANCEOFFORWARDPLANNI
NG

1.Mi
nimi
zesf
utur
euncer
tai
nti
est
hatmaybeencount
ered.

63
 2.I
mpr
ovesempl
oyee’
smor
alet
oadher
etot
hei
rcommi
tment
.
3.Ensur
eopt
imum ut
il
izat
ionofor
gani
zat
ional
resour
ces.
4.Hel
pst
osetor
gani
zat
ional
goal
sandobj
ect
ives.
5.Hel
pst
ofor
ecastr
esour
cer
equi
rement
s.
6.Faci
l
itat
esbudget
ingandf
inanci
alr
equi
rement
s.
7.Ensur
esmoot
hpr
oduct
ionpr
ocess.
8.St
reaml
i
nebusi
nessoper
ati
ons.
9.Mi
nimi
zesf
luct
uat
ioni
npr
oduct
ionandpr
ocess.
10.
Hel
pst
oav
oidmat
eri
alshor
tages.
PROJECTPLANNI
NGANDMANAGEMENT

TOOLSUSEDI
NPROJECTPLANNI
NG

RULESUSEDI
NCONSTRUCTI
NGNETWORKDI
AGRAM

1.Eachact
ivi
tyi
sshownbyanar
rowonl
yoncei
nthenet
wor
k.
2.Thenetworkhast
obedev
elopedont
hebasi
sofl
ogi
cal
dependenci
esbet
weenv
ari
ous
act
ivi
ti
es.
3.Thel
engt
hoft
hear
rowdoesnotcor
respondt
oact
ivi
tydur
ati
on.
4.Thear
rowdi
rect
ionshowst
hegener
alpr
ogr
essi
oni
nti
me.
5.Ev
ent
sint
henet
wor
kar
elabel
edbynumber
s.
6.Act
ivi
ti
esar
eident
if
iedbyt
henumberofst
art
ingandendi
ngev
ent
s.
7.Loopi
ngi
stobemi
nimi
zedi
nthenet
wor
kconst
ruct
ion(
arr
owmustbest
rai
ght
).
8.Acompl
etenet
wor
kwi
l
lhav
eonest
art
ingev
entnode.
Det
ermi
ningt
hecr
it
ical
pat
h,usef
orwar
dpass.

I
nthef
orwar
dpasst
aket
hehi
ghestdur
ati
on.

Thebackwar
dpass,
taket
hel
owestdur
ati
on.

Not
e:I
nthecr
it
ical
pat
h,upper=l
ower

KNEC2002Q1b

Thefol
l
owi
ngsur
veywor
kofar
oadpr
ojectconsi
stof10act
ivi
ti
eswhosedur
ati
onsar
eas
fol
l
ows:

64
Act
ivi
ty Dur
ati
on(
Day
s)

1-
2 6

1-
3 4

1-
4 10

2-
5 0

2-
7 9

3-
5 4

4-
5 6

4-
6 2

5-
7 8

6-
7 3

Prepar
eatabul
arpresent
ati
onoft
henet
wor
ktoshowt
heear
li
estst
artt
imeandt
hel
atestst
art
ti
meandtotalf
loat
.

St
atet
hecr
it
ical
act
ivi
ti
es

Thedur
ati
ont
hepr
ojectwi
l
ltake

Cal
cul
ati
ngf
loat
s

Act
ivi
ty Tot
alf
loat

1-
2 15-
(0+6)=9

1-
3 12-
(0+4)=8

1-
4 10-
0-10=0

2-
5 16-
6-0=10

2-
7 24-
6-9=9

3-
5 16-
4-4=8

4-
5 16-
10-
6=0

4-
6 21-
10-
2=9

5-
7 24-
16-
8=0

65
6-
7 24-
12-
3=9

KNEC2005

Task Or
der Est
imat
ed

A Canst
artt
hesamet
imeasB 2

B Canst
artt
hesamet
imeasA 2

C Mustf
oll
owA 6

D Mustf
oll
owA 3

E Mustf
oll
owB 1

F Mustf
oll
owB 8

G Mustf
oll
owC 2

H Mustf
oll
owD,
E 1

J Cannotst
artunt
ilCHhasf
ini
shed 3

K Cannotst
artunt
ilCHhasf
ini
shed 3

L Mustf
oll
owG,
J 4

Theoper
ati
oni
scompl
etewhenF,
KandLhav
efi
nishedusi
ngt
het
abl
e

Cal
cul
ate:
Theear
li
estst
art
ingt
ime

Thel
atestf
ini
sht
ime

Dr
awt
henet
wor
kdi
agr
am anddet
ermi
net
hecr
it
ical
pat
h.

I
dent
if
ytheamountoft
otal
floatandf
reef
loati
nthet
abl
e.

SCHEDULI
NG

I
t’
sarrangi
ngorpl
anni
ngofaneventtotakepl
aceatapar
ti
cul
arti
me.Iti
nvol
vesassi
gni
ngan
appr
opriat
enumberofwor
ker
stoaj obduri
ngeachpar
ti
cul
ardayofwork.

I
t’
sapl
anoft
hepr
ocedur
etot
akepl
ace.

66
FACTORSAFFECTI
NGWORKSCHEDULI
NG

1.Numberofev
ent
soract
ivi
ti
est
obeunder
takeni
naj
ob.
2.Wor
kpl
ani
npl
ace.
3.Tot
alpr
ojectdur
ati
on.
4.Resour
cesav
ail
abl
efort
hepr
oject
.
5.Dat
eandt
imeofdues.
6.Oper
ati
oni
ntensi
tyi
erat
eandcapaci
tyofmachi
neandoper
ati
onal
int
ensi
ty.
7.Wor
kcent
ercal
endar
.

BENEFI
TSOFWORKSCHEDULI
NG

1.I
tsi
mpl
i
fiest
hewhol
epr
ojectmaki
ngi
teasyt
oexecut
e.
2.Val
i
dat
est
imeandobj
ect
ivesf
orv
ari
ousev
ent
s.
3.Opt
imum ut
il
izat
ionofr
esour
cesempl
oyed.
4.Hel
psi
nfor
ecast
ingt
hei
nput
srequi
rement
sofapr
oject
.
5.Opt
imum l
aborut
il
izat
ion.

PROJECTCOSTI
NG

I
t’
stheprocessofidenti
fi
cationandr
epor
ti
ngofal
lthecosti
nvol
vedi
nunder
taki
ngt
hepr
ojectso
astodet
ermineit
sact ualcost.

FACTORSI
NFLUENCI
NGPROJECTCOSTS

Di
vi
dedi
ntot
wo:
Ini
ti
alf
act
ors

1.Pr
ojectspeci
fi
cat
ion:
Qual
i
tyofr
awmat
eri
alt
obeused,
floorspaceandt
hesi
zeoft
hepr
oject
.

2.Locat
ionoft
hepr
oject
:Af
fectt
ranspor
tat
ionl
i
ker
awmat
eri
alt
oasi
te.

3.Met
hodsofpr
ocur
ement
sused:
Tender
ing,
dir
ectpr
ocur
ement
.

4.Si
techar
act
eri
sti
cs:
Drai
nage,
soi
landaccessr
est
ri
cti
ons,
ter
rai
n.

5.Taxl
i
abi
l
ity
:Somepr
ojectar
etaxexempt
ed,
zer
orat
ed,
taxabl
edi
ff
erent
iat
ed.

6.I
nfl
uent
iat
ion:
Mayaf
fectt
hepr
icesandcostofr
awmat
eri
als.

67
7.Ti
mescal
e:Al
l
owedf
ort
hepr
oject
.

FACTORSTHATAFFECTPROJECTWI
THTI
ME

1.Unexpect
edgr
ound,
weat
hercondi
ti
ons.
2.Changei
ntheor
igi
nal
desi
gn.
3.Poorpr
ojectmanagementbymanager
s.
4.Landacqui
sit
ioncostcompensat
ion.
5.Shor
tageofr
awmat
eri
alsandl
aborcost
.
6.Fundi
ngpr
obl
ems.
7.Changei
nexchanger
ate.
8.Nat
ural
cal
ami
ti
es.

METHODSOFDETERMI
NINGPROJECTCOSTS

Exper
tjudgment
:usesexper
iencedknowl
edgeabl
eandl
i
ght
lyski
l
ledexper
tsi
nthatar
ea.

Anal
ogousest
imat
ion:
useshi
stor
ical
dat
a.

Par
amet
ri
cest
imat
ion:
usesst
ati
sti
cal
model
i
ngwher
ecosti
sat
tachedt
ocostdr
iver
s.

Bot
tom upest
imat
ion:
wei
ght
edav
erageest
imat
ion.

Reser
veanal
ysi
s:pr
ovi
def
orcont
ingenci
esr
eser
ves.

Vender
s’anal
ysi
s:compar
est
hebi
tssubmi
tt
edbydi
ff
erentt
ender
s.

St
ati
sti
cal
model
i
ngt
echni
ques.

68
 PERSONNELMANAGEMENT.

I
tisanadmi str
ati
vespecial
izati
onthatf
ocusesonhir
inganddev
elopi
ngemployeestobecome
morevaluabletothecompany .I
tissometimesconsi
der
edtobeasub-cat
egoryofhuman
r
esourcesthatonlyfocusesonadmi ni
str
ati
on.

Funct
ionsofper
sonnelmanagement
.

Per
sonnel
managementi
nvol
vest
wocat
egor
iesoff
unct
ion:

A)Oper
ati
ngf
unct
ion.

Theoperat
ingf
uncti
onessent
ial
lybelongst
osuchactiv
iti
esconcer
nedwi
thpr
ocur
ing,
dev
elopi
ng,
compensati
ng,
uti
li
zi
ngandmai ntai
ninganeff
ici
entworkfor
ce.

1.Procurement -meansrecruiti
ngtherequir
ednumberofemployeeswithdue
quali
ficati
onandexper i
encekeepinginv i
ewthei
mportanceofachievingthe
objectiv
essetbeforetheor gani
zati
on.Iti
smainl
yconcernedwithhir
ingtheright
people,intheri
ghtplace,attheri
ghttime.

2.Development-meansacti
viti
esmeantt oincr
easetheeff
ici
encyandski
ll
softhe
workersthr
oughtrai
ningandeducationofempl oy
ees.I
tincl
udesact
ivi
ti
esl
ike
tr
aini
ng,seminar
s,groupdiscussi
ons,educati
onetc.

3.Compensati
ng-
incl
udesact
ivi
ti
eswhi
chdeal
wit
hthemet
hodandst
andar
dof
remuner
ati
onandtermsofemployment
.

4.Ut
il
izi
ng-meansusingtheser
vicesoftheempl
oyeestot
hebestpossi
bleext
ent
.It
i
ncl
udesincent
ivesschemesforshar
ingthepr
ofi
tsfr
om hi
gherpr
oducti
vi
ty.

5.Mai
ntai
ning-
aimsatmaint
aini
nggoodworkingcondi
ti
onfort
heemployees.I
t
i
ncl
udespreparat
ionandi
mplementat
ionofheal
thschemes,
saf
etysystemsetc.

