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About this
guide
Normal
Section Linear force
Units Force Momentum Work Energy
One motion and
friction
Section Circular Wave Standing
Torque Fluids Fields Gravity Waves Sound
Two Motion Overtones Waves
Section
Thermodynamics Electricity Magnetism Optics
Three
Vectors
Physics Frictional Greek
Apendicies Logs and
constants coefficients alphabet
scalars

Dedication

'I have a friend who's an artist and he's some times taken a view
which I don't agree with very well. He'll hold up a flower and say,
"look how beautiful it is," and I'll agree, I think. And he says, "you
see, I as an artist can see how beautiful this is, but you as a scientist, 60007
oh, take this all apart and it becomes a dull thing." And I think he's
kind of nutty. First of all, the beauty that he sees is available to other people and to me, too, I believe,
although I might not be quite as refined aesthetically as he is. But I can appreciate the beauty of a flower. At
the same time, I see much more about the flower that he sees. I could imagine the cells in there, the
complicated actions inside which also have a beauty. I mean, it's not just beauty at this dimension of one
centimeter: there is also beauty at a smaller dimension, the inner structure...also the processes. The fact that
the colors in the flower are evolved in order to attract insects to pollinate it is interesting -- it means that
insects can see the color. It adds a question -- does this aesthetic sense also exist in the lower forms that
are...why is it aesthetic, all kinds of interesting questions which a science knowledge only adds to the
excitement and mystery and the awe of a flower. It only adds. I don't understand how it subtracts.' ... Richard
Feynman

Physics Study Guide

This guide is meant as a supplement to a year long freshman level physics course with a trigonometry
prerequisite. Some ideas from calculus are included in the book but are not necessary to understand the
content. The overview of equations and definitions and eventually sample problem solutions are pertinent to
an introductory, college-level physics course suitable for pre-meds. This is not a stand alone textbook rather
the intent is to help the student and any other interested person quickly familiarize themselves with concepts

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and terminology so as to use the appropriate equations to get the desired answers to physics problems.

Contributing

Everyone is encouraged to contribute to the guide. Be bold in your edits! If you have a question about how
we do things here look at the Style Guide or post your question on the talk page.

Authors

Karl Adon Brendan Tristan Fromund Martin Smith-

Wick Metcalfe Abbott Sabel Hock Martinez

Time

Time is defined as the duration between two events. In the international system of measurement (S.I.) the
second (s) is the basic unit of time and it is defined as the time it takes a cesium (Cs) atom to perform
9 192 631 770 complete oscillations. The Earth revolves around its own axis in 86400 seconds with respect
to the Sun; this is known as 1 day, and the 86400th part of one day is known as a second.

Length

In the international system of measurement (S.I.) the metre (m) ('meter' in the US) is the basic unit of length
and is defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299 792 458 second. This definition
establishes that the speed of light in a vacuum is precisely 299 792 458 metres per second.

Mass

In the international system of measurement (S.I.) the kilogram (kg) is the basic unit of mass and is defined as
the mass of a specific platinum-iridium alloy cylinder kept at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
in Sèvres, France. A duplicate of the Sèvres cylinder is kept at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland. See Wikipedia article.

Current

In the international system of measurement (S.I.) the ampere (A) is the basic measure of electrical current. It
is defined as the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length,
of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre (m) apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2×10-7 newton (N) per metre of length.

Unit of Thermodynamic Temperature

The kelvin (K), unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic

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temperature of the triple point of water.

Unit of Amount of Substance

1. The mole (mol) is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12.

2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.

Luminous Intensity

The candela (cd) is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per
steradian. (A steradian (sr) is the SI unit of solid angle, equal to the angle at the centre of a sphere subtended by a part of the
surface equal in area to the square of the radius.)

Charge

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). It is equal to ampere times second:

Velocity

The SI unit for velocity is in m/s or metres per second.

Force

The SI unit of force is the newton (N), named after Sir Isaac Newton. It is equal to .

Energy

The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). The joule has base units of kg·m²/s² = N·m. A joule is defined as the
work done or energy required to exert a force of one newton for a distance of one metre. See Wikipedia
article.

Pressure

The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa). The pascal has base units of N / m2 or . See Wikipedia
article.

Prefix yotta zetta exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deca deci centi milli micro
Symbol Y Z E P T G M k h da d c m µ
10n 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6

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1000n 10008 10007 10006 10005 10004 10003 10002 10001 1000-1 1000

The SI units are not always convenient to use, even with the larger (and smaller) prefixes. For astronomy, the
following units are prevalent:

The Julian year is defined by the IAU as exactly 365.25 days, a day being exactly 60*60*24 = 86 400 SI
seconds. This is therefore equal to 31 557 600 seconds.

The Astronomical Unit (au or ua), often used for measuring distances in the Solar system, is the average
distance from the Earth to the Sun. It is 149 597 870 691 m, ± 30 m, as currently defined.

