Lyceum-Northwestern University

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

In Partial Fulfillment of
The Course Requirements
In Geology

By:
Biato, Ericson B.
Breguera, Kervy Chryzler D.
Bulcio, Maria Novina C.
Ico, Jerry Jr. R.
Magat, Carlo Jay
Palma, Justine Charles

October 2024

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 1

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. TITLE

II. COURSE OUTLINE

1. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
a. Introduction to Structural Geology
b. Outcrops
c. Geological Maps
d. Folds, Faults and Joints
e. Wave Theory
f. Grouting

2. ROCK MECHANICS
a. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rock

III. COURSE OBJECTIVE

 Determine the Importance of Structural Geology
 Determine the Basic Properties of Rocks and Soils

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 2

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

According to Fossen, H. (2016), Structural geology is the branch of geology

that studies the three-dimensional distribution of rock units and their deformation
within the Earth’s crust. It investigates the processes and forces that shape the
Earth's structures, such as faults, folds, and fractures, and examines how these
structures influence geological phenomena and resources.

Bedding attitude refers to the orientation of sedimentary rock layers in three-

dimensional space. It is a crucial concept in structural geology as it helps geologists
understand the historical geological processes that have shaped a region.

Bedding attitude is typically described by two parameters:

1. Bedding Plane: The plane along which the sedimentary layers or strata are
oriented.
2. Strike: The direction of the line formed by the intersection of the bedding
plane with a horizontal plane. It is measured as an angle relative to true north.
3. Dip: The angle at which the bedding plane inclines relative to the horizontal
plane. This is measured perpendicular to the strike.

OUTCROPS
An outcrop is defined as "a visible exposure of rock or mineral formations at
the Earth's surface, revealed by the removal of overlying sediments or soil" (Merriam-
Webster, n.d.)

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 3

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Geological maps are specialized maps that depict the distribution, nature,
and age of rock formations at the Earth's surface. They provide detailed information
about the geological structure of an area, including the locations of different rock
types, their ages, and the geological features like faults and folds. Geological maps
are essential tools for geologists in understanding the Earth's history, locating
natural resources, and assessing geological hazards. (Ramsay & Huber, 1987)

Identification and interpretation

It involves in recognizing and analyzing the symbols and features depicted to
understand the geological characteristics of an area. Identification includes
interpreting rock units, boundaries, and structural features such as folds and faults
using the map's legend, colors, and patterns. Interpretation involves deducing the
geological history and processes that shaped the landscape by analyzing the spatial
relationships and orientations of these features. This helps geologists reconstruct
past tectonic activities, locate natural resources, and assess geological hazards.
Understanding how these features are represented and why they are significant
provides insights into the Earth's structure and history, guiding exploration and
hazard assessment. (Davis and Reynolds,1996)

Application in Engineering
Geological maps are essential in engineering for assessing and addressing
subsurface conditions that impact construction projects. They provide crucial
information on rock types, soil characteristics, and structural features such as faults
and folds, which guide foundation design, slope stability assessments, and tunnel
construction (Davis & Reynolds, 1996). For example, engineers use these maps to
determine appropriate foundation methods, evaluate landslide risks in unstable
areas, and plan excavation techniques for tunnels. They also play a key role in
resource extraction by identifying mineral deposits and are used in environmental
impact assessments to manage groundwater resources and mitigate potential
contamination (Fossen, 2016). Geological maps enable engineers to design safe,
efficient, and sustainable solutions by revealing critical subsurface data.

FOLDS, FAULTS AND JOINTS

Folds are bends or warps in rock layers caused by compressional forces. Folds
can range from simple to complex structures and include types such as anticlines
(upward arching folds) and synclines (downward troughs). Folds indicate that rocks
have been subjected to significant horizontal compressive stress, resulting in layered
rocks bending without breaking (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).
Anticline: An anticline is a fold in which the rock layers are arched upwards, forming
a convex structure. The oldest rock layers are typically found at the core of the fold,
while progressively younger layers are situated towards the outer edges. This type of
fold resembles an "A" shape when viewed in cross-section (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).
Syncline: A syncline is a fold in which the rock layers are bent downwards, creating
a concave shape. The youngest rock layers are generally located at the core of the
fold, with older layers on the flanks. This fold appears like a "U" shape in cross-
section (Fossen, 2016).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 4