B)Manager
ialf
unct
ions.

69
Themanageri
alfunct
ionsi
ncludeact
ivi
ti
esli
keplanni
ng,
organi
zi
ngandcoordi
nat
ing,
dir
ect
ing
andcont
rol
l
ing.Theyareperf
ormedbyal l
typesofmanageri
ncl
udingmanager
s.

1)Planni
ng-aplanisapr
e-det
erminedcourseofact
iontoaccompl
ishthesetobj
ect
ives,
it
specif
ieswhatandhowoperati
vepersonnelf
unct
ionsaretobeperf
ormed.

2)Organi
zi
ng-or
gani
zingcall
sforgroupi
ngofper
sonnel
act
ivi
ti
es,
assi
gnmentofdi
ff
erent
acti
vi
ti
estodif
fer
entindi
vi
duals.

3)Co-or
dinat
ion-i
sconcernedwithharmoniousanduni
fi
edact
iondirectedtowardsa
commonobj ect
ive.I
tensuresthatal
lgr
oupsandpersonsworkeffi
cientl
y,
economical
l
y
andinharmony.Person-
to-
personcommuni cat
ioni
smosteffect
iveforcoordi
nati
on.

4)Di
recti
ng-i
nvol
vesmanagingmanager s,managingwor
ker
sandthewor kthr
oughthe
meansofmot i
vati
on,pr
operl
eadership,
eff
ecti
vecommunicat
ionaswellasco-or
dinat
ion.
Apersonnelmanagermustdevel
opt heabi
li
tytocommandanddirectot
hers.

5)Moti
vati
ng-mot
ivat
ionist
hekeytosuccessf
ulmanagi
ngofanyenterpr
ise.Apersonnel
managermusti
nculcat
einthewor
kersakeenappreci
ati
onofor
ganizat
ionspoli
cies.

6)Contr
oll
ing-controli
st heprocessofmeasuri
ngactual
resul
tswithsomest andardof
per
formance,findingthereasonfordevi
ati
onsofactuafrom desi
redresul
tsandt aki
ng
cor
recti
veactionwhennecessar y
.Thus,
control
l
edenablesthereal
izat
ionofplans.

Thesi
gni
fi
canceoftheset
wovariet
iesoff
uncti
onsisthatonefunct
ioncannotwor
kwi
thout
theot
her
s.Theper
sonnelmanagerhastoblendthet
wot othedesir
ableext
ent.

Rol
esofaper
sonnel
manager
.

1.Theypr
ovi
deassi
stancet
othet
opmanagement

2.He/sheadvi
cesthel
inemanagersasast
affspeci
ali
st.Sheact
sasast
affadv
isorandassi
st
thedepar
tmentmanagersi
nhandl
ingper
sonnelmatt
ers.

3.Theper
sonnelmanageri
sacounsel
or.Wor
ker
swi
thpr
obl
emsandgr
iev
ancesar
eat
tendedt
o
bytheper
sonnel
manager.

4.Theper
sonnelmanageractasamedi
ator
.He/shei
sthel
i
nkbet
weent
hemanagerandt
he
gener
alworkf
orce.

5.Sheactsasaspokesperson.Theper
sonnel
manageri
sbestsui
tedt
ospeakonbehal
foft
he
organi
zat
iononst
affmatters.

St
eps/pr
ocedur
est
hatar
efol
l
owedi
nhumanr
esour
cepl
anni
ng.

i
)Anal
yzi
ngt
hecur
rentmanpoweri
nvent
ory
.

70
Beforeamanagermakesafocusedoffut
uremanpowert
hecurr
entmanpowerst
atushast
obe
analy
sed.Thef
oll
owingthi
ngsareconsi
dereddur
ingt
heanal
ysi
s.

a)Thet
ypeofor
gani
zat
ion

b)Thenumberofdepar
tment
s

c)Theempl
oyeesi
nthewor
kuni
ts

i
i
)Maki
ngf
utur
emanpowerf
orecast
s.

Oncethef
actoraf
fecti
ngthefut
uremanpowerfor
ecastsareknown,
planningcanbedonefort
he
fut
uremanpowerrequi
rementsi
nseveral
workuni
ts.Thefoll
owingf
orecasttechni
quesar
e
commonlyemployedbyorgani
zati
on.

a)Exper
tfor
ecast
s.

B)Tr
endanal
ysi
s

c)Wor
kloadanal
ysi
s

d)Mat
hemat
ical
model
swi
tht
heai
dofcomput
ers.

I
ii
)Dev
elopi
ngempl
oymentpr
ogr
ams.

Aftercompar
ingt
hecurrenti
nvent
orywi
thf
utur
efor
ecastt
heempl
oymentprogramscanbe
fr
amedanddev el
opedaccordi
ngly
.Theempl
oymentpr
ogramswi
ll
incl
uderecr
uitmentsel
ect
ion,
procedur
esandplacementpl
ans.

i
v)Desi
gnt
rai
ningpr
ogr
ams.

Theseprogramsdependontheextentofi
mpr
ovementi
ntechnol
ogy
,theexpansi
onpl
ansoft
he
organi
zati
onanddevelopmentpr
ograms.

I
mpor
tanceofmanpowerpl
anni
ng.

1.
Keyt
omanager
ial
funct
ion.

Themai
nmanagementfunct
ionsar
ebaseduponthemanpower
.Al
lmanager
ial
act
ivi
ti
esar
e
i
mplement
edwi
ththehelpofhumanresour
ces.

2.Manpowerpl
anni
ngi
simpor
tantf
oref
fi
cientut
il
izat
ion.

Ef
fi
cientmanagementofanor
gani
zat
ioni
sdependentonpr
opermanagementofmanpower
.

3.Mot
ivat
ion

Staff
ingfunct
ionrequi
rest
haty
ouhav
eincent
ivepl
ant
obedesi
gnedt
okeept
hehuman
resourcesmotiv
ated.
71
4.Bet
terhumanr
elat
ions.

Humanr el
ati
onsbecamestr
ongthr
oughef
fect
ive cont
rol
,cl
earcommuni
cat
ion,
eff
ect
ive
super
visi
onandleader
shi
pintheor
gani
zat
ion.

5.Hi
gherpr
oduct
ivi
ty.

Duetomanpowerplanni
ng,t
her
eismi ni
mum wastageoftime,
eff
ort
sandener
gies.Pr
oduct
ivi
ty
l
evel
swil
li
ncreaseduetotheef
fect
iveuti
li
zat
ionofresour
ces.

Recr
uit
ment

I
tisoft
wot
ypes;

a)I
nter
nalr
ecr
uit
ment
.

I
tisarecrui
tmentwhi
chtakespl
acewi
thi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.Ther
ear
e3pr
imar
ysour
cesof
i
nter
nalrecr
uit
mentnamely;

1.
Trani
ter
s

2.
Promot
ers

3.Re-
empl
oymentofex-
empl
oyees.

Benef
it
sofi
nter
nalr
ecr
uit
ment
.

 I
ncr
easei
nempl
oyeespr
oduct
ivi
tybecauset
hei
rmot
ivat
ionl
evel
sar
ehi
gh.

 I
tsav
est
ime,
moneyandef
for
ts.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
nter
nalr
ecr
uit
ment
.

 I
tret
rai
nst
heor
gani
zat
ionf
rom newbr
and

 Notal
lthemanpowerr
equi
rementcanbemett
hroughi
nter
nal
recr
uit
ment
.

b)Ext
ernal
recr
uit
ment
.

I
tswhenr
ecr
uit
menthast
obesel
ect
edf
rom out
sidet
heor
gani
zat
ion.

Ext
ernalsour
cesofr
ecr
uit
ment
.

1.
Empl
oymentoff
act
orygat
e_appl
i
cat
ionf
orv
acanci
esar
epr
esent
edi
nboar
dsout
sidet
he

72
f
act
oryoratt
hegat
eoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.

2.
Adv
ert
isement
_it
scommonl
ydonei
nnewspaper
sthusi
tcov
ersawi
der
angeofmar
ket
.

3.Employmentexchanges_mostgovernmentent
erpr
isesemploypeopl
ethr
oughemploy
ment
exchanges,
Theyar egover
nmentrunnedoffi
ceswherejobseeker
ssubmitt
hei
rjobi
nfor
mat
ion.

4.
Educati
oninst
it
uti
ons_Theyareeducat
ional
inst
it
uti
onswhi
chwoul
drecommendnamesof
fr
eshgraduat
estoanemployer.

5.Employmentagenci
es_pr
ofessi
onal
organi
zat
ionswhi
chsuppl
yrequi
redmanpowert
oneedy
enter
prises.

6.Reccommendati
ons_theyarepeopl
ewhohaveexperi
enceinapart
icul
arareaandt
heyenj
oy
goodwill
andstandinor
ganizati
onwherev
acanci
esareavai
labl
etheyarefi
l
ledby
recommendati
onsofsuchpeopl e.

7.Labourcont
ract
ors_thesear
especi
ali
stspeopl
ewhosuppl
ywor
ker
stov
ari
ousor
gani
zat
ions
towor koncontr
actbasis.

Sel
ect
ion.

Thepr
ocessofput
ti
ngr
ightpeopl
eont
her
ightj
ob.

Benef
it
sofef
fect
ivesel
ect
ion.

 Qual
i
typer
for
manceofempl
oyees.

 Lessofabsent
eei
sm andempl
oyeet
urnov
erpr
obl
ems

 Theor
gani
zat
ionsav
est
imeandmoney
.

Empl
oyeesel
ect
ionpr
ocess

St
ep1_Pr
eli
minar
yint
erv
iews.

I
tisusedtoel
i
mi natet hosecandi
dat
eswhodonotmeetthemini
mum eli
gibi
l
ityent
ri
eslay
ed
downbytheorganizat
ionatthestage ski
l
ls,
academi
candfami
lybackgr
oundcompetenci
esand
i
nter
estar
eexami ned.

St
ep2_Appl
i
cat
ionbl
anks

Thecandidateswhocl eart
heprel
i
minaryi
nterv
iewarer
equir
edtoprov
idedat
aaboutages,
qual
i
ficat
ions,reasonsforl
eavi
ngprev
iousjob,wor
kexper
ienceset
c

73
St
ep3_Wr
it
tent
est
s

Var
iouswr
it
tent
est
sconduct
eddur
ingsel
ect
ionpr
ocedur
esar
e;

 Apt
it
udet
est
s

 I
ntel
l
igencet
est
s

 Reasoni
ngt
est
s

 Per
sonal
i
tyt
est
s

St
ep4_Empl
oymenti
nter
views

I
t’
saonetooneinter
act
ionsbetweentheint
erv
iewerandt
hepotent
ial
candi
dat
etof
indout
whet
hert
hecandidat
eisbestsuit
edforther
equir
edjoborno.

St
ep5_Medi
calexami
nat
ion

Medical
test
sareconductedt
oensurephy
sicalf
it
nessoft
hepot
ent
ial
empl
oyees.I
twi
l
l
decr
easethechancesofemploy
ees’
absenteei
sm.