The light year (ly) is defined as the distance light travels (in a vacuum) in one Julian year. Due to the word
"year", the light year is often mistaken for a unit of time in popular culture. It is, however, a unit of length
(distance), and is equal to exactly 9 460 730 472 580 800 m.

The parsec (pc), or "parallax second", is the distance of an object that appears to move two arc-seconds
against the background stars as the Earth moves around the sun, or by definition one arc-second of parallax
angle. This angle is measured in reference to a line connecting the object and the Sun, and thus the apparent
motion is one arc-second on either side of this "central" position. The parsec is approximately 3.26156 ly.

Kinematics is the description of motion. The motion of a point particle is fully described using three terms -
displacement, velocity, and acceleration. For real objects (which are not mathematical points), translational
kinematics describes the motion of an object's center of mass through space, while angular kinematics
describes how an object rotates about its centre of mass. In this section, we focus only on translational
kinematics.

Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are defined as follows.

Wiktionary (http://wiktionary.org) defines "vector" (http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Vector) as "a quantity that has

both magnitude and direction, typically written as a column of scalars". That is, a number that has a direction
assigned to it.

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In physics, a vector often describes the motion of an object. For example, Warty the Woodchuck goes 35
feet toward a hole in the ground.

We can divide vectors into parts called "components", of which the vector is a sum. For example, a
two-dimensional vector is divided into x and y components.

One dimensional coordinate system

Two dimensional coordinate system Three dimensional coordina

Displacement answers the question, "Has the object moved?"

Note the symbol. This symbol is a sort of "super equals" symbol, indicating that not only does
EQUAL the displacement , but more importantly displacement is OPERATIONALLY DEFINED by
.

We say that operationally defines displacement, because gives a step by step procedure
for determining displacement. Namely ...

1. Measure where the object is initially.

2. Measure where the object is at some later time.
3. Determine the difference of these two position values.

Be sure to note that DISPLACEMENT is NOT the same as DISTANCE travelled.

For example, imagine travelling one time along the circumference of a circle. If you end where you started,
your displacement is zero, even though you have clearly travelled some distance. In fact, displacement is an
average distance travelled. On your trip along the circle, your north and south motion averaged out, as did
your east and west motion.

Clearly we are losing some important information. The key to regaining this information is to use smaller
displacement intervals. For example, instead of calculating your displacement for your trip along the circle in
one large step, consider dividing the circle into 16 equal segments. Calculate the distance you travelled along
each of these segments, and then add all your results together. Now your total travelled distance is not zero,
but something approximating the circumference of the circle. Is your approximation good enough?
Ultimately, that depends on the level of accuracy you need in a particular application, but luckily you can
always use finer resolution. For example, we could break your trip into 32 equal segments for a better

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approximation.

Returning to your trip around the circle, you know the true distance is simply the circumference of the circle.
The problem is that we often face a practical limitation for determining the true distance travelled. (The
travelled path may have too many twists and turns, for example.) Luckily, we can always determine
displacement, and by carefully choosing small enough displacement steps, we can use displacement to obtain
a pretty good approximation for the true distance travelled. (The mathematics of calculus provides a formal
methodology for formally estimating a "true value" through the use of successively better approximations.)
In the rest of this discussion, I will replace ∆ with δ to indicate that small enough displacement steps have
been used to provide a good enough approximation for the true distance travelled.

[∆, delta, upper-case Greek D, is a prefix conventionally used to denote a difference.] Velocity answers the
question "Is the object moving now, and if so - how quickly?"

Once again we have an operational definition: we are told what steps to follow to calculate velocity.

Note that this is a definition for average velocity. The displacement ∆x is the vector sum of the smaller
displacements which it contains, and some of these may subtract out. By contrast, the distance travelled is
the scalar sum of the smaller distances, all of which are non-negative (they are the magnitudes of the
displacements). Thus the distance travelled can be larger than the magnitude of the displacement, as in the
example of travel on a circle, above. Consequently, the average velocity may be small (or zero, or negative)
while the speed is positive.

If we are careful to use very small displacement steps, so that they come pretty close to approximating the
true distance travelled, then we can write the definition for INSTANTANEOUS velocity as

[δ is the lower-case delta.] Or with the idea of limits from calculus, we have ...

[d, like ∆ and δ, is merely a prefix; however, its use definitely specifies that this is a sufficiently small
difference so that the error--due to stepping (instead of smoothly changing) the quantity--becomes
negligible.]

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Acceleration answers the question "Is the object's velocity changing, and if so - how quickly?"

Once again we have an operational definition. We are told what steps to follow to calculate acceleration.

Again, also note that technically we have a definition for AVERAGE acceleration. As for displacement, if
we are careful to use a series of small velocity changes, then we can write the definition for
INSTANTANEOUS acceleration as

Or with the help of calculus, we have ...

