CONTROL AND COORDINATION

• All living organisms have the ability to detect changes in external as well as internal environment
and to respond and react accordingly to these changes.
• Any change in the external or internal environment of an organism is called stimulus and the organs
that detect them are called receptors. The reaction shown by an organism to a stimulus is called
response. Muscles or glands which contract or secrete substances on receiving an impulse from the
brain or spinal cord are called effectors.
• The response to a stimulus is usually in the form of some movement either of a body part or of the
whole organism.

• The ability of organisms to move certain body parts is movement.

• When they move from one place to another, it is called locomotion.

• The movements shown in response to any stimulus are highly controlled and coordinated. Various
organs work in full cooperation to provide appropriate reaction for the stimulus. This is called
Coordination.

Control and Coordination in Animals

In all complex animals, coordination is achieved through two controls:
1. Nervous control: through electric impulses generated by nervous system and sense organs.
2. Endocrine control: through hormones secreted by endocrine glands.

NERVOUS COORDINATION IN ANIMALS

The nervous system is composed of specialized tissues, called nervous tissue. The nerve cell or neuron is
the functional unit of the nervous system. It is the nervous system which is mainly responsible for control
and coordination in complex animals.
Need of the nervous system

• Nervous system receives information from the environment through sense organs.
• To control and regulate voluntary and involuntary activities.
• To coordinate working of various glands.
• To enable us to think, remember and to reason.

Mechanism of Nervous Coordination

1. Receiving the stimulus through receptors.
2. Processing and Transmission of stimulus in the form of electric impulses with the help of neurons.
3. Interpretation of nerve impulse by Central nervous system.
4. Response with the help of effectors.
 Neuron
Neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

• Each neuron has three main parts: dendrites, cyton/soma/cell body and axon.
• Dendrites receive impulses from other neurons.
• Cyton/soma processes the impulse.
• Axon transmits the impulse, either to another neuron or to muscles/glands, etc.
• Axon may be myelinated or non-myelinated.
• The impulse transmission is faster in myelinated neurons.

Types of neurons
• Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.
• Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
• Association or relay neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory neuron and motor
neuron.

What happens at junction between two neurons?

• The junction between the two neurons is called Synapse.

• At synapse, the two neurons are separated by a narrow gap called synaptic cleft.
• The nerve impulse from axon of one neuron [pre synaptic knob] to the dendrite of next neuron
[post synaptic depression] pass through the synapse as a chemical message.
• The chemical secreted at pre synaptic knob is called a neurotransmitter eg. Acetylcholine, post
synaptic depression has chemo receptors to receive the chemicals. So, an impulse always travel in
one direction i.e. from axon to dendrite.
Reflex action
Reflex action is a sudden, involuntary reaction of the body in response to stimuli.

Reflex arc
• It is the path followed by an electrical impulse during a reflex action.
• The impulse travels from the receptor organ to the spinal cord/brain. It is processed there and the
information is brought back to the concerned muscle to carry out the action.
• Thus, the receptor organ, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron and effector
organ are the components of a reflex arc.

Human Nervous System: The nervous system in humans can be divided into three main parts
1. Central Nervous System: The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal
cord. The brain controls all the functions in the human body. The spinal cord works as the relay
channel for signals between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.

2. Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial nerves
and spinal nerves. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. The cranial nerves come out of the brain
and go to the organs in the head region. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The spinal nerves
come out of the spinal cord and go to the organs which are below the head region.
 HUMAN BRAIN
• The brain is highly developed in human beings. In an average adult, it weighs 1.2-1.4 Kg and is
divided into 3 parts: Forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
• Forebrain: is the largest part of brain and consists of 3 parts: Olfactory lobes [concerned with
sense of smell] ; Cerebrum [formed pf two cerebral hemispheres, connected by a thick band of
nerves called corpus callosum and controls all the important functions such as intelligence,
thinking, reasoning, perception of pain, touch, temperature, pressure, audio-visual, sight and
voluntary action] and diencephalon [hypothalamus – control centre for thirst, hunger, sleep
and emotions]
• Midbrain: connect the forebrain and hindbrain.
• Hindbrain: consists of 3 parts: Cerebellum [second largest part of the brain, maintains posture,
balance and equilibrium of our body], Pons [relay centre to transfer impulses] and Medulla
oblongata [also called brain stem, controls involuntary actions such as swallowing, heartbeat,
vomiting and coughing]

SPINAL CORD: is the extension of medulla oblongata of brain. It is long, cord like structure, lies i nside
vertebral column and ends in the lumbar region. It acts as a reflex centre and controls reflex actions and
also mediates most of the involuntary actions.

Protection of CNS: Brain is present in a bony cage called cranium and spinal cord inside vertebral
column. The CNS is also covered by three protective coverings called meninges. Between meninges, the
space is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid [maintains a constant pressure around brain, shock
absorber and helps in exchange of materials between tissue and blood].

CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN ANIMALS: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine System: The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands. A ductless gland is
called endocrine gland. Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are
produced in the endocrine glands. Hormone is mainly composed of protein. Hormones assist the nervous
system in control and co-ordination. Nervous do not react to every nook and corner of the body and hence
hormones are needed to affect control and coordination in those parts. Moreover, unlike nervous control,
hormonal control is somewhat slower.

Hormones: These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by specialised tissues called
ductless glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually away from their source. Endocrine System helps
in control and coordination through chemical compounds called hormones.
Endocrine Gland
Location Hormones Produced Functions

Hypothalamus Neurohormones – releasing and Regulates secretion of hormones from

Brain
inhibitory pituitary gland

Anterior lobe • GH stimulates growth.