St
ep6_Appoi
ntmentl
ett
er

Arefer
encecheckismadeaboutthecandi
dat
essel
ect
edandt
henf
inal
l
yhe/
shei
sappoi
ntedby
gi
vingafor
mal appoi
ntmentl
ett
er.

Tr
aini
ngofempl
oyees.

Trai
ningisaprocessofenhanci
ngt
heski
l
lscapabi
l
iti
esandknowl
edgeofempl
oyeesf
ordoi
nga
part
icul
artask.

I
mpor
tanceoft
rai
ning.

 I
timpr
ovest
hemor
aleofempl
oyees

 Lesssuper
visi
on

 Fewacci
dent
s

 Hi
gherchancesofpr
omot
ion

 I
ncr
easedpr
oduct
ivi
ty.

Gr
oundsf
ort
rai
ning.

 Newcandi dat
ewhojoinanorgani
zat
ionaregi
vent
rai
ning_t
hesetr
aini
ngfamili
ari
zest
he
newempl oyeeswi
ththeworki
ngcondit
ionsor
gani
zat
ionsmissi
on,vi
sion,
rul
esand
regul
ati
ons.

74
  Exi
sti
ngempl
oyees_ar
etr
ainedt
oref
reshandenhancet
hei
rknowl
edge.

 I
fanyupdatesandamendment
stakepl
acei
ntechnol
ogyt
rai
ningi
sgi
vent
ocopeupwi
th
t
hosechanges.

 Whenpr
omot
ionandcar
eergr
owt
hbecomesi
mpor
tant
.

Met
hodsoft
rai
ning.

1.
Onthejobtrai
ning_i
tisasi
mpl
eandcostef
fect
ivewayoft
rai
ningwor
ker
sint
heact
ual
worki
ngsceneri
es.

2.
Off-
thejobtr
aini
ng_isdonethr
oughmethodssuchaswor
kshops,
semi
nar
sandconf
erences
awayfrom t
heactualworki
ngcondi
ti
on.

Per
for
manceappr
aisal
.

Thi
sisthesy
stemat
icev
aluat
ionoft
heper
for
manceofempl
oyees.I
tisdonei
nthef
oll
owi
ng
ways;

1.
Thesuper
visormeasur
ethepayoft
heempl
oyeesandcompar
eitwi
tht
arget
sandpl
ans.

2.
Thesuper
visoranal
yzet
hef
act
orsbehi
ndwor
kper
for
manceofempl
oyees.

3.
Theempl
oyer
sar
einaposi
ti
ont
ogui
det
heempl
oyeesf
orabet
terper
for
mance.

Empl
oyeer
emuner
ati
on

1.
Theti
mer atemethod_remunerati
onisdi
rect
lyli
nkedwitht
heti
mespentordevot
edbyan
empl
oyeeont hej
ob.Theempl oyeesar
epaidaf i
xedpre-
deci
dedamounthour
ly,
dai
ly,
weekl
yor
mont
hlyir
respect
iveofthei
routput.

2.
Piecer
atemethod._amethodofcompensati
oninwhichr
emunerat
ionispai
donthebasisof
uni
tsorpi
ecesproducedbyanemployee.Emphasi
sismoreonquant
ityout
putasopposedto
qual
it
youtput
.

FI
NANCEANDPURCHASI
NG.

PURCHASI
NG

I
t’
sanat
temptbyanor
gani
zat
iont
oacqui
regoodsandser
vicest
hataccompl
i
sht
hegoal
sofan
75
ent
erpr
ise.

At
echni
queofpr
ocur
ingmat
eri
al/goods,
machi
nes,
tool
s,suppl
i
erser
viceset
c

I
tisanacti
vi
tyr
esponsi
bleforgetti
ngt
her
ightmat
eri
alt
other
ightpl
acei
nther
ightquant
it
yat
t
herightt
imeandatther
ightplace.

Funct
ionsofpur
chasi
ngdepar
tment
.

1.Recei
vi
ngr
equi
sit
ions

Thepurchasi
ngdepartmentrecei
vesrequisi
tionofmateri
alsfr
om di
ffer
entdepart
ment
softhe
organi
zati
on.I
tthenexamineseachrequisit
ionindet
ailandtakeact
ionsaccordi
ngtot
heneed
andurgencyoftheit
emsrequested.

2.Assessmentofdemand.

Animproperdescr
ibeddemandcancosttheorganizat
ionheavi
lyinter
msofmoneyandt i
me
whenanor deri
splacedandt
her
eislackofpreci
sioninthedescript
ionofgoodsneeded,t
he
goodsr
ecei v
edmaynotbeacceptabl
etothedepart mentandatthesamet i
mearediffi
cul
tto
ret
urnt
ot hesuppl
iers

Funct
ionsofpur
chasi
ng.

 All
purchasesaremadeonpr
operaut
hor
izedr
equi
sit
ionswi
thf
ull
descr
ipt
ionl
i
kepur
pose
andquanti
tyrequi
red.

 Toplaceor
dersofrequisi
ti
onedgoodswi
thri
ghtsuppl
iersaf
terananal
ysi
soft
hepr
oposal
sel
ecti
onofthesuppli
ersandkeepi
nginv
iewthestockrecor
ds.

 Topr
ocur
ether
ightqual
i
tyandt
ypeofmat
eri
alsatmi
nimum r
atesatr
ightt
ime.

 Toensur
ethatdel
i
ver
yofgoodsi
srecei
vedwi
thi
nspeci
fi
edper
iods.

 Toseet
hatt
hegoodsr
ecei
vedar
easpert
heor
der
spl
acedwi
thr
espectt
ospeci
fi
cat
ion
pol
i
cy.

 Tostudythevari
oussuppli
ersourcesandprepar
eal
i
stofmostconv
eni
entand
economicalal
ter
nat
ivesuppli
erforfut
ureuse.

 Toprepar
et hespecif
icat
ionsf
orcal
l
ingquot
ati
onandmakecompar
ati
vest
atement
son
or
dertoplaceorders.

 Toensur
ethatt
hepayment
saremadepr
ompt
lyt
othev
endor
sint
hei
nter
estof
company’
sposi
ti
oni
nthemarket
.

 Tokeeprecor
dsofgoodspur
chased,
issuedandkepti
ninv
ent
oryf
oref
fi
cientwor
kingof
thedepar
tment.
76
  Topur
chasesmal
li
temsdi
rect
lyf
rom t
hemar
ketwhi
chdonotr
equi
requot
ati
on.

 Tostudythemarketcondi
ti
onsandifpossi
bletoent
eri
ntor
atecont
ractwi
thbi
gsuppl
i
ers
i
nordertoensur
eav ai
labi
l
ityofmat
eri
alsatall
time.

 Toadv
icethemanagementregar
dingpossi
bleeconomi
estobemai
ntai
nedby
manuf
acturi
ngi
temsinst
eadofpurchasi
ngandv i
cever
sa.

 Tomai
ntai
nanuni
nter
rupt
edsuppl
yofmat
eri
alst
ovar
iouspr
oduct
iondepar
tment
.

 Toactasaliai
sonbetweenvendorsandvari
ousdepart
ment
soft
heconcer
nsuchas
pr
oducti
on,
maintenance,
quali
tycont
rolandfi
nance.

 Tot
akepr
omptdeci
sionaboutdi
sposal
ofmat
eri
alswast
eandsal
vage.

Fi
nancepur
chasi
ng

Pur
chasi
ngpr
ocedur
e.

1.Cashpur
chases

2.Tender
ing

Iti
sapurchasi
ngprocedur
ewherebypotenti
alsuppl
ier
sareinv
itedtomakeabidf
orsuppl
yi
ng,
buyi
ngorundert
aki
ngacont r
actundert
hepr i
ce,t
ermsandcondi t
ionswhi
char
eaccept
abl
eand
shal
lfor
mt hebasi
sofsupply
ingorundert
akingajob/cont
ract
.

Obj
ect
ivesoft
ender
ing

 Tr
anspar
ency
_el
i
minat
escor
rupt
ion

 Toachi
eveef
fi
ciencyandeconomy

 Togi
veequal
oppor
tuni
ti
es

 Tomakesur
egoodsmeett
her
equi
redst
andar
ds

Tender

I
tisawrit
tendocumentfr
om suppl
i
ersputt
ingt
heprices,
ter
msandcondi
ti
onsf
orsuppl
yi
ng
goods,
mat er
ial
sorunder
taki
ngaproj
ectofdef
inedspeci
fi
cati
ons.

Ty
pesoft
ender
s.

1.Opent
ender
s

Prospect
ivesuppl
ier
sareinvi
tedtocompeteforajob,contr
actort
omakesuppl i
esinpri
ce.The
competit
ionisopenandthelowestbi
dderbeingaccepted.Theadv
ert
iserusual
l
ystatest
hatthey
arenotboundtolowestoranyothertender
s.
77
Alt
houghthecompet
it
ioni
sguidedbypr
ice,
thi
ngsli
kequal
it
yandexper
iencehe/shehasar
enot
consi
der
edandthustheadver
ti
sementi
sopentothegener
alpubl
i
c.

2.Rest
ri
ctedt
ender
s

Prospect
ivesuppli
ersarei
nvit
edtocompeteforacontr
actofwhichtheadver
ti
sementis
rest
ri
ctedtothelocalnewspaperort
heappropr
iat
etechni
calorprof
essi
onalj
ournal
s.

3.
Sel
ect
ive/l
imi
tedt
ender
s

Detai
lsofj
obt obeundertakenorsuppl
iesrequi
redaregi
ventoal
imit
ednumberofsuppli
ers
whichareapprovedatthesuppli
ersl
ist
.Theyhav epr
evi
ousl
ybeenrat
edregar
dingcompetence,
capabil
i
ty,
reputati
onandf i
nanci
alst
andings.

4.
Ser
ialt
ender
s

Thesearesuppl i
ersdealtwi
thbef
oreandhasgoodjobandareaf
fordabl
e.Theprospect
ive
suppl
iersareeitheropenorsel
ect
ivebasedonini
ti
alscheme,
sat
isf
actor
yperfor
mance,foreseen
fi
nancialcont
ingenciestoget
herwit
hthepri
ces,r
ateareamongt
hebasisofbeingconsi
dered.

5.
Singl
etender
s/si
ngl
esour
cing

Detai
l
sorspeci
fi
cati
onsofthesuppl
iesr
equi
redarecommunicatedt
oonlyonef
ir
mt hati
sli
sted
andtri
edf
orsecur
it
ypurposesandiscommonlyusedforawar
dingcont
ract
sandsuppli
es.

6.
Globalt
ender
s

Theadverti
sementismadenotonl yinthewhol ecountr
ybutalsotoforei
gncount r
iesor
i
nternat
ionalmedia.I
tusuall
yinvol
vesundertaki
ngaj obormakingsuppliesofhugecapit
al
expendi
tureandtechnical
i
tye.g.i
nfr
astruct
uralproj
ectsl
iker
oads,rai
ls,elect
ri
cit
yetc

7.
Negot
iat
edt
ender
s.

Theyarenegot
iat
edwi
thonl
yonesuppl
i
ert
oel
i
minat
ecompet
it
ion.I
tiscommonl
yusedbyl
ocal
author
it
y.