Notice that the definitions given above for displacement, velocity, and acceleration included little arrows
over many of the terms. The little arrow reminds us that direction is an important part of displacement,
velocity, and acceleration. These quantities are VECTORS. By convention, the little arrow always points
right when placed over a letter. So for example, just reminds us that velocity is a vector, and does NOT
imply that this particular velocity is rightward. Why do we need vectors? As a simple example, consider
velocity. It is not enough to know how fast one is moving. We also need to know which direction we are
moving. Less trivially, consider how many different ways an object could be experiencing an acceleration (a
change in its velocity). Ultimately there are three distinct ways an object could accelerate.

1. The object could be speeding up.

2. The object could be slowing down.
3. The object could be traveling at constant speed, while changing its direction of motion.

(More general accelerations are simply combinations of 1 and 3 or 2 and 3).

Importantly, a change in the direction of motion is just as much an acceleration as is speeding up or slowing
down. In classical mechanics, no direction is associated with time (you cannot point to next Tuesday). So the
definition of tells us that acceleration will point wherever the CHANGE in velocity points.
Understanding that the direction of determines the direction of leads to three non-mathematical but
very powerful rules of thumb.

1. If the velocity and acceleration of an object point in the same direction, the object's speed is
increasing.
2. If the velocity and acceleration of an object point in opposite directions, the object's speed is
decreasing.

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3. If the velocity and acceleration of an object are perpendicular to each other, the object's initial speed
stays constant (in that initial direction), while the speed of the object in the direction of the
acceleration increases--think of a bullet fired horizontally in a vertical gravitational field. Since
velocity in the one direction remains constant, and the velocity in the other direction increases, the
overall velocity (absolute velocity) also increases.

(Again, more general motion is simply a combination of 1 and 3 or 2 and 3.)

Using these three simple rules will dramatically help your intuition of what is happening in a particular
problem. In fact, much of the first semester of college physics is simply the application of these three rules in
different formats.

A particle is said to move with constant acceleration if its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal
intervals of time, no matter how small the intervals may be.

Since acceleration is a vector, constant acceleration means that both direction and magnitude of this vector
don't change during the motion. This means that average and instantaneous acceleration are equal. We can
use that to derive an equation for velocity as a function of time by integrating the constant acceleration.

Giving the following equation for velocity as a function of time.

To derive the equation for position we simply integrate the equation for velocity.

Integrating again gives the equation for position.

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The following are the 'Equations of Motion'. They are simple and obvious equations if you think over them
for a while.

Equations of Motion
Equation Description

Position as a function of time

Velocity as a function of time

The following equations can be derived from the two equations above by combining them and
eliminating variables.
Eliminating time (Very useful, see the section on Energy)

Eliminating acceleration

Key to Symbols
Symbol Description
velocity at time t
initial velocity
acceleration (constant)
time taken during the motion
position at time t
initial position

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(Needs content)

(Needs content)

A net force on a body causes a body to accelerate. The amount of that acceleration depends on the body's
inertia (or its tendency to resist changes in motion), which is measured as its mass. When Isaac Newton
formulated Newtonian mechanics, he discovered three fundamental laws of motion.

Later, Albert Einstein proved that these laws are just a convenient approximation. These laws, however,
greatly simplify calculations and are used when studying objects at velocities that are small compared with
the speed of light.

It is the force that opposes relative motion or tendency of relative motion between two surfaces in
contact represented by f. When two surfaces move relative to each other or they have a tendency to move
relative to each other, at the point (or surface) of contact, there appears a force which opposes this relative
motion or tendency of relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It acts on both the surfaces in
contact with equal magnitude and opposite directions (Newton's 3rd law). Friction force tries to stop relative
motion between two surfaces in contact, if it is there, and when two surfaces in contact are at rest relative to
each other, the friction force tries to maintain this relative rest. Friction force can assume the magnitude
(below a certain maximum magnitude called limiting static friction) required to maintain relative rest
between two surfaces in contact. Because of this friction force is called a self adjusting force.

Earlier, it was believed that friction was caused due to the roughness of the two surfaces in contact with each
other. However, modern theory stipulates that the cause of friction is the Coulombic force between the
atoms present in the surface of the regions in contact with each other.

Formula: Limiting Friction = (Friction Coefficient)(Normal reaction)

Static Friction = the friction force that keeps an object at relative rest.

Kinetic Friction = sliding friction

(The Law of Inertia)

A static object with no net force acting on it remains at rest or if in movement it will maintain a
constant velocity

This means, essentially, that acceleration does not occur without the presence of a force. The object tends to
maintain its state of motion. If it is at rest, it remains at rest and if it is moving with a velocity then it keeps
moving with the same velocity. This tendency of the object to maintain its state of motion is greater for larger

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mass. The "mass" is, therefore, a measure of the inertia of the object.

In a state of equilibrium, where the object is at rest or proceeding at a constant velocity, the net force in
every direction must be equal to 0.

At a constant velocity (including zero velocity), the sum of forces is 0. If the sum of forces does not equal
zero, the object will accelerate (change velocity over time).

