Developmental Psychology

LESSON 2:

Presented by: Corona, Christine

Cortez, Johanne Cedric
Garados, Samantha Faye
Gatlabayan, Joanna Mae
2024, September 18
 OBJECTIVES
1.) DEFINE GENES
2) DEFINE CHROMOSOMES
3) DEFINE GAMETE
4) EXPLAIN WHAT DETERMINES THE CHROMOSOMAL SEX OF THE CHILD
5) QUESTION THE ASSERTION THAT HUMAN TRAITS ARE GENETIC
6) COMPARE MONOZYGOTIC AND DIZYGOTIC TWINS
7)DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN GENETIC DISORDER AND CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES &
DESCRIBE TRISOMY 21
8) DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THE GERMINAL, EMBRYONIC, AND FETAL PERIOD
9) DESCRIBE THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT DURING GERMINAL, EMBRYONIC, AND FETAL
10) PREDICT THE RISKS TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT POSED BY EXPOSURE TO TERATOGENS
11) DESCRIBE THE NORMAL DELIVERY AND COMPLICATIONSOF PREGNANCY AND DELIVERY
12) DISCOVER PROBLEMS OF NEWBORNS
13) INTERPRET AGPAR SCORES

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innate biological factors (namely genetics) upbringing or life experience more genera
Gottlieb (1998, 2000, 2002)
suggests an analytic
framework for the
nature/nurture debate that
recognizes the interplay
between the environment,
behavior, and genetic
expression.
The Human Genome Project
is an ambitious research
effort aimed at deciphering
the chemical makeup of the
entire human genetic code
(i.e., the genome). The
primary work of the project
is to develop three research
tools that will allow
scientists to identify genes
involved in both rare and
common diseases.
 are sex cells

Sperm are produced in the testes in Ova which are stored in the ovaries
a process called spermatogenesis. are present at birth but are
Spermatogenesis begins at about 12 immature.
years old. Each ovary contains about 250,000
(Rome 1998) but only about 400 of
these will become mature eggs
(Mackon & Fauser 2000).
1 2

After the ovum or egg After 3-4 days the egg will reach
the uterus.
ripens and is released
(Usually, the egg is fertilized into
from the ovary it is the fallopian tube and continue it's
drawn to fallopian tube. journey to the uterus.
A process where
one ovum ripens
3 4 and is released
about every 28
Once a single cell Once the sperm entered days.
entered the wall of the the cell, the tail of the
egg, the wall becomes sperm breaks off.
hard.

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 5 6

The head of the sperm The cell containing the

that contains all the combined genetic
As a result of this, a new cell information from both
genetic information of
is formed. parents, is reffered to as a
the father will unite with
zygote.
the nucleus of the egg.

is a process when a sperm fertilizes an egg.

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Contains the genetic information from each
parent.
Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes or 23
pairs.
Gametes or sex cells contains 23 chromosomes.
 Cells in the body can be created by a process called mitosis
and meiosis.

Defined as the nucleus making Are used in sexual

an exact copy of all the reproduction (sperm and
chromosomes and splitting into ova).
two new cells. The genetics chromosomes
duplicate and then divide
twice resulting in four cells
containing only half the
genetic material of the original
gamete.
 Each sperm and egg possesses only 23 chromosomes and
combine to produce the normal 46.

23 pairs of 23 chromosomes
created at conception

22 pairs are similar in

The remaining pairs may
length and are called
differ in length.
autosomes.

XX - genetically female XY - genetically male

is the genetic make up of an is the physical expression of
organism or the complete a trait.
set of genes. This could also
be the pair of alleles that
code for a trait.

Allele is the different version of the gene.

 (B) Brown Eyes (b) Blue eyes
BB, Bb, bb

BB & bb Bb

If we receive the same If we receive different

version of a gene from version of gene from each
both parents. parent.
Note: Not all genes are created
equally.
 B - Dominant b - Recessive
BB, Bb bb

Express themselves in the Express themselves only when

phenotype even when paired paired with a similar version of
with a different versions of gene.
gene.

Examples: Examples:
facial dimples red hair
curly hair being nearsighted
normal vision straight hair
dark hair
 When a dominant gene does not
completely supress the recessive
gene.

Meaning that a gene is a result of

several genes.