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

Plunging Folds: These folds have an axis that is inclined relative to the horizontal
plane, meaning the fold axis is tilted. The angle of inclination, or plunge, indicates
how steeply the axis dips into the Earth (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).
Non-Plunging Folds: In contrast, non-plunging folds have a horizontal axis. The
axis of these folds does not dip and remains parallel to the horizontal plane,
making the fold's overall appearance more symmetrical (Fossen, 2016).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 5

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

Similar Folds: These folds maintain a consistent shape and pattern at various
depths. The geometry of the fold remains unchanged with depth, so the appearance
of crests and troughs is uniform (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).
Parallel Folds: In these folds, the crests and troughs become more pointed or
angular with increasing depth. The layers exhibit a progressive change in shape from
a more rounded appearance near the surface to a more angular shape at depth
(Fossen, 2016).

Faults are fractures in the Earth's crust along which movement has occurred.
They are classified based on the direction of movement relative to the fault plane,
including normal faults (where the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall),
reverse faults (where the hanging wall moves up), and strike-slip faults (where the
movement is horizontal). Faults indicate areas of significant tectonic activity and
stress (Fossen, 2016).

NATURE OF FAULT PLANE

In geology, a fault zone or shear zone refers to an area characterized by a
series of closely spaced, sub-parallel fractures or faults where significant relative
displacement has occurred. These zones represent regions of intense deformation
and can vary in their geometric properties: the fault plane may be straight, curved,
or irregular and can be oriented horizontally, inclined, or vertically. The complexity
and variability of fault planes within a fault zone contribute to the challenges in
assessing site stability, making these zones critical considerations in geological and
civil engineering evaluations (Handin & Hager, 2007).

1. Fault Plane: The fault plane is the surface along which displacement occurs
between adjacent rock blocks. It is the fracture surface where rocks have
moved past each other. The intersection of this plane with the horizontal plane
defines the fault's strike. The direction of maximum slope of the fault plane
is known as its true dip direction (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).
2. Foot Wall and Hanging Wall: In an inclined fault, the block below the fault
plane is termed the foot wall, while the block above it is the hanging wall.
For vertical faults, where there is no inclination, the terms foot wall and
hanging wall are not applicable (Fossen, 2016).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 6

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

3. Slip: Slip refers to the displacement that occurs along the fault plane during
faulting. The total displacement is called the net slip, which can occur along
the strike, dip, or both directions (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).

Types of Faults:
 Normal Faults: The hanging wall moves downward relative to the foot wall
due to extensional forces.
 Reverse or Thrust Faults: The hanging wall moves upward relative to the foot
wall due to compressional forces (Fossen, 2016).
 Strike Slip Faults: A strike-slip fault is a type of fault where rock blocks slide
horizontally past each other along the fault plane, with movement parallel to
the fault's strike and minimal vertical displacement. This horizontal shear
stress results in either right-lateral (dextral) or left-lateral (sinistral) movement
of the opposite sides of the fault (Davis & Reynolds, 1996; Sieh, 1996).

Effects of Faulting
Faulting causes dislocations in both lithology and topography. These
disruptions can be detected through geological mapping and field investigation,
which may reveal evidence such as slickensides, fault drags, brecciation,
mineralization zones, and offsets of beds (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).

Joints are fractures in rocks that, unlike faults, do not involve significant
relative displacement of rock blocks and are generally less problematic for
construction. They do not typically pose future stability issues like faults, making
them less hazardous for foundation purposes. Joints can be improved using methods
such as cement grouting or plugging (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 7

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

Classification of Joints:
 Strike Joints: These are parallel to the strike of adjacent beds.
 Dip Joints: These align parallel to the dip of adjacent beds.
 Oblique Joints: These do not align with the strike or dip of the adjacent beds.
 Bedding Joints: These perfectly align with the attitude of adjacent beds,
including strike and dip directions (Davis & Reynolds, 1996; Fossen, 2016).

WAVE THEORY

Wave Theory is a crucial aspect of geology and civil engineering, focusing on

understanding how materials respond to stress and seismic activity. It involves
studying various types of waves, factors influencing wave velocity, and the
application of wave theory in grouting and structural analysis. Seismic waves
generated by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and man-made explosions provide
critical insights into subsurface conditions and structural stability (Stuart &
Cormier, 2011).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 8

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

Types of Seismic Waves:

Body Waves: Travel through the Earth's interior and arrive before surface waves.