It is important to note, that this law is applicable only in non-accelerated coordinate systems. It is so,
because the perception of force in accelerated systems are different. A body under balanced force system in
one frame of reference, for example a person standing in an accelerating lift, is acted upon by a net force in
the earth's frame of reference.

Inertia is the tendency of an object to maintain its velocity i.e. to resist acceleration.

Inertia is not a force.

Inertia varies directly with mass.

The time rate of change in momentum is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction of the force.

'The acceleration of an object is proportional to the force acting upon it.

These two statements mean the same thing, and is represented in the following basic form (the system of
measurement is chosen such that constant of proportionality is 1) :

The product of mass and velocity i.e. mv is called the momentum. The net force on a particle is ,thus, equal
to rate change of momentum of the particle with time. Generally mass of the object under consideration is
constant and thus can be taken out of the derivative.

Force is equal to mass times acceleration. This version of Newton's Second Law of Motion assumes that
the mass of the body does not change with time, and as such, does not represent a general mathematical
form of the Law. Consequently, this equation cannot, for example, be applied to the motion of a rocket,
which loses its mass (the lost mass is ejected at the rear of the rocket) with the passage of time.

An example: If we want to find out the downward force of gravity on an object on Earth, we can use the
following formula:

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Hence, if we replace m with whatever mass is appropriate, and multiply it by 9.806 65 m/s2, it will give the
force in newtons that the earth's gravity has on the object in question(in other words, the body's weight).

Forces occur in pairs equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

This means that for every force applied on a body A by a body B, body B receives an equal force in the
exact opposite direction. This is because forces can only be applied by a body on another body. It is
important to note here that the pair of forces act on two different bodies, affecting their state of motion. This
is to emphasize that pair of equal forces do not cancel out.

There are no spontaneous forces.

It is very important to note that the forces in a "Newton 3 pair", described above, can never act on the same
body. One acts on A, the other on B. A common error is to imagine that the force of gravity on a stationary
object and the "contact force" upwards of the table supporting the object are equal by Newton's third law.
This is not true. They may be equal - but because of the second law (their sum must be zero because the
object is not accelerating), not because of the third.

The "Newton 3 pair" of the force of gravity (= earth's pull) on the object is the force of the object attracting

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the earth, pulling it upwards. The "Newton 3 pair" of the table pushing it up is that it, in its turn, pushes the
table down.

To find Displacement (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_%28vector%29)

To find Final Velocity (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity)

To find Final Velocity (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity)

To find Force when mass is changing

To find Force when mass is a constant

Variables

Force (N)
Mass (kg)
Acceleration (m/s2)
Momentum (kg m/s)
time (s)
Tension (N)
Acceleration due to gravity near the earth's surface (
see Physics Constants)

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Definitions

Force (F): Force is equal to rate change of momentum with time.

(Newton’s second law). A vector. Units: newtons (N)
The newton (N): defined as the force it takes to accelerate one
kilogram one metre per second squared (U.S. meter per second
squared), that is, the push it takes to speed up one kilogram from
rest to a velocity of 1 m/s in 1 second
Mass (m) : Also called inertia. The tendency of an object to resist
change in its motion, and its response to a gravitational field. A
scalar. Units: kilograms (kg)
Acceleration (a): Change in velocity (∆v) divided by time (t). A
vector. Units: meters per second squared (U.S. meters per seconds
squared) (m/s2)
Momentum (p): Mass times velocity. Expresses the motion of a
body and its resistance to changing that motion. A vector. Units: kg
m/s

Momentum is equal to mass times velocity.

Angular momentum of an object revolving around an external axis O is equal to the cross-product of the
position vector with respect to O and its linear momentum.

Angular momentum of a rotating object is equal to the moment of inertia times angular velocity.

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is equal to the change in linear momentum over the change in time.

Net torque is equal to the change in angular momentum over the change in time.

Let us prove this law.

We'll take two particles, say, a and b. Their momentums are and .They are moving opposite to each
other along the x-axis and they collide. Now force is given by:

According to Newton's third law,the forces on each particle are equal and opposite.So,

Rearranging,

This means that the sum of the momentums does not change with time. Therefore, the law is proved.

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p: momentum, (kg·m/s)
m: mass, (kg)
v: velocity (m/s)
L: angular momentum, (kg·m2/s)
I: moment of inertia, (kg·m2)
ω: angular velocity (rad/s)
α: angular acceleration (rad/s2)
F: force (N)
t: time (s)
r: position vector (m)

Bold denotes a vector quantity.

Italics denotes a scalar quantity.

