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Chapter 1 Introduction To Physiology

Review Notes for Physiology General Physiology Chapter 1 Introduction to Physiology

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BRILLIANT AGACID HEQUILAN
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6 views

Chapter 1 Introduction To Physiology

Review Notes for Physiology General Physiology Chapter 1 Introduction to Physiology

Uploaded by

BRILLIANT AGACID HEQUILAN
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY (BIOL 107-YB)

Chapter 1
Homeostasis - A Framework for Human Physiology

A. OVERVIEW
PHYSIOLOGY:
 Definition The branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of
living organisms and their parts. It encompasses how cells,
tissues, organs, and systems function together to sustain
life.
 Importance Understanding physiology is key to understanding how the
body maintains health and responds to diseases.
 Integration Different body systems work together (e.g., cardiovascular
of and respiratory systems collaborate to supply oxygen to
Systems tissues).

LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION:


a. Cells The smallest functional unit of life. Cells carry out all life
processes, including metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
b. Tissues Groups of similar cells that perform a specific function.
There are four basic tissue types in humans: epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
c. Organs Structures made up of two or more tissue types working
together to perform a specific function (e.g., the heart,
lungs)
d. Organ Groups of organs that work together to perform a broader
Systems function necessary for survival (e.g., the digestive system,
which processes food and absorbs nutrients).

B. HOMEOSTASIS
DEFINITION:
Process where the body maintains a stable internal environment despite
external changes. A dynamic state of equilibrium, not a static state, meaning
conditions are maintained within a narrow range rather than fixed at a single
point.
Example: Body temperature is regulated around 37°C, but it may fluctuate
slightly throughout the day depending on activity, environment.

IMPORTANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS:
Survival: Maintaining homeostasis is essential for survival, as cells
function optimally only within specific conditions (e.g., temperature,
pH).
Health: Disruptions in homeostasis can lead to diseases, such as diabetes
(disrupted glucose homeostasis) or dehydration (disrupted fluid
balance).

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS:


Componen
ts
i. Receptor (Sensor): Detects changes in the internal or external
environment (e.g., thermoreceptors detect changes in
temperature).
ii. Control Center: Typically located in the brain (e.g., the
hypothalamus). It processes the information received from the
receptor and determines the appropriate response.
iii. Effector: Executes the response that brings conditions back to the
set point (e.g., muscles shivering to generate heat).

Types of Feedback Mechanisms


1. Negative Feedback: A process that reduces the deviation from the
set point. It acts to reverse a change and bring the system back to
its normal state.
Example: If body temperature rises, mechanisms such as
sweating and vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) are
activated to cool the body.
2. Positive Feedback: A process that amplifies a change, driving the
system further from the set point. It is less common in physiological
processes but occurs in specific situations.
Example: During childbirth, the release of oxytocin
increases uterine contractions, which in turn stimulates
more oxytocin release, further intensifying contractions.

SET POINTS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RANGES:


Set Point: The optimal value for a physiological variable (e.g., 98.6°F or
37°C for body temperature).
Physiological Range: The acceptable range of variation around the set
point. For example, blood glucose levels are typically maintained
between 70 and 100 mg/dL.

EXAMPLES OF HOMEOSTATIC PROCESSES:


 Thermoregulation: Involves maintaining a stable body temperature.
When the body is too hot, mechanisms like sweating and vasodilation
occur; when too cold, shivering and vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood
vessels) happen.
 Glucose Regulation:
Insulin and Glucagon: Hormones produced by the pancreas that
regulate blood sugar levels. Insulin lowers blood glucose, while
glucagon raises it.
 Osmoregulation:
Water Balance: The kidneys play a crucial role in maintaining the
balance of water and electrolytes in the body, responding to signals
like antidiuretic hormone (ADH) to conserve or excrete water as
needed.

C. CELLULAR STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS


Cell Membrane:
Phospholipid Bilayer: Composed of two layers of phospholipids, with
hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads facing outward
and hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails facing inward.

Selective Barrier:Regulates what enters and exits the cell,


maintaining the internal environment.
Communication: Membrane receptors allow cells to receive and respond
to signals from other cells.
Transport: Transport proteins facilitate the movement of
substances across the membrane, either through
passive (no energy required) or active (energy
required) transport mechanisms.

Cytoplasm: A gel-like substance that fills the cell, consisting of cytosol (fluid)
and organelles.
Func. The site where many cellular processes occur, such as metabolic
pathways, protein synthesis, and cell division.
Nucleus: Surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope,
which contains nuclear pores for the exchange of materials
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Func. Houses the cell's genetic material (DNA) and regulates gene
expression, which controls cell growth, differentiation, and division.
Mitochondria: Composed of an outer membrane and a highly folded inner
membrane (cristae), which increases the surface area for
biochemical reactions.
Func. Generates ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through cellular
respiration, providing energy for the cell's activities.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis, and
folding.
Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; involved in lipid synthesis, metabolism of
carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and toxins.
Golgi Apparatus: A series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs (cisternae).
Func. Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport to
their final destinations, either inside or outside the cell.
Lysosomes: Small, membrane-bound organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes.
Func. Break down waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign invaders
(e.g., bacteria) through a process called autophagy or
phagocytosis.
Cytoskeleton:
Components:
 Microfilaments: Thin, thread-like structures made of actin;
involved in cell movement and structural support.
 Intermediate Filaments: Provide tensile strength, maintaining
the cell's shape and anchoring organelles.
 Microtubules: Hollow tubes made of tubulin; involved in cell
division, intracellular transport, and structural support.
Func. The cytoskeleton provides structural integrity, aids in cellular
movement (e.g., via cilia and flagella), and organizes the cell's
contents.

Cellular Communication:
Signal Transduction: The process by which a cell converts an external
signal into a functional response.
 Steps: Involves the binding of a signaling molecule (ligand) to a
receptor, triggering a cascade of intracellular events leading to a
specific response (e.g., gene expression, enzyme activation).
Receptors: Specialized proteins on the cell surface or within the cell that
bind to signaling molecules (e.g., hormones, neurotransmitters)
and initiate a cellular response.
Second Messengers: Molecules that transmit signals from receptors to
target molecules inside the cell (e.g., cyclic AMP, calcium ions),
amplifying the initial signal and leading to a coordinated response.

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