 P-Waves (Primary Waves): The fastest seismic waves, moving through solids
and fluids, compressing and expanding the material like sound waves (Aki &
Richards, 2002).
 S-Waves (Secondary Waves): Slower than P-waves and only travel through
solids, causing rocks to move perpendicular to the wave direction (Aki &
Richards, 2002).

Surface Waves: Travel along the Earth's crust with lower frequencies and are
responsible for most earthquake damage.

 Love Waves: Move horizontally and are confined to the surface layer, causing
side-to-side ground motion (Aki & Richards, 2002).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 9

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

 Rayleigh Waves: Roll along the ground, creating both vertical and horizontal
ground motion similar to ocean waves, and are typically the largest and most
damaging (Stuart & Cormier, 2011).

MODULI OF ELASTICITY

Modulus of Elasticity refers to a material’s ability to deform under stress and

return to its original shape upon removal of the stress. It is a measure of a material’s
stiffness and is expressed as the ratio of stress (force per unit area) to strain
(proportional deformation) within the elastic limit of the material.

Static Moduli refer to the measurements of a material’s stiffness or rigidity under

slow, steady loading conditions.

 Static Modulus of Elasticity: Measures how much a material deforms under

a static load. It is determined using slow, constant strain and helps in
evaluating the material’s ability to withstand permanent deformation
(McCarthy, 2011).
 Static Poisson’s Ratio: Indicates the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain
under static loading conditions, reflecting the material's tendency to expand
laterally when compressed (Gibson, 2009).

Dynamic Moduli measure a material’s response to rapidly applied loads or

oscillations.

 Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity: Assesses how a material reacts to dynamic

or cyclic loading, such as vibrations or seismic activity. It is important for
evaluating the material’s performance under conditions of varying or impact
loads (Hansen, 2004).
 Dynamic Poisson’s Ratio: Reflects the material’s behavior under dynamic
conditions, such as during earthquakes or machinery vibrations, showing how
it deforms under rapid loading (Hansen, 2004).

GROUTING

Grouting in civil engineering involves injecting pumpable materials into soil

or rock formations to alter their physical properties. It is commonly used to control
groundwater during construction, strengthen weak rocks and unconsolidated soils,
and prevent water leakage through fractured rocks or porous materials in structures
like dams and reservoirs. Typical grouting methods include curtain grouting,
consolidation grouting, and blanket grouting, which address weaknesses in rock
formations and manage water flow (McCarthy, 2011).

Purpose of Grouting:
 To enhance the strength of soil or rock formations and to reduce water flow
through them.
 To repair faults in concrete and masonry structures (Holland, 2013).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 10

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

Modes of Grouting:
 Permeation or Penetration: Grout flows freely into soil voids with minimal
impact, filling spaces without significantly altering soil structure.
 Compaction or Controlled Displacement: Grout remains more cohesive and
applies pressure to the surrounding soil, enhancing its density.
 Hydraulic Fracturing or Uncontrolled Displacement: Grout rapidly
penetrates and fills fracture zones, with pressure exceeding the tensile
strength of the soil or rock, causing new fractures (Holland, 2013).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

Porosity is the measure of void spaces within a material, expressed as a

percentage of the total volume. It indicates the capacity of a rock or soil to store and
transmit fluids such as water, oil, or gas. High porosity means more space for fluids,
making it crucial for applications like groundwater management, petroleum
extraction, and evaluating construction materials (Bear, 1972).

Permeability refers to the ability of a material, such as rock or soil, to

transmit fluids through its pore spaces. It is a measure of how easily fluids can flow
through a porous medium and is typically expressed in units of velocity, such as
meters per second (m/s). High permeability indicates that a material allows fluids to
pass through it more easily, which is crucial for applications such as groundwater
flow, oil and gas extraction, and assessing soil drainage. Permeability is influenced
by factors like pore size, shape, and the connectivity of pore spaces (Bear, 1972).

Density refers to the mass of a material per unit volume and is typically
expressed in units like grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per cubic
meter (kg/m³). In geology and engineering, density is crucial for understanding the
physical properties of rocks and soils, influencing factors such as structural load-
bearing capacity, mineral content, and resource estimation. High density indicates a
material with a greater mass for a given volume, which can affect its mechanical
strength and stability (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

Strength is the ability of a rock to resist applied loads and is measured as the
force per unit area required to cause rupture. It depends on factors such as mineral
composition, grain shape, and texture, as well as processes like cementation and
weathering. Rock strength is categorized into compressive strength (resistance to
compression), tensile strength (resistance to pulling forces), and shear strength
(resistance to sliding along planes) (Jaeger, Cook, & Zimmerman, 2007).