• Growth hormone (GH). • TSH stimulates the functioning of the

• Thyroid stimulating thyroid gland.

hormone (TSH). • FSH stimulates the follicles during

• Follicle stimulating ovulation.

hormone (FSH) • Prolactin helps in milk production

• Prolactin during pregnancy.

Pituitary gland
At the
• Adrenocorticotropic • ACTH stimulate adrenal cortex to
(also known as
base of the
hormone (ACTH) release hormone.
the master
brain
Middle lobe
gland)
• Melanocyte stimulating • MSH regulates release of melanocyte

hormone [MSH] causing skin darkening.

Posterior lobe

• Oxytocin [birth hormone]

• Oxytocin causes contraction of
• Vasopressin [ADH]
uterine muscles during childbirth.

• ADH regulates concentration of urine.

Controls general metabolism and growth in

Thyroid Gland Neck Thyroxine
the body.

Parathyroid Regulates calcium and phosphorous level in

Neck Parathormone
gland blood.
 Adrenal cortex Controls carbohydrate metabolism, sodium-

• Corticoids [gluco, mineral, potassium level in blood and stimulate

sex corticoid] development of secondary sex characters.

Above
Adrenal gland
kidneys
Prepares the body for emergency situations

Adrenal medulla and hence is also called ‘Fight and flight’

• adrenaline hormone.

below Insulin Lowers blood sugar level

Pancreas
stomach Glucagon Raises blood sugar level.

Sperm production, development of

Testis (male) In Scrotum Testosterone
secondary sexual characters during puberty.

Oestrogen Egg production, development of secondary

Near sexual characters during puberty.

Ovary (female)
uterus Progesterone Thickening of uterus wall to receive fertilised

egg.

HORMONAL DISORDERS

Hypersecretion [Over secretion] Hyposecretion [deficiency]

Growth hormone – causes abnormal enlargement Stunted growth of long bones resulting in
of long bones resulting in Gigantism. Dwarfism
ADH – causes increase in blood pressure. Causes Diabetes insipidus – very dilute urine.
Thyroxine – increases metabolism resulting in Slows down metabolism causing puffiness.
extreme leanness [Grave’s disease]
Insulin - hypoglycaemia Diabetes mellitus – increase blood sugar level.

Adrenaline release results in reduced blood supply towards skin and gastrointestinal tract and more blood
is now supplied towards bones and heart. This increases the breathing rate, heartbeat rate and supply of
more oxygen towards brain. Now we are ready to deal with stress or emergency situation.
 COORDINATION IN PLANTS

Plant hormones
Control and coordination in plants are carried out by hormones.

Plant
Function
Hormone

Helps in Growth of Plant Tissue – elongation of stem and roots, increase rate of
Auxin
respiration; example – IAA – Indole 3-acetic acid, IBA – Indole butyric acid.

Promotes Cell division and differentiation , delays ageing of cells ; example – zeatin and
Cytokinin
kinetin

Helps in the growth of stems, initiates seed germination, breaks dormancy and seed
Gibberellins
growth after germination; example – Gibberellic acid [G3].

Abscisic acid Inhibits growth and causes wilting of leaves, promotes dormancy of buds and seeds

Ethylene This is a gaseous hormone which causes the ripening of fruits.

Plant Movements
They are mainly of two types- Growth independent and Growth dependent movements.
GROWTH INDEPENDENT MOVEMENT
Are caused as a quick response to the stimulus. These are reversible and occurs due to change in turgidity
of the cells [turgor movements]. For eg. Opening and closing of stomata and drooping/folding of leaves of
touch me not plant [Mimosa pudica] on touching.
GROWTH DEPENDENT MOVEMENT
Are produced due to unequal growth in different parts of plant organs I response to external stimulus.
These are of two types: Nastic [non-directional] and Tropic [directional].
TROPIC MOVEMENTS: The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the
stimulus are called tropic movements. Tropic movements happen as a result of growth of a plant
part in a particular direction. There are five types of tropic movements.

(i) Geotropic movement: The growth in a plant part in response to the gravity is called geotropic
movement. Roots usually show positive geotropic movement, i.e. they grow in the direction of the
gravity. Stems usually show negative geotropic movement.

(ii) Phototropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to light is called phototropic
movement. Stems usually show positive phototropic movement, while roots usually show negative
phototropic movement. If a plant is kept in a container in which no sunlight reaches and a hole in
the container allows some sunlight; the stem finally grows in the direction of the sunlight. This
happens because of a higher rate of cell division in the part of stem which is away from the
sunlight. As a result, the stem bends towards the light. The heightened rate of cell division is
attained by increased secretion of the plant hormone auxin in the which is away from sunlight .

(iii) Hydrotropic Movement: When roots grow in the soil, they usually grow towards the nearest
source of water. This shows a positive hydrotropic movement.

Hydrotropism is stronger than Geotropism.

(iv) Thigmotropism Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to touch is called
thigmotropism movement. Such movements are seen in tendrils of climbers. The tendril grows in
a way so as it can coil around a support. The differential rate of cell division in different parts of
the tendril happens due to action of auxin.

(v) Chemotropism: Movement of plant parts in response to chemical stimuli is known as chemotropism.
Movement of plant parts in response to chemical stimuli is known as chemotropism.

Feedback Mechanism Of Hormones

The hormones are responsible for regulating the internal body temperature. A feedback mechanism tends to
accelerate or inhibit the hormonal secretion. This loop is usually the negative feedback mechanism among
most of the hormones.