Example:
Height of the person
Color of the eyes

follows additive pattern

many different genes contribute
to the final outcome.
Also reffered to as identical Also referred to as fraternal
twins. twins.
Occurs when a fertilized egg Occurs when 2 eggs or ova are
splits apart in the first 2 weeks released and fertilized by 2
of development. As a result, separate sperms.
there will be a creation of 2 As a result, there will be a
separate but genetically creation of 2 separate and
identical offspring. unidentical offspring.
They possess the same
They possess a different
genotype and phenotype.
genotype and often same
phenotype.
SHARED PLACENTA SEPARATE PLACENTA
 PLACENTA SAC/MEMBRANE

Forms at the chorionic sac. Sorrounds each fetus

 Genetic disorders occur when a mutation affects your genes or
chromosomes.

Recessive Disorders (Homozygous): The individual inherits a gene

change from both parents. If the gene is inherited from just one Cases per Birth
parent, the person is a carrier and does not have the condition.

Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) is a condition in which the red bblood cells 1 in 500 Black Births
in the body are shaped like a sikle (the letter C) and affect the 1 in 36,000 Hispanic
ability of the blood to transport oxugen. Carriers may experience Births
some effects, but do not have the full condition.

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a condition that affects the breathing and

digestion due to thick mucus, specially the lungs and digestive 1 in 3,500
systm. In CF the mucus is thicker than normal.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic disorder in which the
individual cannot metaboloze phenylalanine, an amino acid. Left
1 in 10,000
untreated intellectual deficitis occur. PKU is easily detected and is
treated with a special diet.

1 in 4,000
Tay Sachs Disease is caused by enzyme deficiency resulting in
1 in 30 American
accumulation of lipids in the nerve cells of the brain. This
Jews is a carrier
acccumulation results in progressive damage to the cells and a
1 in 20 French
decrease in cognitive and physical development. Death typically
Canadians are
occurs at the age of five.
carrier

Albinism is when an individual lacks melanin and possess little to Fewer than
no pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. Vision problem can also 20,000 USA
occur. cases per year
Autosomal Dominant Disorders (Heterozygous): In order to have the
disorder, the individual only needs to inheret the gene change from Cases per Birth
one parent

Huntington's Disease is a condition that affects the individuals

nervous system. Nerve cells become damaged, causing vadious
1 in 10,000
parts of the brain to deteriorate. The disease affects the
movement, behavior, and cognition. It is fatal , and occurs at midlife.

Tourette Syndrome is a tic disorder which results in

1 in 250
uncomfortable motor and vocal tics and as well as body jerking.

Achondroplasia is the most common form of disproportionate

short stature. The individual has abnormal bone growth, resulting in
1 in 15,000-40,000
short stature, disproportionately short arms and legs, short fingers,
a large head , and specific facial features.
Sex-Linked Disorders: When the X-chromosome carries the mutated gene ,
the disorder is referred to as an X-linked disorder. Males are more affected Cases per
than females because they possess only one X chromosome without an Birth
additional X chromosome to counter the harmful gene.

Fragile X Syndrome occurs when a body canot make enough of a protein

it needs for the brain to grow and problems with learning and behavior
1 in 4000
can occur. Fragile X Syndrome is caused from an abnormality with the X
males
chromosome, which then breaks. If a female has fragile X, her second X
1 in 8000
chromosome is usually healthy, but males with fragile X don't have a
males
second healthy chromosome. This is why symptoms of fragile X syndrome
usually is more serious in males.

Hemophilia occurs when there are problems in blood clotting both internal 1 in 10,000
and external bleeding. males

Duchene Muscular Dystrophy is the weakening of the muscles resuting in 1 in 3,500

an inability to move, wasting away, and possible death. males
 Occurs when a child inherits too many or two few
chromosomes or may be caused by a failure in cell division.

ANUEPLOIDY: is the presence of abnormal no. of chromosome in a cell.

AGE OF THE MOTHER. As the mother ages, the ovum is more likely to
suffer abnormalities at this time.

DIVISION OF GAMETES. Some cells do mot divide evenly when they are
forming. Therefore some cells have more than 46
chromosomes.

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 the abnormality is called autosomals when the abnormality is on
AUTOSOMALS:
the non-sex chromosomes.

1) TRISOMY 21 OR DOWN SYNDROME

Occurs when there are three rather
than two chromosomes on #21.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS:

Brushfield spots (small white/gray
spots on the edge of the iris.
Dysmorphic features.

Short fingers and toes.

Gastrointestinal problems (vomiting).

Pale skin.