Tender
ingpr
ocess/pr
ocedur
e/st
eps

1.Needi
dent
if
icat
ion_i
dent
if
yther
equi
rement
sofanor
gani
zat
ione.
gsuppl
i
es,
goodsorj
ob
needed.

2.Appr
ovaloftherequi
rement
s_donebyt
hemanagementi
.e.t
heneedsagai
nstt
hebudgetf
or
thesuppl
iesorthejob.

78
3.
Devel
opmentf
ort
hei
nvi
tat
ionofat
ender
_dev
olut
ionl
ett
erori
nvi
tat
iont
oadv
ert
isef
ort
hej
ob
ort
hesuppl
i
es.

4.
Dev
elopmentoft
enderl
i
st_f
orpr
efer
redsuppl
i
ers,

5.
Inv
itati
onorcall
i
ngf
ort
ender
s_cal
l
sforpot
ent
ial
ori
dent
if
iedsuppl
i
erst
otaket
hej
obort
o
maket hesuppl
i
es.

6.
Recei
vi
ngoft
hebi
d/t
enderandcl
osi
ngoft
hebi
d.

7.
Openi
ng,
ini
ti
alev
aluat
ion,
techni
cal
eval
uat
ionandf
inal
eval
uat
ion

I
nit
ial
_whoi
squal
i
fiedandwhoi
snot

Techni
cal
_det
ermi
nest
hecapabi
l
ityi
.e.ski
l
ls,
timeoft
hedoi
ngt
hej
ob.

Fi
nal
_fi
nance

8.
Awar
dingoft
het
endert
othemostpr
off
eredsuppl
i
erbasedoncapabi
l
ityandev
aluat
iondone.

9.
Signi
ngoft
hecont
ract

10.
Per
for
mingt
hej
obwher
ether
ewi
l
lbemoni
tor
ing,
cont
rol
andev
aluat
ion.

Funct
ionsofaccount
sdepar
tment

Rol
eofaccount
scl
erk

 Maki
ngi
nvoi
ces

 Mai
ntai
ningbooksofaccount
s

 Pr
epar
ati
onofcl
i
ent
s

 Pr
epar
ati
onofv
oucher
s.

 I
nvoi
ci
ngcl
i
ent
s

Rol
eofcashi
er

Rol
eofaccount
ant
s

 Maki
ngofpay
ment
sonbehal
foft
heor
gani
zat
ion

 Budget
ing

 Pay
ingt
axes

 Compi
l
ingbankst
atement
.

BOOKSOFACCOUNTS.
79
Jour
nal
s

Ledger

Pet
tycashbook

Checkbook

Recei
pt

I
nvoi
ces.

Pr
epar
ati
onofi
ncomest
atement

 Tr
adi
ng,
prof
itandl
ossaccount

 Bal
ancesheet(
Stat
ementofaf
fai
rs)

Tr
adi
ngpr
ofi
tandl
ossaccount
.

I
tisusedorpreparedt
oshowther
esul
tsofoper
ati
onsofabusi
nessent
it
yinacer
tai
ntr
adi
ng
oraccount
ingperi
ode.g.1y
ear

I
tindi
catest
hesourcesofr
evenues,
expenses(
oper
ati
ngexpenses)andt
hepr
ofi
tmadeby
t
hebusinessdur
ingtheper
iod.

I
tisusedyt
hemanagementi
n:

a)
.Al
l
ocat
ingt
her
esour
cesi
nthebusi
ness

b)
.Compar
ingbusi
nessper
for
mancewi
thot
hersamebusi
nessi
nnat
ure

c)
.Usedt
ocompar
eper
for
manceoft
hebusi
nessi
ndi
ff
erentper
iod

d)
.Usedt
odet
ermi
net
het
axchar
gedont
henetpr
ofi
t

e).Usedt
osupportorasuppor
ti
ngdocumentwhenbusi
nesswant
saddi
ti
onal
resour
cesor
fi
nancefr
om f
inanci
ers.

80
For
matofaTr
adi
ng,
prof
itandl
ossaccount
.

Nameoft
hebusi
ness

Tr
adi
ng,
prof
itandl
ossaccount

Fort
hey ng31stJanuar
earendi y2019

Sal
esi
ncome XX

Lesssal
esr
etur
ns(
ret
urnsi
nwar
ds) XX

Netsal
es XXX

Openi
ngst
ock(
inv
ent
ori
es) XX

Pur
chases XX

Pur
chasesr
etur
ns(
ret
urnout
war
ds) XX

Car
riagei
nwar
ds(
transpor
ton XX
pur
chases)

Costofgoodsav
ail
abl
eforsal
e XX

Cl
osi
ngst
ock XX

Costofsal
es XXX
81
Gr
osspr
ofi
t XX

I
ncomes

Di
scountr
ecei
ved XX

Renti
ncome XX

Di
vi
dendsr
ecei
ved XX

I
nter
estr
ecei
ved(
int
eresti
ncome) XX

Tot
ali
ncomes XX

Expenses XX

Wagesandsal
ari
es XX

Rent XX

Sundr
yexpenses XX

Wat
erbi
l
ls XX

Tel
ephone XX

Tot
alexpenses XX

Gr
osspr
ofi
t XX

Lesst
ax30% XX

Netpr
ofi
taccount XXX

82
Bal
ancesheet

Bal
ancesheetmaybepr
epar
edi
ntwoway
s;

1.
Orderofper
manency

2.
Orderofl
i
qui
dit
y

I
temst
hatar
efoundi
nabal
ancesheet

1.
Asset
s_Theyar
eresour
ces,
itemsownedandcont
rol
l
edbyabusi
ness.Theyar
eoft
wot
ypes;

a)
Fixed/l
ongt
erm/Non-
cur
rentasset
s

Theyar
eusedf
oral
ongper
iode.
gmor
ethanoneaccount
ing/t
radi
ngper
iod.Theyar
einphy
sical
for
m.

Exampl
esoff
ixedasset
sint
heor
derofper
manency

Land_i
ntel
l
ect
ual
proper
ti
ese.
g.copyl
i
ght
s,t
rademar
kset
cpr
emi
ses

Fur
nit
ureandf
it
ti
ngs

Equi
pmentandpl
ant
s

Machi
ner
ies

Mot
orv
ehi
cle

Goodwi
l
l

Tr
easur
ybonds

b)
Cur
rentasset
s/shor
tter
m asset
s

Theyar
eusedi
nbusi
nessf
oraper
iodofl
esst
hanoney
ear
.Theyar
eeasi
l
ybeconv
ert
edi
nto
cash

Exampl
esofcur
rentasset
s

St
ock/i
nvent
ori
es(
wor
kinpr
ogr
ess,
rawmat
eri
als,
fini
shedgoods)

Cashatbank

Cashi
nhand

Pr
e-pay
ment
s(pay
ingf
orsomet
hingbutnotused)

Bi
l
ls
83
2.Li
abi
li
ti
es_theyar
edebt
s/obl
i
gat
iont
hebusi
nessowesout
sider
sandi
srequi
redt
opay
.They
areoft
wotypes;

a)
Long-
ter
mli
abi
li
ti
es

Theyaredebt
spayabl
eoveralongper
iodoraf
teroneaccount
ingy
eare.
g.bankl
oansmor
ethan
oneyear,
debent
ures,
bonds.

b)
.Cur
rentl
iabi
li
ti
es

Theyaredebt
swhicharepayabl
eov erashortperi
odusuall
ylesst
hanoneyearegcredi
tor
s
(account
spayabl
e),
bankoverdr
aft
,accrual
s/arrear
s.Unpai
dsalar
ies,
promi
ssorynote

3.
Capi
tal
/owner
’sequi
ty

I
t’
sthecapi
tal
suppl
i
edbyt
heownerf
rom hi
s/hersav
ings

Bookkeepi
ngequat
ion

Theresour
cesofabusinessar
esuppli
edbytheowner(owner
’sequi
ty)andt
heout
sider
s
(bor
rowedcapi
tal
).Bookkeepi
ngequati
onst
atesthat
;

Asset
s=Capi
tal
+Li
abi
l
iti
es

For
matofabal
ancesheet
.

Busi
nessname

Bal
ancesheet

Asat31stJanuar
y2019

Fi
xedasset
s Capi
tal

Land Longt
erml
i
abi
l
iti
es

Pr
emi
ses 3y
earl
oan

Machi
ner
ies Debent
ures

Cur
rentasset
s Cur
rentl
i
abi
l
iti
es

84
St
ock Cr
edi
tor
s

Debt
ors Bankov
erdr
aft

Cashatbank Taxpay
abl
e

Cashathand Tot
all
i
abi
l
iti
es

Tot
alasset
s

STORESANDCONTROLOFMATERI
ALSANDRESOURCES.

Astor eref
erst orawmat erials, work-
in-pr
ogressandf ini
shedgoodsr emai ningi
nst ock.St or
e-
keepingmeanst heactiv
iti
esr elat
ingtopur chases,i
ssuing,pr
ot ecti
ng,storingandr ecor di
ngof
themat eri
als.Store-
keepingi ncludest hereceiptsandissuesofmat er
ials,thei
rrecor di
ng,
mov ementinandoutoft hest oreandsaf eguar di
ngofmat eri
als.Thest oreisaser vice
departmentheadedbyast or e-keeperwhoi sresponsibleforapr operstorage,protect i
onand
i
ssueofal lkindsofmat erials.

Obj
ect
ivesofst
ore-
keepi
ng.

 Toav
oidov
erandunder
-st
ocki
ngofmat
eri
als.

 Tomai
ntai
nsy
stemat
icr
ecor
dsofmat
eri
als.

 Topr
otectmat
eri
alsf
rom l
ossesanddamages.

 Tomi
nimi
zet
hest
oragecost
sofmat
eri
als.

Ty
pesofst
ores.

a)Mai
n/cent
ral
stor
e

b)Hol
ding/t
ransi
tst
ore/war
ehouse.

c)Di
spensi
ngst
ore.

Mai
n/cent
ralst
ore.

Acent ral
i
zedstor
eisthatstorewhichr
ecei
vesmateri
alsforandi
ssuest hem toal
ldepart
ments,
divi
sionsandproduct
ionfl
oorsofthecompany.Suchastoreisonlyoneint hecompanywhich
recei
v esmater
ial
sforandissuestoall
whoneedthem.Themat erial
srequiedforal
lthe
departmentsandbranchesarestor
edandissuedbyonlyonestore.

Adv
ant
agesofcent
ral
izedst
ores.

85
1.Abet
tersupervi
si
onofst
oreandi
tscont
rol
arepossi
blebecauset
hest
orei
slocat
edundera
si
ngl
esupervi
sion.

2.Abet
terl
ayoutofst
oreandi
tscont
rol
arepossi
ble.

3.Lessspacei
soccupi
ed.

4.I
nvest
menti
nst
ocki
smi
nimi
zed.

5.I
tiseconomi
cal
forst
ori
ngmat
eri
als.