Momentum (p): Mass times velocity. (kg·m/s)

Mass (m) : A quantity that describes how much material exists, or how the material responds in a
gravitational field. Mass is a measure of inertia. (kg)

Velocity (v): Displacement divided by time (m/s)

Angular
Force momentum
is equal (L): A of
to the derivative vector quantity
linear that represents
momentum the tendency
with respect to time. of an object in circular or
2
rotational motion to remain in this motion. (kg·m /s)

Moment of inertia (I): A scalar property of a rotating object. This quantity depends on the mass of the
object and how it is distributed. The equation that defines this is different for differently shaped
objects. (kg·m2)

Angular speed (ω): A scalar measure of the rotation of an object. Instantaneous velocity divided by
radius of motion (rad/s)
Torque is equal to the derivative of angular momentum with respect to time.
Angular velocity (ω): A vector measure of the rotation of an object. Instantaneous velocity divided
by radius of motion, in the direction of the axis of rotation. (rad/s)

Force (F): mass times acceleration, a vector. Units: newtons (N)

Why is it that we stay steady in our chairs when we sit down? According to the first law of motion, if an
object is translationally in equilibrium (velocity is constant), the sum of all the forces acting on the object
Time (t) : (s)
must be equal to zero. For a person sitting on a chair, it can thus be postulated that a normal force is present
balancing the gravitational force that pulls the sitting person down. However, it should be noted that only
Isolated system: A system in which there are no external forces acting on the system.
some of the normal force can cancel the other forces to zero like in the case of a sitting person. In Physics,
the term normal as a modifier of the force implies that this force is acting perpendicular to the surface at the
Position vector (r): a vector from a specific origin with a magnitude of the distance from the origin to
point of contact of the two objects in question. Imagine a person leaning on a vertical wall. Since the person
the position being measured in the direction of that position. (m)
does not stumble or fall, he/she must be in equilibrium. Thus, the component of his/her weight along the

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horizontal is balanced or countered (opposite direction) by an equal amount of force -- this force is the
normal force on the wall. So, on a slope, the normal force would not point upwards as on a horizontal
surface but rather perpendicular to the slope surface.

The normal force can be provided by any one of the four fundamental forces, but is typically provided by
electromagnetism since microscopically, it is the repulsion of electrons that enables interaction between
surfaces of matter. There is no easy way to calculate the normal force, other than by assuming first that there
is a normal force acting on a body in contact with a surface (direction perpendicular to the surface). If the
object is not accelerating (for the case of uniform circular motion, the object is accelerating) then somehow,
the magnitude of the normal force can be solved. In most cases, the magnitude of the normal force can be
solved together with other unknowns in a given problem.

Sometimes, the problem does not warrant the knowledge of the normal force(s). It is in this regard that other
formalisms (e.g. Lagrange method of undertermined coefficients) can be used to eventually solve the
physical problem.

When there is relative motion between two surfaces, there is a resistance to the motion. This force is called
friction. Friction is the reason why people could not accept Newton's first law of Motion, that an object tends
to keep its state of motion. Friction acts opposite to the direction of the original force. The frictional force is
equal to the frictional coefficient times the normal force.

Friction is caused due to attractive forces between the molecules near the surfaces of the objects. If two steel
plates are made really flat and polished and cleaned and made to touch in a vacuum, it bonds together. It
would look as if the steel was just one piece. The bonds are formed as in a normal steel piece. This is called
cold welding. And this is the main cause of friction.

The above equation is an empirical one--in general, the frictional coefficient is not constant. However, for a
large variety of contact surfaces, there is a well characterized value. This kind of friction is called Coulomb
friction. There is a separate coefficient for both static and kinetic friction. This is because once an object is
pushed on, it will suddenly jerk once you apply enough force and it begins to move.

Also, the frictional coefficient varies greatly depending on what two substances are in contact, and the
temperature and smoothness of the two substances. For example, the frictional coefficients of glass on glass
are very high. When you have similar materials, in most cases you don't have Coulomb friction.

For static friction, the force of friction actually increases proportionally to the force applied, keeping the
body immobile. Once, however, the force exceeds the maximum frictional force, the body will begin to
move. The maximum frictional force is calculated as follows:

The static frictional force is less than or equal to the coefficient of static friction times the normal force.
Once the frictional force equals the coefficient of static friction times the normal force, the object will break
away and begin to move.

Once it is moving, the frictional force then obeys:

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The kinetic frictional force is equal to the coefficient of kinetic friction times the normal force. As stated
before, this always opposes the direction of motion.

Symbol Units Definition

Force of friction
none Coefficient of friction

Normal force (N): The force on an object perpendicular to the surface it rests on utilized in order to
account for the body's lack of movement. Units: newtons (N)

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Force of friction (Ff): The force placed on a moving object opposite its direction of motion due to the
inherent roughness of all surfaces. Units: newtons (N)

Coefficient of friction (µ): The coefficient that determines the amount of friction. This varies
tremendously based on the surfaces in contact. There are no units for the coefficient of either static or
kinetic friction

It's important to note, that in real life we often have to deal with viscose and turbulent friction - they appear
when you move the body through the matter.

Viscose friction is proportional to velocity and takes place at approximately low speeds. Turbulent friction is
proportional to V2 and takes place at higher velocities.

Work is equal to the scalar product of force and displacement.

The scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of their lengths with the cosine of the angle
between them. Work is equal to force times displacement times the cosine of the angle between the
directions of force and displacement.