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2) TRISOMY 18 OR EDWARD'S SYNDROME
Occurs when there are three rather
than two chromosomes on #18.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS:

Severe mental disability

Clenched hands
Large back of the head
Small mouth
Low-set ears

Clubfeet

Small physical size

Decreased muscle tone
3) TRISOMY 13 OR PATAU SYNDROME
Occurs when there are three rather
than two chromosomes on #13.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS:

Severe intellectual disability

Small head and eyes

Cleft lips or palate

More than 5 fingers on the hand
Malformation of the forebrain.
 SEX-LINKED ABNORMALITIES: When the abnormality is on the chromosome #23

1) KLINEFELTER SYNDROME (47)

Occurs in 1 out of 700 live male births
and results when an ovum containing
an extra X chromosome is fertilized
by a Y sperm. The genotype is XXY.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS:

Some breast development
Infertility (most common cause of
infertility in males)
Low levels of testosterone
Small testes

Note: The Y chromosomes stimulates the growth of

male genitalia but the extra X chromosome inhibits this.
2) TURNER'S SYNDROME (45, X OR 45, XO)
Occurs in 1 of every 2,500 live female births
when an ovum which lacks a chromosome is
fertilized by a sperm with an X chromosome.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS:

Affects cognitive functioning
Normal external genitalia but breasts
and ovaries do not develop fully.
Woman does not menstruate
Short stature and other physical
characteristics.

Note: Fertilization by a Y sperm is not viable.

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GERMINAL PERIOD
about 14 days or 2 weeks in length
During Ejaculation millions of sperm are
released into the vagina.
Fertilized in the top section of the fallopian
tube and continues its journey to the uterus.
A new cell is formed. This cell, containing the
combined genetic information from both
parents, is referred to as a zygote.
After five days of mitosis there are 100
cells, which is now called a blastocyst.
The two group of cells are embryonic disk
and trophoblast.
This stage ends when the blastocyst fully
implants into the uterine wall.
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 EMBRYONIC PERIOD
It lasts from the third through the eighth
week after conception.
Neural tube forms which will become the
brain and spinal column.
Upon implantation this multi-cellular
organism is called an embryo.
Blood vessels grow forming the placenta.
Growth during prenatal development
occurs in two major directions:
cephalocaudal development and
proximodistal development.
The head develops in the fourth week and
the precursor to the heart begins to pulse.
Gills and a tail are apparent. But by the end
of this stage, they disappear and the
organism takes on a more human
appearance.

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FETAL PERIOD
From the ninth week until birth, the
organism is referred to as a fetus.
By the third month, the fetus has all its
body parts including external genitalia.
The fetus will develop hair, nails, teeth and
the excretory and digestive systems.
4th- 6th months, the eyes become more
sensitive to light and hearing develops. The
respiratory system continues to develop,
and reflexes such as sucking, swallowing and
hiccupping, develop during the 5th month.
The first chance of survival outside the
womb, known as the age of viability.
Between the 7th and 9th months the fetus
is primarily preparing for birth.

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Teratology- The study of factors
that contribute to birth defects.

Teratogens are factors that can

contribute to birth defects which
include some maternal diseases,
pollutants, drugs and alcohol.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING
PRENATAL RISKS:

The timing of the exposure

The amount of exposure
The number of teratogens
Genetics
Being male or female

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 ALCOHOL
One of the most commonly used
teratogens
Leading preventable cause of
intellectual disabilities in children in the
United States (Maier & West, 2001).
During the second month of prenatal
development but at any point during
pregnancy, may lead to neurocognitive
and behavioral difficulties that can last
a lifetime.
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
(FASD), which is an umbrella term for the
range of effects that can occur due to
alcohol consumption during pregnancy.

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 TOBACCO ILLICIT DRUG
Another widely used teratogen As well as prescribed
is tobacco as more than 7% of medications can have serious
pregnant women smoked in teratogenic effects.
2016 (Someji & Beltrán-Sánchez, The use of cocaine is
2019). connected with low birth
Fetus is exposed to dangerous weight, stillbirths and
chemicals including nicotine, spontaneous abortion.
carbon monoxide and tar. Heavy marijuana use is
associated with brain damage.

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 There are more than 83,000 chemicals
used in the United States with little
POLLUTANTS information on the effects of them
during pregnancy (March of Dimes,
2016b).