Hardness is a mechanical property that measures a material's resistance to

deformation, specifically through localized indentations or abrasions. Unlike
strength, which is assessed through tensile tests, hardness evaluates how well a
material withstands permanent indentation or plastic deformation. Typically, harder
materials exhibit greater resistance to wear, scratching, abrasion, and cutting. Thus,
hardness reflects the surface stiffness and durability of a material against
mechanical impacts (Smith, 1994).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 11

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

Elasticity is the property of a material that allows it to resist deformation and

return to its original shape and size once the applied forces are removed. It describes
how materials behave under stress, with the deformation being reversible. According
to Hooke’s Law, for small deformations, the strain induced in a material is
proportional to the applied stress. If a material returns to its original state after the
load or pressure is removed, it is considered elastic (Jaeger, Cook, & Zimmerman,
2007)

Plasticity is the ability of certain solids to undergo permanent deformation

without rupture when subjected to stresses that are intermediate between elastic
behavior and failure. It allows materials to flow or change shape permanently under
external forces, such as in metal-forming processes (rolling, pressing, forging) and
geological processes (rock folding and flow under high pressures and temperatures).
Plasticity is crucial for materials that need to be shaped without breaking, as metals
with higher plasticity are more suitable for forming operations, evident in processes
like metal bending (Atkinson, 1987).

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 12

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

CONCLUSION
As researchers on this topic, we have found that understanding key geological
structures like folds, faults, joints, and the process of grouting is crucial for safe
and effective construction. Anticlines and synclines show how rock layers fold, with
anticlines arching up and synclines bending down. Faults, such as strike-slip faults,
involve horizontal movement that can affect building stability. Joints are fractures
in rocks where there is no significant movement, which helps in assessing rock
stability. Grouting is used to strengthen weak soils and rocks and control water flow,
which is vital for maintaining structural integrity.

Understanding the static and dynamic moduli of elasticity was crucial in

our analysis, as these properties describe how materials respond to both static and
dynamic loads, affecting their suitability for construction purposes. This
comprehensive approach enables us to better predict and manage geological risks,
ensuring safer and more effective civil engineering practices. Our findings underscore
the importance of integrating geological knowledge into engineering design and
construction processes to mitigate risks and enhance the durability and stability of
infrastructure projects.

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 13

 Lyceum-Northwestern University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

REFERENCES:

Tandun, G. H. (2013). Structural

Geology. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/structural-geology/26268534
Cabint, D. J. (2024). Introduction to Rock Mechanics.
https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/brief-introduction-to-rock-
mechanicspptx/267109864

Shidlovskaya, A. and Hudyma, N. (2014). Rock Engineering.

https://www.geoengineer.org/education/rock

Stephanie. A. ( 2023 ). Rock Mechanics. https://www.douglaspartners.com.au/knowledge-

sharing/understanding-the-importance-of-rock

Permissible. R. (2022). Wave Theory. https://quizgecko.com/learn/introduction-to-wave

theory-in-geology-and-civil-lxpye

Maximilian. P . and Johannes. K. ( 2023 ). Modulus Elasticity.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/modulus-of-elasticity

Mashinsky. E. I. (2003). Static and Dynamic elastic moduli,

https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/nsu/rgg/article-
abstract/44/9/953/591355/DIFFERENCES-BETWEEN-STATIC-AND-DYNAMIC-ELASTIC

Geo. T. D. (2021). Grouting principles, https://geotechnicaldesign.info/en12715-2000/g7-

3.html

Building. D. (2020). Grouting,

https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Grouting_in_civil_engineering

Vani. D, (2022). Importance of Geological Studies in Various Civil Engineering Projects -

Engineering Geology. https://youtu.be/LSekpDRXh8c?si=NKXgDRWja7psJn7R

Vani. D, (2022). Importance of Geological Studies in Various Civil Engineering Projects -

Engineering Geology. https://youtu.be/LSekpDRXh8c?si=NKXgDRWja7psJn7R

GROUP 4 (OCT 15, 2024) 14