6.Saf
etyofmat
eri
alsi
spossi
bleaccor
dingt
othenat
ureofmat
eri
als.

7.Tr
ainedandspeci
ali
zedper
sonscanbeappoi
nted.

8.Wast
ageofmat
eri
alscanbemi
nimi
zed.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofcent
ral
izedst
ore.

1.Del
ayi
nsendi
ngmat
eri
alst
othedepar
tment
sandbr
anches.

2.I
ncr
easei
nmat
eri
alshandl
i
ngcost
.

3.Gr
eat
err
iskofl
ossbyf
ir
e.

4.Notsui
tabl
eforal
argecompany

Hol
ding/t
ransi
tst
ore/war
ehouse.

Awar ehouseisapl annedspacef orthestorageandhandl i

ngofgoodsandmat erial
s.Itiaaplace
wheregoodsar ekept unti
ltheyaredemandeduse.Awar ehouseisacommer cialbui
l
ding
forstor
ageofgoods.War ehousingist hepr
ocessofst ori
nggoodswhi chareei
therproducedor
purchasedinaplannedspaceunt i
ltheyareneeded.War ehousingisasetofactiviti
esthatare
i
nv ol
vedinrecei
v i
ngandst ori
nggoodsandpr epari
ngthem forreshipment.Awarehousei sused
bymanuf act
urers,i
mpor t
ers,exporters,wholesaler
s,t
ransportbusinessandcustoms.

Funct
ionsofawar
ehouse.

1.
Warehousi
ngofgoodssometi
meshel
psinbreaki
ngt
hebulkofgoodsi
ntosmal
lquant
it
y,i
fthe
owneroft
heinv
entor
yasksthewar
ehousekeepert
odoso.

2.I
tserv
esasameansofprot
ecti
ngthegoodsf
rom damageorl
osst
hatmi
ghtbecausedasa
resul
tofheat
,wi
nd,
dustormoist
ure.

3.Warehousingofgoodsabsorbstheri
skassoci
atedwit
ht hestorageofgoods.Thewar
ehouse
keepertakesov et
heresponsi
bil
it
yofhandl
inggoodsinstorage.Thus,t
heriskofl
ossordamage
togoodsi sbornebythewarehousekeeper
.
86
4.I
tperf
ormsonr equestthegradi
ngandbrandingonbehal
fofthemanufact
urer
,whol
esal
eror
theimport
erofgoods.Italsomakesprovi
sionforf
aci
li
ti
esformixi
ng,
blendi
ngandpackagi
ngof
goodsfortheconvenienceofhandl
ingandsale.

5.
Warehousi
nghelpt
oensurepropercheckofit
emsineachshi
pmentandpr
epar
estherecord.
Al
llt
herecor
dsaremaint
ainedproper
lyi
nordert
oavoi
danyprobl
em att
heti
meofdeli
very.

Reasonsf
orwar
ehouse

1.
Tor
educet
ranspor
tat
ioncost

2.
Qual
i
typur
chasedi
scount
s

3.
Tomai
ntai
nsour
cesofsuppl
y

4.
Tomeetchangi
ngmar
ketcondi
ti
onsegseasonal
i
ty.

5.
Toov
ercomet
imedi
ff
erent
ial
sbet
weenpr
oduct
ionandconsumpt
ion.

6.Toaccompli
shthel
eastt
otal
costphy
sical
dist
ri
but
ioncommensur
atewi
tht
hedesi
redl
evelof
customerser
vice.

Ty
pesofwar
ehouse.

c)Publ
i
cwar
ehouse

Thisisawarehousethatisownedandoperatedby
npri
vatei
ndiv
idual
sforr
enti
ngpur
pose.Those
whoopen apubl i
cwar ehouseuseitasahir
etoanyi
nter
estper
sonsandgroupswhopaidrent
feetotheownerofthewar ehouse.

d)Manuf
act
urerwar
ehouse.

Thisisawarehousethati
sownedandcontrol
l
edbyproducer
sorcompani
eswhoar
eintot
he
product
ionofgoods.Thecompani
esorproducer
sest
abli
shedthewar
ehousei
nor
dertost
ore
thei
rgoodsafterpr
oducti
onunt
ilt
heyar
eneeded.

e)Bondedwar
ehouse.

Thebondedwarehouseisawarehousethatisusedtostor
egoodswhosedut yarenotyetpai
d.
Oncetheownerofthegoodssett
lethecustomsdutyar el
ease“warr
anty”wi
l
lbeissuedby
cust
omsauthori
ti
es.Thi
sdocumentempower sit
sholderthegoodsnamedonit.Thi
swarehouse
i
snormall
ylocat
edattheborder
sandoper atedbythecustomsauthori
ty.

f
) Whol
esal
ewar
ehouse

Thi
sfor
m ofwar
ehousei
sownedandcont
rol
l
edbyt
hewhol
esal
erf
orst
ori
nggoodsaf
ter

87
pur
chasef r
om theproducersunt
ilt
heyaresoldtor
etai
lersordirect
lytothefi
nalconsumers.The
wholesal
erbuysinbulkfrom t
heproducersandsel
l
sinsmal luni
tstotheretai
l
er,ther
efor
e,the
wholesal
erbreakthebulkofgoodspurchasedandkeptthem inwholesal
eunti
ltheyarebought.

g)St
atewar
ehouse

Thestat
ewarehousei
screat
edbythegov
ernmentt
ost
orecont
rabandorsmuggl
edgoods
sei
zedbythecustomsaut
hori
ty.

Fact
orst
obeconsi
der
edi
nsi
tt
ingawar
ehouse.

1.
Near
nesst
othemar
ket
.

Aproducertakesint
oconsiderat
ionthemar ketforhi
sproductbefor
esitt
inghiswarehouse.Thi
s
i
sbecausesi tt
ingawarehouseclosetothemar ketwil
lreducethecostofproduct
ioninter
msof
t
ransportt
ot hemarketandenhancet helev
elsofsalesturnover
.

2.
Proxi
mit
ytot
hef
act
ory
.

Awarehouseshouldbelocat
edataplacecl
osetothebusinessfi
rm andmanuf
act
uri
ng
i
ndust
ri
esproducinggoods.I
tshoul
dbelocatedcl
osetotheplacewheregoodsar
eproduced.

3.
Proxi
mit
ytogoodr
oad.

Awar
ehouseshouldbesi
tedcloset
oareaswit
hanaccessroad.Ther
eshoul
dbegoodr
oadt
hat
wi
l
lmakethemov ementofgoodstothewar
ehouseeasyandaccessi
ble.

4.
Acqui
sit
ionorbui
l
dingandr
unni
ngcost
.

Befor
eembarki
ngonawar ehousethereisneedtoev
aluat
ethecostofconst
ruct
ingoracqui
ri
ng
andrunni
ngt
hewarehousebypr oducerormiddl
eman.

5.Hi
ghl
ysecur
edenv
ironment
.

Thewar
ehouseshoul
dbesi
tedi
napl
acet
hati
sfr
eef
rom chaos,
civ
ilunr
estort
hef
t.

6.
Closet
othedi
str
ibut
ioncent
re’
s.

Somewar ehousesarenotonlyusedtostoregoodsalonebutal
soindist
ribut
ingt
hegoods.
Ther
efor
e, aproducermustensurethathi
ssalesout
letsar
enotlocat
edv eryf
arfr
om t
he
di
str
ibut
ioncentres.

Act
ivi
ti
esofwar
ehouse.

a).
Recei
vi
ngofgoods-warehouseal
l
owst
heper
sonoper
ati
ngt
hewar
ehouset
orecei
vegoods
agai
nstapur
chaseorder
.

b)
.I
dent
if
icat
ionofgoods-t
hei
dent
if
icat
ionofgoodsi
sdonet
hrought
heuseofcodenumberor

88
t
ag.Thi
swi
l
lmakeease,
thedi
ff
erent
ial
oft
hegoodspr
oducedbydi
ff
erentf
ir
ms.

c)
.Hol
dingofgoods-goodsar
ekepti
ngoodcondi
ti
onunt
ilt
heyar
eneeded.

d).
Oper
ateani
nformati
onsystem-warehousekeepertakesr
ecordofeachit
em i
nthewarehouse.
Thequant
it
yathand,quant
it
yrecei
ved,quant
it
yissuedandlocat
ionofgoodsint
hewarehouse.

e).
Marshal
ltheshipments-Byensur
ingt
hatgoodswhichmakeupsi
ngl
eor
derar
epackaged
toget
her.I
tchecksomissionerr
orsandupdat
esorderrecor
ds.

f)
.Warehouseal
lowsthepackageofor
der
s,pr
epar
ati
onofshi
ppi
ngdocument
sandl
oadi
ngof
goodsintother
ightv
ehicl
efordel
iv
ery
.

g)
.Pi
ckgoods-war
ehousehel
psi
nthesel
ect
ionofgoodsoutoft
hest
oragear
eas.

i
).
Dispatcht
hegoodstost
orage-warehousecar
ri
esoutt
heact
ivi
tyofdi
spat
chi
ngt
hegoodst
o
t
hestorageaft
erpr
operi
denti
fi
cati
onhasbeengiventot
hegoods.

Adv
ant
agesofwar
ehouse.

1.
Conser
vat
ionofcapi
tal

2.
Reducedi
nvest
mentr
isk

3.
Thewar
ehousecoul
dser
veasasal
esof
fi
cer
esul
ti
ngi
nlowercost
sfort
hecombi
nedf
aci
l
ity
.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofwar
ehouse.

1.
Admi
nist
rat
ivepr
obl
ems

2.
Highi
nit
ial
cost
s

3.
War
ehousecausehi
ghpr
icesofgoodsduet
orentchar
gesbyowner
soft
hewar
ehouse.

Funct
ionsofast
orekeeper
.

1.
Recei
vi
nggoods

2.
Stor
ingt
hegoods

3.
Mai
ntenance/keepi
ngofst
orer
ecor
ds

4.
Moni
tor
ingofst
oresmov
ementandst
ockl
evel
s.

St
oresmanagementandcont
rol

89
a)
.Recei
vi
ngpr
ocedur
e.

Arecei
vingprocedurei
sneededtoproper
lyi
nspectal
li
ncomi
nggoods,
mar
kthem wi
tht
ags,
and
r
ecordthem ashav i
ngbeenrecei
ved.

1.
Inspecti
ncomi
nggoods

 Uponr ecei
ptofadeliv
ery,
mat chthereceiv
editemstothedescr
ipti
onst
atedonthe
accompany ingbi
l
lofladi
ng,aswel l
ast hedescri
pti
onontherel
atedpur
chaseor
der.Maj
or
discr
epanciescanleadtorej
ecti
onoft hedeli
veredgoods.

 I
ftherei
snoaut hor
izi
ngpurchaseor
derandt
hepur
chasi
ngmanagerdoesnoti
ssuea
waiv
er,r
ejectt
hedeliv
eredgoods.