Lead: An environmental pollutant of significant concern is lead poisoning,

which has been linked to fertility problems, high blood pressure, low birth
weight, prematurity, miscarriage, and slowed neurological development.
Pesticides: The chemicals in certain pesticides are also potentially damaging
and may lead to birth defects, learning problems, low birth weight,
miscarriage, and premature birth (March of Dimes, 2014).
Bisphenol A: Prenatal exposure to bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical commonly
used in plastics and food and beverage containers, may disrupt the action of
certain genes contributing to certain birth defects (March of Dimes, 2016b).
Radiation: If a mother is exposed to radiation, it can get into the
bloodstream and pass through the umbilical cord to the baby. Radiation
can also build up in body areas close to the uterus, such as the bladder.
Mercury: a heavy metal, can cause brain damage and affect the baby’s
hearing and vision.

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TOXOPLASMOSIS GERMAN MEASLES
The tiny parasite, toxoplasma Rubella, also called German
gondii, causes an infection measles, is an infection that
called Toxoplasmosis can cause causes mild flu-like symptoms
premature birth, stillbirth, and and a rash on the skin.
can result in birth defects to However, only about half of
the eyes and brain. While most children infected have these
babies born with this infection symptoms, while others have no
show no symptoms, ten symptoms (March of Dimes,
percent may experience eye 2012a). Rubella has been
infections, enlarged liver and associated with a number of
spleen, jaundice, and birth defects.
pneumonia.

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 SEXUALLY HUMAN
TRANSMITTED IMMUNODEFICIENCY
DISEASES VIRUS (HIV)
One of the most potentially
Gonorrhea, syphilis, and devastating teratogens is HIV. In
chlamydia are sexually the United States, the fastest
transmitted infections that can growing group of people with AIDS
be passed to the fetus by an is women; globally half of all
people infected with HIV are
infected mother. Mothers
women (UNAIDS, 2005).
should be tested as early as
Some measures that can be taken
possible to minimize the risk of
to lower the chance the child will
spreading these infections to
contract the disease (such as the
their unborn child.
use of antiretroviral drugs from
14 weeks after conception until
birth, avoiding breastfeeding,
and delivering the child by c‐
section).

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3
Mothers over 35- Women over Teenage Pregnancy- Infants
age 35 are more likely to have an born to teenage mothers have a
increased risk of: higher risk for being premature
Fertility problems and having low birthweight or
High blood pressure other serious health problems.
Diabetes
Miscarriages Gestational Diabetes- Seven
Placenta Previa percent of pregnant women
Cesarean section develop gestational diabetes
Premature birth (March of Dimes, 2015b).
Stillbirth Gestational diabetes usually goes
A baby with a genetic away after the mother gives
disorder or other birth birth, but it might indicate a risk
defects for developing diabetes later in
life.

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High Blood Pressure
(Hypertension)- There are two
types of high blood pressure during
pregnancy, gestational and Weight Gain during Pregnancy-
chronic. High blood pressure during During pregnancy most women
pregnancy can cause premature need only an additional 300
birth and low birth weight. calories per day to aid in the
growth of the fetus. Gaining too
Depression- Depression is a little or too much weight during
significant medical condition in pregnancy can be harmful. Women
which feelings of sadness, who gain too little may have a baby
worthlessness, guilt, and fatigue who is low-birth weight, while those
interfere with one’s daily who gain too much are likely to
functioning. Depression can occur have a premature or large baby.
before, during, or after
pregnancy.
.

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PREGNANCY
AND
CHILDBIRTH
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COMPLICATIONS OF PREGNANCY

MINOR COMPLICATIONS MAJOR COMPLICATIONS

These side effects include The following are some serious

nausea (particularly during the first complications of pregnancy which
3-4 months of pregnancy as a can
result of higher levels of pose health risks to mother and child
estrogen in the system), heartburn, and that often require hospitalization.
gas, hemorrhoids, backache, leg
cramps, insomnia,
constipation, shortness of breath
or varicose veins (as a result of
carrying a heavy load on the
abdomen).

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MAJOR COMPLICATION

ECTOPIC PREGNANCY PREECLAMPSIA/TOXEMIA

occurs when the zygote becomes characterized by a sharp rise
attached to the fallopian tube in blood pressure, a leakage of
before protein into the urine as a
reaching the uterus. About 1 in 50 result of kidney problems, and
pregnancies in the United States swelling of the hands, feet,
are tubal pregnancies and and face during the third
this number has been increasing trimester of pregnancy.
because of the higher rates of Preeclampsia is the most
pelvic inflammatory disease and common complication of
Chlamydia (Carroll, 2007). Abdominal pregnancy.
pain, vaginal bleeding, nausea and
fainting are symptoms
of ectopic pregnancy.
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PROBLEMS OF
THE NEW BORN
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 LOW BIRTH WEIGHT

A child is considered low birth weight

if he or she weighs less than 5.8
pounds (2500 grams).