Work is equal to change in kinetic energy plus change in potential energy for example the potential energy
due to gravity.

Work is equal to average power times time.

The Work done by a force taking something from point 1 to point 2 is

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Work is in fact just a transfer of energy. When we 'do work' on an object, we transfer some of our energy to
it. This means that the work done on an object is its increase in energy. Actually, the kinetic energy and
potential energy is measured by calculating the amount of work done on an object. The gravitational
potential energy (there are many types of potential energies) is measure as 'mgh'. mg is the weight/force. And
h is the distance. The product is nothing but the work done. Even kinetic energy is a simple deduction from
the laws of linear motion. Try substituing for v^2 in the formula for kinetic energy.

W: Work (J)
F: Force (N)
d: Displacement (m)

Work (W): Force times distance. Units: joules (J)

Force (F): mass times acceleration (Newton’s classic definition). A vector. Units: newtons (N)

When work is applied to an object or a system it adds or removes kinetic energy to or from that object or
system. More precisely, a net force in one direction, when applied to an object moving opposite or in the
same direction as the force, kinetic energy will be added or removed to or from that object. Note that work
and energy are measured in the same unit, the joule (J).

Advanced work topics

Energy

Kinetic energy is simply the capacity to do work by virtue of motion.

(Translational) kinetic energy is equal to one-half of mass times the square of velocity.

(Rotational) kinetic energy is equal to one-half of moment of inertia times the square of angular velocity.

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Total kinetic energy is simply the sum of the translational and rotational kinetic energies. In most cases,
these energies are separately dealt with. It is easy to remember the rotational kinetic energy if you think of
the moment of inertia I as the rotational mass. However, you should note that this substitution is not
universal but rather a rule of thumb.

Potential energy is simply the capacity to do work by virtue of position (or arrangement) relative to some
zero-energy reference position (or arrangement).

Potential energy due to gravity is equal to the product of mass, acceleration due to gravity, and height
(elevation) of the object.

Note that this is simply the vertical displacement multiplied by the weight of the object. The reference
position is usually the level ground but the initial position like the rooftop or treetop can also be used.
Potential energy due to spring deformation is equal to one-half the product of the spring constant times the
square of the change in length of the spring.

The reference point of spring deformation is normally when the spring is "relaxed," i.e. the net force exerted
by the spring is zero. It will be easy to remember that the one-half factor is inserted to compensate for finite
'"change in length" since one would want to think of the product of force and change in length
directly. Since the force actually varies with , it is instructive to need a "correction
factor" during integration.

Definition of terms

Energy: a theoretically indefinable quantity that describes potential to do work. SI unit for energy is
the joule (J). Also common is the calorie (cal).

The joule: defined as the energy needed to push with the force of one newton over the distance of one
meter. Equivalent to one newton-meter (N·m) or one watt-second (W·s).

1 joule = 1 J = 1 newton • 1 meter = 1 watt • 1 second

Energy comes in many varieties, including Kinetic energy, Potential energy, and Heat energy.

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Kinetic energy (K): The energy that an object has due to its motion. Half of velocity squared times
mass. Units: joules (J)

Potential energy due to gravity (UG ): The energy that an object has stored in it by elevation from a
mass, such as raised above the surface of the earth. This energy is released when the object becomes
free to move. Mass times height time acceleration due to gravity. Units: joules (J)

Potential energy due to spring compression (UE): Energy stored in spring when it is compressed.
Units: joules (J)

Heat energy (Q): Units: joules (J)

Spring compression (Dx): The difference in length between the spring at rest and the spring when
stretched or compressed. Units: meters (m)

Spring constant (k): a constant specific to each spring, which describes its “springiness”, or how
much work is needed to compress the spring. Units: newtons per meter (N/m)

Change in spring length (∆x): The distance between the at-rest length of the spring minus the
compressed or extended length of the spring. Units: meters (m)

Moment of inertia (I): Describes mass and its distribution. (kg•m2)

Angular momentum (ω): Angular velocity times mass (inertia). (rad/s)

Section Two

Uniform Circular Motion

Speed and frequency

Uniform circular motion assumes that an object is moving (1) in

circular motion, and (2) at constant speed v; then

where r is the radius of the circular path, and T is the time period for
one revolution.

Any object travelling on a circle will return to its original starting

point in the period of one revolution, T. At this point the object has
travelled a distance 2πr. If T is the time that it takes to travel distance
2πr then the object's speed is
A two dimensional polar
co-ordinate system

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where

Angular frequency

Uniform circular motion can be explicitly described in terms of polar coordinates through angular frequency,
ω:

where θ is the angular coordinate of the object (see the diagram on the right-hand side for reference).

Since the speed in uniform circular motion is constant, it follows that

From that fact, a number of useful relations follow:

The equations that relate how θ changes with time are analogous to those of linear motion at constant speed.
In particular,

The angle at t = 0, θ0, is commonly referred to as phase.