 Useapr epr
int
edrecei
vingcheckl
istt
oinspecteachdeliv
er y
.Itemsli
kelyr
equir
ingr
evi
ew
arethequanti
tyr
eceiv
ed,compar i
sontoaqualit
ythreshold,andthedateandti
meof
recei
pt.
Noteanyvari
ancesont hecheckl
i
st.I
niti
alt
hecheckl istwhenther
eviewis
complete.

 Signaphot
ocopyoft
hebi
l
lofl
adi
ngt
oindi
cat
ethatt
hedel
i
ver
yhasbeeni
nspect
edandi
s
accept
ed

2.I
dent
if
yandt
agal
lrecei
ved.

 I
dentif
yeachi t
em i
nadeliv
eryandensurethati
tisproper
lyl
abeledwit
habarcodedtag
thati
ncludesthei
tem number
,quant
ity,
andunitofmeasure.I
ftherei
ssomeuncertai
nty
regar
dingwhichit
em numbertouse,consul
twiththeseni
orwarehousest
afforpur
chasi
ng
depart
ment .

3.Logi
nrecei
vedi
tems.

 Updat
ethereceiv
inglogwi
ththedateandti
meofr ecei
ptofeachdeli
ver
y,aswel
lasthe
nameoftheshipper
,suppl
i
er,
purchaseordernumber,anddescr
ipt
ionofgoodsr
ecei
ved.

 Sendacopyoft
hesi
gnedbi
l
lofl
adi
ngt
othebi
l
li
ngcl
erki
ntheaccount
ingdepar
tment
.

 Fi
l
ethemast
ercopyoft
hebi
l
lofl
adi
ngbydat
eint
hewar
ehousef
il
li
ngar
ea.

b)
.St
orage.

1.Usingshelves,
racksandpal
l
etssaf
ely
-shel
vesandr
acki
ngmustbei
nst
all
edandmai
ntai
ned
properl
y.Ensurethat
:
90
  Fl
oor
sar
esoundandl
evel

 Fol
l
owt
hemanuf
act
urer
’si
nst
all
ati
oni
nst
ruct
ions

 Wher
eshel
vi
ngorr
acki
ngneedst
obef
ixedt
oawal
l
,thewal
lcansuppor
tthel
oad.

 Speci
alsaf
etyl
adder
sar
epr
ovi
dedt
oav
oidpeopl
ecl
i
mbi
ngonshel
vi
ng

 Unit
sarespacedcor
rect
lyt
oall
oweasyaccessf
orst
affand,
ifnecessar
y,mechani
cal
handli
ngequi
pmentsuchasfor
kli
ftt
rucks.

 Shel
vesantr
acksar
epr
oper
lyal
i
gnedandgoodsdon’
tov
erhangshel
ves.

 Cor
rectmaxi
mum l
oadsf
orr
acki
ngar
edi
spl
ayed.

 Per
sonal
prot
ect
iveequi
pmenti
susedwher
enecessar
y.

 I
temsar
est
ackedcor
rect
ly-putt
heheav
iestatt
hebot
tom wher
epossi
ble.

 Mater
ial
sthatempl
oyeesf
requent
lyneedar
ereadi
l
yaccessi
ble-f
orexampl
e,notabsor
b
headhei
ght.

I
fyouusepal
l
etswi
thr
acki
nguni
ts,
youshoul
dav
oid:

 Usi
ngapal
l
etwhi
chcannotcopewi
thi
tsl
oad

 Poor
lydesi
gnedorconst
ruct
edpal
l
ets

 Usi
ngthewr
ongt
ypeofpal
l
etf
ort
her
acki
ngsy
stem usedort
hemat
eri
alorsubst
ance
st
ored.

 Poorhandl
i
ngofpal
l
ets.

St
ockcont
rol

I
tist
heprocessofmaki
ngsurethatt
hecor
rectl
evel
ofstocki
smai
ntai
ned,
tobeabl
etomeet
demandwhil
ekeepi
ngthecost
sofholdi
ngstockt
oami ni
mum.

I
mpor
tanceofst
ockcont
rol
.

3.St
ockout
s

Foracompanyt odobusiness,
itmusthaverawmat er
ialsavail
abletobuil
dorcreat
eproduct
sfor
cust
omers.Stockoutsoccurwhenmateri
alsarenotavailabl
etopr oducecust
omerproduct
sor
meetahigherthannormaldemand,andcanresul
tinal ossofsalesf oracompanyordamageto

91
thebusiness’
sreputati
on.St
ockcont
rol
put
sinpl
aceasy
stem f
orensur
ingt
heappr
opr
iat
elev
el
ofstockinallsi
tuat
ions.

4.Ov
erst
ocki
ng

Onesol ut
iont oavoidst
ockoutsi smaintaini
ngahi ghlevelofi
nventory
,butthiscancause
problemsf oracompanyaswel l.Stock,suchasr awmat eri
alsandsupplies,ti
esupthebusiness’
s
capital
whichitmayhav eother
wi seusedf oranotherpurpose.Al
so, t
heexcessmat eri
alsmustbe
storedsomewher e,
whichmayrequi r
eaddi ti
onalwarehousingcosts.Fi
nally
,themateri
alsmay
becomeout datedorobsol
etebef or
ethebusi nesscanuseorsel lt
hem.

5.Meet
ingcust
omerdemand

Stockcontrol
all
owst hecompanyt odeter
mi netheamountneededtomeetcustomerdemand
withaslit
tl
edelayindeli
v er
yaspossibl
e.Whenacompanycont inuousl
yfail
stomeetcustomer
demandduet ost ockouts,customer
smaychooseacompet i
torwithabett
erdeli
ver
yrecord.A
businessmust hav etheabi l
i
tytodet
erminethelev
elofst
ockneededf oract
ualcust
omer
demandaswel lasanti
cipateddemand.

6.Managi
ngst
ock.

Stockmanagementmustincl
udeani
nvent
orycont
rol
syst
em toensur
etheaccur
acyofinv
entor
y
records.Thecompanywi
l
lnothav
etheabi
li
tytomakepur
chasi
ngdecisi
onswit
houtaccur
ate
i
nv entor
yquanti
ti
es.

I
NDUSTRI
ALLAW

92
I
ntr
oduct
ion

I
nsi
mpl
eter
msI
ndust
ri
alRel
ati
onsdeal
swi
tht
hewor
kerempl
oyeer
elat
ioni
n
anyi
ndust
ryGov
ernmenthasat
tempt
edt
omakeI
ndust
ri
alRel
ati
onsmor
e
heal
thbyenact
ingI
ndust
ri
alDi
sput
esAct1947Tosol
vet
hedi
sput
eandt
o
r
educet
her
egencyofdi
sput
e.Thi
sint
urni
mpr
ovest
her
elat
ions.

I
ndust
rymeansanysy
stemat
icact
ivi
tycar
ri
edonbycooper
ati
onbet
weenan
empl
oyerandhi
sempl
oyeewhet
hersuchwor
kmenar
eempl
oyedbysuch
empl
oyerdi
rect
lyorbyort
hroughanyagencyi
ncl
udi
ngacont
ract
orf
ort
he
pr
oduct
ionsuppl
yordi
str
ibut
ionofgoodsorsour
ceswi
thanov
erv
iew t
o
sat
isf
yhumanwantorwi
shes(
notbei
ngwant
sorwi
sheswhi
char
emer
ely
spi
ri
tualorr
eli
giousi
nnat
ure)whet
herornot(
i)anycapi
talhasbeeni
nvest
ed
f
ort
hepur
poseofcar
ryi
ngonsuchact
ivi
tyor(
ii
)suchact
ivi
tyi
scar
ri
edonwi
th
amot
ivet
omakeanygai
norpr
ofi
tandi
ncl
udesanyact
ivi
tyr
elat
ingt
othe
pr
omot
ionofsal
esorbusi
nessorbot
hcar
ri
edonbyanest
abl
i
shmentbut
doesnoti
ncl
ude.
i
) Nor
mal
Agr
icul
tur
eoper
ati
ons
i
i
) Hospi
tal
,
Dispensar
ies.
i
i
i
) Educat
ional
,Sci
ent
if
icResear
chTr
aini
ngI
nst
it
uti
on,
i
v) Char
it
abl
ePhi
l
ant
hropi
cSer
vice
v
) Khadi
Vil
l
ageI
ndust
ri
es
v
i) Domest
icSer
viceset
c.]
I
tisanact
ivi
tysy
stemat
uat
lyorhabi
tual
l
yunder
takena)f
ort
hepr
oduct
ionor
di
str
ibut
ionofgoods,orf
orr
ender
ingmat
eri
alser
vicet
ocommuni
tyatl
arge,
orpar
tofsuchcommuni
tywi
tht
hehel
pofempl
oyeesi
nanunder
taki
ng
2
.Suchact
ivi
tygener
all
yincl
udest
heco-
oper
ati
onofempl
oyerand
empl
oyees
3
.Theobj
ecti
sthesat
isf
act
ionofmat
eri
alhumanneeds
4
.Itmusthear
rangedoror
gani
zedi
namanneri
nwhi
cht
radeor
busi
nessi
sgener
all
yar
rangedor
organi
zed
I
tmustnotbecasual
normusti
tbef
orour
sel
vesnotf
or
pl
easur
e.Thust
hev
eryi
ndust
ryr
evol
vesar
oundgood

93
 i
ndust
ri
alr
elat
ions.

I
ndust
ri
alRel
ati
ons
I
tisseenasacooper
ati
onbet
weenempl
oyerandempl
oyee,i
tisdonewi
th
di
sci
pli
ne(
ii
)donei
nor
gani
zedmannerandnotcasualandi
tgi
vessat
isf
act
ion
‗
ofneeds‘
.
I
ndust
ri
alDi
sput
e:Aspersect
ion2(
K)ofi
ndust
ri
aldi
sput
eordi
ff
erence
bet
weenempl
oyer
sandempl
oyeesempl
oyer
sandempl
oyer
sorempl
oyees
andempl
oyeeswhi
chi
sconnect
edwi
tht
heempl
oymentornon-
empl
oyment
ort
het
ermsofempl
oymentorwi
tht
hecondi
ti
onofl
abourofanyper
son.
1
)Ther
emustbeadi
sput
eordi
ff
erencet
hedi
sput
eordi
ff
erence
mustbe bet
ween empl
oyer
s and empl
oyees’empl
oyee and
empl
oyees,
empl
oyer
sandempl
oyer
s.
2
)The di
sput
e mustbe connect
ed wi
th empl
oymentor non-
empl
oymentort
ermsofempl
oymentorwi
tht
hecondi
ti
onsof
l
abourofany
per
son.
Thedi
sput
ewhi
chhasr
esul
tedi
nst
rai
nedr
elat
ionsi
sacont
rov
ersy
i
nwhi
cht
hewor
kmani
sdi
rect
lyorsubst
ant
ial
l
yint
erest
ed.I
tmust
al
sobeagr
iev
ancef
eltbyt
hewor
kmanwhi
cht
heempl
oyeri
sina
posi
ti
ont
oremedy
.Theexi
stenceofagr
iev
ancei
snecessar
yandi
t
mustbecommuni
cat
edt
otheempl
oyer
.
Thet
ermi
ndust
ri
aldi
sput
econnot
esar
ealandsubst
ant
ialdi
ff
erencehav
ing
someel
ement
sofper
sist
encyandcont
inui
ty,t
il
lresol
vedandl
i
kel
y,i
fnot
,
adj
ust
edt
oendangert
hei
ndust
ri
alpeaceoft
heunder
taki
ngort
hecommuni
ty.
Whent
hepar
ti
esar
eatv
ari
anceandt
hedi
sput
eordi
ff
erencei
sconnect
ed
wi
tht
heempl
oymentornon-
empl
oymentort
ermsofempl
oymentorwi
tht
he
condi
ti
onofl
abour
.Ther
ecomesi
ntoexi
stenceani
ndust
ri
aldi
sput
e