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 PREMATURE BIRTH/PRETERM

A child might also have a low birth

weight if it is born at less than 37
weeks gestation (which qualifies it as a
preterm baby).

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 ANOXIA
Anoxia is a temporary lack of oxygen to the brain.
Difficulty during delivery may lead to anoxia which
can result in brain damage or in severe cases,
death. Babies who suffer both low birth weight
and anoxia are more likely to suffer learning
disabilities later in life as well.

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 SMALL-FOR-DATE INFANT

Infants that have birth weights that

are below expectation based on their
gestational age are referred to as
small-for-date.

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CHILDBIRTH

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APPROACHES TO CHILD BIRTH

Prepared childbirth refers to being not only physically in good

condition to help provide a healthy environment for the baby to
develop, but also helping a couple to prepare to accept their new
roles as parents and to get information and training that will assist
them for delivery and life with the baby as much as possible.

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THE DICK-READ METHOD OF NATURAL BIRTH

Grantley Dick‐Read was an English obstetrician and pioneer of

prepared childbirth in the 1930s. In his book Childbirth Without Fear, he
suggests that the fear of childbirth Increases tension and make the
process of childbearing more painful.

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LAMAZE METHOD

This method originated in Russia and was brought to the United

States in the 1950s by
Fernand Lamaze. The emphasis of this method is on teaching
the woman to be in
control in the process of delivery. It includes learning muscle
relaxation,

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BIRTHING CENTERS

The trend now is to have birthing rooms that are hospital rooms that
look more like a suite in a hotel equipped with a bed that can be
converted for delivery. These rooms are also equipped with a bed and
monitoring systems for the newborn. However, many hospitals have
only one or two of these rooms and availability can be a problem.

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THE LEBOYER METHOD

This method involves giving birth in a quiet, dimly lit room and allowing
the newborn to lie on the mother's stomach with the umbilical cord
intact for several minutes while being given a warm bath.

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HOME BIRTH AND NURSE-MIDWIVES

Historically in the United States, most babies were born under the
care of lay midwives. In the 1920s, middle class women were
increasingly using doctors to assist with childbirth but rural women
were still being assisted by lay midwives. The nursing profession
began educating nurse-midwives to assist these women.

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THE PROCESS OF DELIVERY

1st Stage: 2nd Stage 3rd Stage

Early labor Delivery of Delivery of
the baby the
Early Labor Delivery of the Baby
Placenta
Delivery of the Placenta

• Begins with uterine • The baby passes through the • The placenta (afterbirth) is
contractions that help dilate birth canal. delivered about 20 minutes
the cervix to 10 cm. after the baby.
• Takes 12-16 hours for first- • Takes 10-40 minutes, involving
time mothers, 6-9 hours for pushing with each contraction. • If an episiotomy (cut) was
Epidural Block
others. made, it is stitched up.
• Most women use an epidural, which numbs the lower body without
• Water may break, and • Baby’s head is delivered first, affecting the baby.
• It takes 10-20 minutes to take effect and can be used throughout
contractions grow stronger
Some women experience false
followed by the body. labor.

andor
labor closer together.
Braxton-Hicks C-Section (Cesarean Section)

contractions, especially with • Used when there are complications, such as baby distress or mother’s
the first child. These may come health issues.
• It is major surgery and takes longer to recover than vaginal delivery.
and go. They tend to diminish
when the mother begins Induced Labor

walking around. • Labor may be induced if the mother is overdue, has medical conditions,
or if the placenta starts to detach early. 5
ASSESSING THE NEONATE

Assessing the neonate involves evaluating the newborn's overall

health and immediate adjustment to life outside the womb. Two
common assessments are the Apgar score and the Neonatal
Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). The Apgar score, performed at
1 and 5 minutes after birth, checks the baby's heart rate, breathing,
muscle tone, reflexes, and skin color. The NBAS provides a more
detailed examination, assessing the newborn’s motor skills, muscle
tone, and responses to stress. These assessments help identify any
immediate medical needs or developmental concerns.

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