Velocity, centripetal acceleration and force

The position of an object in a plane can be converted from polar to cartesian coordinates through the
equations

Expressing θ as a function of time gives equations for the cartesian coordinates as a function of time in
uniform circular motion:

Differentiation with respect to time gives the components of the velocity vector:

Velocity in circular motion is a vector tangential to the trajectory of the object. Furthermore, even though the
speed is constant the velocity vector changes direction over time. Further differentiation leads to the
components of the acceleration (which are just the rate of change of the velocity components):

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The acceleration vector is perpendicular to the velocity and oriented towards the centre of the circular
trajectory. For that reason, acceleration in circular motion is referred to as centripetal acceleration.

The absolute value of centripetal acceleration may be readily obtained by

For centripetal acceleration, and therefore circular motion, to be maintained a centripetal force must act on
the object. From Newton's Second Law it follows directly that the force will be given by

the components being

and the absolute value

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Circular motion is the motion of a particle at a set distance (called radius) from a point. For circular motion,
there needs to be a force that makes the particle turn. This force is called the 'centripetal force.' Please note
that the centripetal force is not a new type of force-it is just a force causing rotational motion. To make this
clearer, let us study the following examples:

1. If Stone ties a piece of thread to a small pebble and rotates it in a horizontal circle above his head, the
circular motion of the pebble is caused by the tension force in the thread.
2. In the case of the motion of the planets around the sun (which is roughly circular), the force is
provided by the gravitational force exerted by the sun on the planets.

Thus, we see that the centripetal force acting on a body is always provided by some other type of force --
centripetal force, thus, is simply a name to indicate the force that provides this circular motion. This
centripetal force is always acting inward toward the center. You will know this if you swing an object in a
circular motion. If you notice carefully, you will see that you have to continuously pull inward. We know
that an opposite force should exist for this centripetal force(by Newton's 3rd Law of Motion). This is the
centrifugal force, which exists only if we study the body from a non-inertial frame of reference(an
accelerating frame of reference,such as in circular motion). This is a so-called 'pseudo-force', which is used
to make the Newton's law applicable to the person who is inside a non-inertial frame. e.g. If driver suddenly
turns car left side, u fall just right side,is centrifugalforce The centrifugal force is equal and opposite to the
centripetal force. It is caused due to inertia of a body.

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Average angular velocity is equal to one-half of the sum of initial and final angular velocities assuming
constant acceleration, and is also equal to the angle gone through divided by the time taken.

Angular acceleration is equal to change in angular velocity divided by time taken.

Angular momentum

Angular momentum of an object revolving around an external axis O is equal to the cross-product of the
position vector with respect to O and its linear momentum.

Angular momentum of a rotating object is equal to the moment of inertia times angular velocity.

L = Iω

Torque is equal to moment of inertia times angular acceleration, which is also equal to the change in
angular momentum divided by time taken.

Rotational Kinetic Energy is equal to one-half of the product of moment of inertia and the angular
velocity squared.

IT IS USEFUL TO NOTE THAT

The equations for rotational motion are analogous to those for linear motion-just look at those listed above.
When studying rotational dynamics, remember:

the place of force is taken by torque

the place of mass is taken by moment of inertia

the place of displacement is taken by angle

the place of linear velocity, momentum, acceleration, etc. is taken by their angular counterparts.

Variables

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τ: torque, (N·m)
I: moment of inertia, (kg·m2)
α: angular acceleration, (rad/s2)
L: angular momentum, (kg·m2/s)
t: time (s)
Kr: rotational kinetic energy, (J = kg·m2/s2)
ω: angular velocity, (rad/s)

Definition of terms

Torque (τ): Force times distance. A vector. (N·m)

Moment of inertia (I): Describes the object's resistance to torque - the rotational analog to inertial
mass. (kg·m2)

Angular momentum (L): (kg·m2/s)

Angular velocity (ω): (rad/s)

Angular acceleration (α): (rad/s2)

Time (t): (s)

Buoyancy is the force due to pressure differences on the top and bottom of an object under a fluid (gas or
liquid).

Net force = buoyant force - force due to gravity on the object

Fluid flow is a complex phenomenon. An ideal fluid may be described as:

The fluid flow is steady i.e its velocity at each point is constant with time.
The fluid is incompressible. This condition applies well to liquids and in certain circumstances to
gases.
The fluid flow is non-viscous. Internal friction is neglected. An object moving through this fluid does
not experience a retarding force. We relax this condition in the discussion of Stokes' Law.
The fluid flow is irrotational. There is no angular momentum of the fluid about any point. A very
small wheel placed at an arbitary point in the fluid does not rotate about its center. Note that if
turbulence is present, the wheel would most likely rotate and its flow is then not irrotational.

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As the fluid moves through a pipe of varying cross-section and elevation, the pressure will change along the
pipe. The Swiss physicist Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) first derived an expression relating the pressure to
fluid speed and height. This result is a consequence of conservation of energy and applies to ideal fluids as
described above.