94
Gener
alcausesofi
ndust
ri
aldi
sput
esst
rai
nswhi
chr
esul
tsi
nbadi
ndust
ri
al
r
elat
ionsar
e.
1.
Closemi
ndednessofempl
oyer
sandempl
oyeesonet
hinki
ngt
oext
ract
maxi
mum wor
kwi
thmi
nimum r
emuner
ati
on,
othert
hinki
ngt
oav
oidwor
kand
getmor
eenhancement
sinpayandwages.
2.
Ir
rat
ional
wage,
wagesy
stem andst
ruct
urenotmut
ual
l
yaccept
abl
e

1
.Poorwor
kingenv
ironment
,lowpr
esenceofsaf
ety
,hy
giene
condi
ti
onsv
iti
atedat
mospher
eforsmoot
hwor
king
2
.Poorhumanr
elat
ions,andl
ackofdext
eri
tyont
hepar
tof
management
per
sonnel
3
.Lackofcont
rolov
ert
hesi
tuat
ionser
osi
onofdi
sci
pli
ne,
whi
chr
ebounds.
4
.Int
roduct
ion of new t
echnol
ogy or aut
omat
ion
mechani
zat
ion, Comput
eri
zat
ion et
c. wi
thout pr
oper
consul
tat
ions,pr
epar
ati
onsanddi
scussi
onwi
thwor
ker
s
andcr
eat
ingcl
i
mat
e.
5
.Nepot
ism,unequalwor
kloads,di
spr
opor
ti
onat
ewage,and
r
esponsi
bil
i
ties.
6
.Adopt
ionofunf
airl
abourpr
act
icesei
therbyempl
oyeror
empl
oyeesanduni
ons.
7
.Unj
ust
if
iabl
epr
ofi
tshar
ingandnotconsi
der
ingwor
ker
sas
co-shar
esoft
hegai
nsoft
hei
ndust
ry.
8
.Fr
equentuni
onr
ival
ri
esov
ermember
shi
pfoi
sti
ngupof
f
akeuni
ons.
9
.St
ri
kesl
ockout
,layof
f,andr
esul
ti
ngr
etr
enchmentduet
o
hi
ghhandednessont
hepar
toft
heconcer
ned.
1
0.Thr
owi
ngawayt
heagr
eement
sandar
ri
vedset
tl
ement
s
95
 1
1.Mi
l
itancyoft
heuni
ons
1
2.At
ti
tude ofgov
ernmentand pol
i
ticalpar
ti
es who may
i
ndi
rect
lycont
rolsomet
heuni
onsf
ort
hei
rowngai
nsort
o
getahol
dont
hei
ndust
ry.

Fewsuggest
ionsf
ort
hei
mpr
ovementofi
ndust
ri
alr
elat
ionsandr
educe
di
sput
es
1
.Tr
adeuni
onsshoul
dbest
rengt
heneddemocr
ati
cal
l
ysot
hatt
heycan
under
standandt
oewi
tht
hemai
nst
reamof
thenat
ional
i
ndust
ri
alact
ivi
ti
es.

Theycandr
opt
hesomehowsur
viv
eat
ti
tudebypr
omi
singi
mpossi
bleand
consequentper
pet
ual
str
ain.
1
.Empl
oyer
sshoul
dhav
emor
etr
anspar
encyi
nthei
rdeal
i
ngswi
thwor
ker
s
t
obui
l
dconf
idenceandhav
epr
ogr
essi
veout
look.
2
.Theyshoul
dhav
eopenmi
ndedf
lexi
blecol
l
ect
iveBar
gai
ning.
3
.Wor
ker
sshoul
dbeal
l
owedt
opar
ti
cipat
eint
hemanagementt
hrough
f
orums,
commi
tt
eesandcounci
l
s,
4
.Soundl
abourpol
i
cy,
planni
ng
5
.Pr
operl
eader
shi
pandcommuni
cat
ion
6
.Enf
orcementofdi
sci
pli
ne
7
.Tr
ytohav
euni
onwi
thi
nwor
ker
sfol
d.
8
.Equi
tyi
ndi
str
ibut
ionofweal
thbyacknowl
edgi
ngwor
ker
sast
eam
member
s1.
5
Thi
shasal
way
sremai
nedasadi
sput
abl
etopi
cwhet
heri
ndust
ri
ala
r
elat
ion i
s same as per
sonalr
elat
ion,human r
elat
ion or l
abour
managementempl
oyerempl
oyeeoruni
onandmanagementr
elat
ions.A
di
scussi
ononi
ndust
ri
alr
elat
ionconsi
der
sal
ltheseasal
mostsame.
Def
ini
ti
onofI
ndust
ri
alRel
ati
ons
AsperDal
eYoderI
ndust
ri
alRel
ati
onsr
efer
stot
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
ween
managementandempl
oyees,orempl
oyeesandt
hei
ror
gani
zat
iont
hat

96
 ar
iseoutofempl
oyment
.
Teed and Met
cal
fe obser
ved I
ndust
ri
alRel
ati
ons ar
ethe composi
te
appr
oach oft
he at
ti
tudes and appr
oaches oft
he empl
oyer
s and
empl
oyeest
owar
dseach ot
herwi
thr
egar
dto pl
anni
ng,Super
visi
on,
di
rect
ionanduni
fi
cat
ionoft
heact
ivi
ti
esofasetupwi
thl
essf
ri
cti
onand
mor
eco-
oper
ati
onwi
thmut
ual
eff
ortf
orot
her
swel
l
-bei
ng.
Theessenceofgoodi
ndust
ri
alr
elat
ionl
i
esi
nthebr
ingi
ngupofgoodl
abour
r
elat
ionswhogi
vesaf
orum t
ounder
standeachot
her(
empl
oyer
,empl
oyee
pr
oper
ly.Cr
eat
esco-
oper
ati
vet
hinki
ngandwor
kingt
oachi
evet
hegoaloft
he
or
gani
zat
ion

AgoodI
ndust
ri
alRel
ati
onsi
ncr
easest
hemor
aleofempl
oyer
sandgoodst
hem
t
ogi
vet
hei
rmaxi
mum,
eacht
hinkoft
hei
rmut
ual
int
erestwhi
chpav
eswayf
or
i
ntr
oduct
ionofnewmet
hods,
dev
elopment
sandl
eadi
ngt
oadopt
ionofmoder
n
t
echnol
ogy
.Thi
spr
ogr
essi
veway
swhendesi
gnedwi
tht
hei
rmut
ual
int
erest
andconsentdev
elopsmanyi
ncent
ivepr
oposi
ti
ons,
eff
ect
ivepar
ti
cipat
ors
f
orum i
scr
eat
edi
nmanagement
.Pr
ofi
tar
eshar
ed,
wor
ker
sgett
hei
rduesi
n
t
heor
gani
zat
ionl
eadi
ngt
ojobsat
isf
act
ion-
whi
chi
sneededf
orgoodr
elat
ions.
Goodi
ndust
ri
alr
elat
ioni
ncr
easepr
oduct
ion,
impr
ovesqual
i
tyofwor
kand
pr
oduct
sef
fi
ciencyofwor
ker
sincr
eased.Costofpr
oduct
ionl
ower
ed.Bad
I
ndust
ri
alRel
ati
onsl
eadst
oindust
ri
alunr
esti
ndust
ri
aldi
sput
eanda
downwar
dtr
endt
oindust
ri
eswor
ker
sandt
henat
ion.Ofcour
set
hef
ir
sthi
twi
l
l
beont
heempl
oyer
s,whohav
einv
est
ed.
I
ndust
ri
alwor
kerandt
heempl
oyer
snor
mal
l
ydon‘
tthi
nk,f
eeloracti
n
pr
eci
sel
ythesamewayandbecauseeachst
art
sfr
om adi
ff
erentpoi
nt
conf
li
ctofsomef
or erbeel
tcanmov i
minat
edcompl
etel
y.

Themai
nreasonsf
ori
ndust
ri
aldi
scar
d,canbeduet
o
1.Mi
sunder
standi
ngordi
ff
erencesi
nper
cept
ion
2.Lackofcooper
ati
onr
eal
ori
magi
ned
3.Pr
obl
emswi
thaut
hor
it
y
4.Fut
uret
ocompl
ywi
thpol
i
ciesorst
ickt
opl
ans.
5.Hi
sAgr
eement
sov
erway
stoachi
eveagr
eedgoal
s.
97
 6.
Conf
li
ctcanhav
esomeposi
ti
veaspect
sal
so;
theymaygi
veposi
ti
ver
esul
tsl
i
ke
1.Rev
eal
newaspectofanexi
sti
ngi
ssue
2.I
mpr
ovel
ongt
erm communi
cat
ionbet
weent
hei
ndi
vi
dual
sconcer
ned
3.Al
way
spr
evi
ousl
yst
if
ledemot
ionst
ober
eleased

Def
ini
ti
onofsomei
mpor
tantt
ermsusedi
nIndust
ri
alRel
ati
onsAr
bit
rat
or
–Neut
ral
per
sont
odeci
deoncommoni
ssue,
incl
udesanumpi
re

Wages
Al
lremuner
ati
oncapabl
eofbei
ngexpr
essedi
nter
msofmoneywhi
chwoul
dif
t
het
ermsofempl
oymentexpr
essedori
mpl
i
ed,wer
eful
fi
ll
ed,bepay
abl
etoa
wor
kmani
nrespectofhi
sempl
oymentorofwor
kdonei
nsuchempl
oyment–
i
ncl
udes
1.Al
l
owances
2.Houser
ever
tal
l
owance
3.Tr
avel
i
ngconcessi
on
4.Commi
ssi
onf
orsal
eorbusi
nessdoesnoti
ncl
udebonus,
grat
uit
y
pr
ovi
dentf
undet
c.
Wor
kman
Anyper
sonempl
oyedi
nani
ndust
ryt
odoanymanualandunski
l
led,
ski
l
led,t
echni
cal
,oper
ati
onalCl
eri
calorsuper
visor
ywor
kforhi
reor
r
ewar
dwhet
hert
het
ermsofempl
oymentbeexpr
essori
mpl
i
ed,
andf
or
t
hepur
poseofanypr
oceedi
ngunder1.
DActi
nrel
ati
ont
oq1.
Dincl
udes
anysuchper
sonwhohasbeendi
smi
sseddi
schar
gedorr
etr
enchmenti
n
connect
ionwi
thorasa

Consequence of t
hat di
sput
e or whose di
smi
ssal di
schar
ge or
r
etr
enchmenthasl
edt
hatdi
sput
e,butdoesnoti
ncl
ude–Nav
y,pol
i
ce,
manager
ial
,admi
nist
rat
ive posi
ti
on hol
der
s orwor
king wi
th wages
exceedi
ngonet
housandsi
xhundr
edr
upeespermont
h

98
99
 TRADEUNI
ON
Obj
ect
ivesoft
heSt
udy
1.Meani
ngofTr
adeUni
onandDef
ini
ti
onOfTr
adeUni
on
2.Char
act
eri
sti
cofTr
adeUni
onandNeedf
orTr
adeUni
on
3.Nat
ureandScopeofTr
adeUni
on
4.Pur
poseofTr
adeUni
on
5.Funct
ionsofTr
adeUni
on
6.St
ruct
ureofTr
adeUni
on
1.
1Meani
ng
Thet
radeuni
oni
sanassoci
ati
on,
eit
herofempl
oyeesorempl
oyer
sorof
i
ndependentwor
ker
s.I
tisar
elat
ivel
yper
manentcombi
nat
ionofwor
ker
s
andi
snott
empor
aryorcasual
.Iti
sanassoci
ati
onofwor
ker
sengaged
i
nsecur
ingeconomi
cbenef
it
sfori
tsmember
s.
1.
2CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFATRADEUNI
ON
Associ
ati
onofempl
oyees-
Atr
adeuni
oni
sessent
ial
l
yanassoci
ati
on
ofempl
oyeesbel
ongi
ngt
oapar
ti
cul
arcl
assofempl
oyment
,
pr
ofessi
on,
tradeori
ndust
ry.Forexampl
e,t
her
ear
euni
onsf
or
t
eacher
s,doct
ors,
fil
m,ar
ti
stes,
weav
ers,
minewor
ker
sandsoon.
Vol
unt
aryAssoci
ati
on-
Anempl
oyeej
oinst
het
radeuni
onoutofhi
sfr
ee
wi
l
l.Aper
soncannotbecompel
l
edt
ojoi
nauni
on.
Per
manentBody-
atr
adeuni
oni
susual
l
yaper
manentbody
.
Member
smaycomeandgobutt
het
radeuni
onr
emai
ns.
CommonI
nter
est
-Thememberofat
radeuni
onhav
ecer
tai
nmat
ter
sof
commoni
nter
est
-j
obsecur
it
y,bet
terpayandwor
kingcondi
ti
onsandso
on,
whi
chbr
ingt
hem t
oget
her
.
Col
lect
iveAct
ion:Evenwhenani
ndi
vi
dualempl
oyeehasanygr
iev
ance
ov
ercer
tai
nmanagementdeci
sions,t
hemat
teri
ssor
tedoutbyt
he
i
nter
vent
ionof
the

100
 Tr
adeuni
onEmpl
oyeesar
eabl
etoi
nit
iat
ecol
l
ect
iveact
iont
osol
veany
pr
obl
em concer
ninganypar
ti
cul
arempl
oyeeoral
ltheempl
oyees.
Rappor
twi
tht
he Management
:The t
rade uni
on seeks t
oimpr
ove
r
elat
ionsbet
weent
heempl
oyeesandempl
oyer
s.Theof
fi
cial
soft
he
t
radeuni
onhol
dtal
kswi
th
The member
s oft
he managementconcer
ning t
he pr
obl
ems oft
he
empl
oyeesi
nor
dert
ofi
ndanami
cabl
esol
uti
on.I
tist
huspossi
blef
or
t
heempl
oyeest
ohav
ebet
terr
appor
twi
tht
hemanagement
.
Needf
orTr
adeUni
on
Wor
ker
sjoi
ntr
adeuni
onst
oachi
evecer
tai
nobj
ect
ivest
hatt
heymaynot
beabl
etoachi
evei
nthei
rper
sonal
capaci
ty.Tr
adeuni
onsar
enecessar
y.
1.
Toensur
ejobsecur
it
yandr
ightpayf
ort
hemember
s
Oneoft
hebasi
cneedsofanyempl
oyeei
ssecur
it
yofser
vice.Themai
n
r
easonwhyanempl
oyeej
oinsauni
oni
stogethi
m secur
ed.Apar
tfr
om
j
obsecur
it
yandempl
oyeesneedt
ogetpaycommensur
atewi
tht
hei
r
qual
i
ficat
ionsandski
l
ls.Tr
adeuni
onsst
ri
vet
ogetbot
hjobsecur
it
yand
cor
rectpayf
oral
lempl
oyees.
2.
Tov
ent
il
atet
hegr
iev
ancesofempl
oyeest
othemanagement
:
Whent
heempl
oyeesi
ngener
alorsomei
npar
ti
cul
arhav
eanygr
iev
ance,
t
heymaynotbeabl
etoconv
eyt
hesamet
othemanagementi
nthei
r
per
sonalcapaci
ty.Suchgr
iev
ancesmaybebr
oughtt
otheknowl
edgeof
t
he management t
hrough t
he t
rade uni
on.The member
s of t
he
managementmay be i
ndi
ff
erentt
othe demands oft
he i
ndi
vi
dual
empl
oyeesbutt
heycannotbesowheni
tcomest
ouni
ondemands.
1.
3Nat
ureandScopeofaTr
adeUni
on
Theempl
oyer
‘sassoci
ati
onorpr
ofessi
onalbodi
eswer
enoti
ncl
udedi
n
anyoft
heabov
edef
ini
ti
ons.Theempl
oyee‘
suni
onsar
edi
ff
erentf
rom
t
hatoft
heempl
oyer
sorpr
ofessi
onalbodi
es.Theempl
oyee‘
suni
onsar
e
pr
imar
il
yconcer
nedwi
tht
het
ermsandcondi
ti
onsofempl
oymentof
101
t
hei
rmember
s

102
Theempl
oyer
‘sassoci
ati
onsont
heot
herhandar
econcer
nedamong
ot
hert
hingswi
thi
nfl
uenci
ngt
het
ermsofpur
chaseofser
vicesi
n
f
avouroft
hei
rmember
s.Hence,
thet
woshoul
dnotbepl
acedi
none
cat
egor
y.The associ
ati
ons ofpr
ofessi
onalmember
s al
so di
ff
er
f
undament
all
yfr
om empl
oyees’uni
ons.Pr
ofessi
onalassoci
ati
ons
i
ncl
ude sel
f-
empl
oyed as wel
las t
he empl
oyees wher
eas t
rade
uni
onsconsi
stonl
yoft
hepeopl
ewhoar
eempl
oyedbyot
her
s.I
n
I
ndi
athet
erm Tr
adeUni
onr
efer
sbesi
desempl
oyee‘
sor
gani
zat
ions
t
o empl
oyer
s associ
ati
on al
so. Si
mil
arl
yin Br
it
ain,ev
en t
he
associ
ati
onsofpr
ofessi
onalpeopl
esuchasAr
ti
stsFeder
ati
onor
Musi
ciansUni
onsar
eal
sor
ecogni
zedasTr
adeUni
ons.
Thust
rade uni
onsar
e a maj
orcomponentoft
he moder
n
i
ndust
ri
alr
elat
ion sy
stem.A t
rade uni
on ofwor
ker
sisan
or
gani
zat
ionf
ormedbywor
ker
stopr
otectt
hei
rint
erest
s.I
.e.
i
mpr
ovet
hei
rwor
kingcondi
ti
onset
c. Al
ltr
adeuni
onshav
e
obj
ect
ivesorgoal
stoachi
eve,whi
char
econt
ainedi
nthei
r
const
it
uti
onandeachhasi
tsownst
rat
egyt
oreacht
hosegoal
s.
Tr
adeUni
onsar
enowconsi
der
edasub-
syst
em whi
chseekst
o
ser
vet
hespeci
fi
csub-
groupsi
nter
estandal
soconsi
der
sit
sel
f
apar
toft
heor
gani
zat
ion,i
nter
msoft
hel
att
er‘
svi
abi
l
ityand
cont
ri
but
iont
othegr
owt
hoft
hecommuni
tyofwhi
chi
ti
sapar
t.
1.
4PURPOSEOFTRADEUNI
ON
Tr
ade Uni
on came i
nto bei
ng f
ora v
ari
ety ofpur
poses.
I
ndi
vi
dualwor
ker
sfound i
tmor
e adv
ant
ageous t
o band
t
oget
herandseekt
oest
abl
i
sht
hei
rter
msandcondi
ti
onsof
empl
oyment
s. They r
eal
i
zed t
hat i
fthey bar
gai
ned as
i
ndi
vi
dual
s,t
heempl
oyerwoul
dhav
eabet
terl
ever
age,f
oran
i
ndi
vi
dualwoul
dnotmat
terasmuchasagr
oupi
nter
msoft
he
r
unni
ngoft
heent
erpr
ise.Agr
oup‘
scont
ri
but
ioni
smuchl
arger
t
hanani
ndi
vi
dual
‘
ssoar
etheef
fect
sofi
tswi
thdr
awal
.An
103
i
ndi
vi
dual
maynotbeabl
etoor
gani
zeanddef
endhi
sint
erest
s

aswel
lasagr
oupcan.Ther
efor
ewor
ker
ssawt
headv
ant
ages
ofor
gani
zi
ngt
hemsel
vesi
ntogr
oupst
oimpr
ovet
hei
rter
ms
and condi
ti
ons of empl
oyment
.Empl
oyer
s al
so f
ound i
t
adv
ant
ageoust
odealwi
thagr
ouporar
epr
esent
ati
veofa
gr
oupr
athert
hangot
hrought
hepr
ocessofdeal
i
ngwi
theach
i
ndi
vi
dual
overal
engt
hoft
ime.
Wi
tht
hechangedpol
i
tical
,soci
alandeducat
ionalenv
ironment
i
nter
msofawar
enessofr
ight
sther
ightt
oor
gani
ze,t
her
ight
t
obar
gai
nandset
tl
eter
msandcondi
ti
onsofempl
oyment–
l
abourorwor
keruni
onsspr
angupi
nor
dert
opr
otectand
f
urt
herwor
keri
nacqui
ri
ngaf
oothol
dint
hel
abourmov
ement
al
sopr
ovi
dedt
hei
mpet
usf
ort
hef
ormat
ionofl
abour
uni
ons.
Pr
eci
sel
y,t
hemaj
orobj
ect
ivesoft
radeuni
onar
ethef
oll
owi
ng:
1.Bet
ter
wages
2.Bet
terwor
kingcondi
ti
ons
3.pr
otect
ionagai
nst
expl
oit
ati
on
4.Pr
otect
ionagai
nst
vict
imi
zat
ion
5.pr
ovi
dewel
far
emeasur
es
6.Pr
omot
eindust
ri
alpeace
7.TakeupCol
l
ect
iveBar
gai
ning
8.Lookaf
tert
hei
nter
estof
trade

104