Consider an ideal fluid flowing in a pipe of varying cross-section. A fluid in a section of length ∆x1 moves
to the section of length ∆x2 in time ∆t. The relation given by Bernoulli is:

[where: P is pressure at cross-section, K is a constant, h is height of cross-section, ρ is density, and v is

velocity of fluid at cross-section.]

In words, the Bernoulli relation may be stated as: As we move along a streamline the sum of the pressure
{P), the kinetic energy per unit volume and the potential energy per unit volume remains a constant.

(To be concluded)

A field is one of the more difficult concepts to grasp in physics. Simply put, a field is a collection of vectors
often representing the force an object would feel if it were placed at any particular point in space. With
gravity, the field is measured in newtons, as it depends solely on the mass of an object, but with electricity, it
is measured in newtons per coulomb, as the force on an electrical charge depends on the amount of that
charge. Typically these fields are calculated based on canceling out the effect of a body in the point in space
that the field is desired. As a result, a field is a vector, and as such, it can (and should) be added when
calculating the field created by TWO objects at one point in space.

Fields are typically illustrated through the use of what are called field lines or lines of force. Given a source
that exerts a force on points around it, sample lines are drawn representing the direction of the field at points
in space around the force-exerting source.

There are three major categories of fields:

1. Uniform fields are fields that have the same value at any point in space. As a result, the lines of force
are parallel.
2. Spherical fields are fields that have an origin at a particular point in space and vary at varying
distances from that point.
3. Complex fields are fields that are difficult to work with mathematically (except under simple cases,
such as fields created by two point object), but field lines can still typically be drawn. Dipoles are a
specific kind of complex field.

Magnetism also has a field, measured in Tesla, and it also has field lines, but its use is more complicated than
simple "force" fields. Secondly, it also only appears in a two-pole form, and as such, is difficult to calculate

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easily.

The particles that form these magnetic fields and lines of force are called electrons and not magnetons. A
magneton is a quantity in magnetism.

Field: A collection of vectors that often represents the force that an object would feel if it were placed
in any point in space.

Field Lines: A method of diagramming fields by drawing several sample lines showing direction of the
field through several points in space.

Newtonian Gravity (simplified gravitation) is an apparent force (a.k.a. pseudoforce) that simulates the
attraction of one mass to another mass. Unlike the three fundamental (real) forces of electromagnetism and
the strong and weak nuclear forces, gravity is purely attractive. As a force it is measured in newtons. The
distance between two objects is measured between their centers of mass.

Gravitational force is equal to the product of the universal gravitational constant and the masses of the
two objects, divided by the square of the distance between their centers of mass.

The value of the gravitational field which is equivalent to the acceleration due to gravity caused by an
object at a point in space is equal to the first equation about gravitational force, with the effect of the second
mass taken out.

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Gravitational potential energy of a body to infinity is equal to the universal gravitational constant times
the mass of a body from which the gravitational field is being created times the mass of the body whose
potential energy is being measured over the distance between the two centers of mass. Therefore, the
difference in potential energy between two points is the difference of the potential energy from the position
of the center of mass to infinity at both points. Near the earth's surface, this approximates:

Potential energy due to gravity near the earth's surface is equal to the product of mass, acceleration due
to gravity, and height (elevation) of the object.

If the potential energy from the body's center of mass to infinity is known, however, it is possible to
calculate the escape velocity, or the velocity necessary to escape the gravitational field of an object. This
can be derived based on utilizing the law of conservation of energy and the equation to calculate kinetic
energy as follows:

F: force (N)
G: universal constant of gravitation, (6.67x10-11 N•m2/kg2)
m1: mass of the first body
m2: mass of the second body
r: the distance between the point at which the force or field is being taken,
and the center of mass of the first body
g: acceleration due to gravity (on the earth’s surface, this is 9.8 m/s2)

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U: potential energy from the location of the center of mass to infinity (J)
∆Ug: Change in potential energy (J)
m and M: mass (kg)
h: height of elevation (m)
vesc: escape velocity (m/s)

Universal constant of gravitation (G): This is a constant that is the same

everywhere in the known universe and can be used to calculate
gravitational attraction and acceleration due to gravity.
6.67x10-11 N·m2/kg2

Mass one (m1): One of two masses that are experiencing a mutual
gravitational attraction. We can use this for the mass of the Earth (1023 kg).

Mass two (m2): One of two masses that are experiencing a mutual
gravitational attraction. This symbol can represent the mass of an object on
or close to earth.
Units: kilograms (kg)

Acceleration due to gravity (g): This is nearly constant near the earth's
surface because the mass and radius of the earth are essentially constant.
At extreme altitudes the value can vary slightly, but it varies more
significantly with latitude. This is also equal to the value of the gravitational
field caused by a body at a particular point in space
(9.8 m/s2)

Escape velocity (vesc): The velocity necessary to completely escape the

gravitational effects of a body.

Wave is defined as the movement of any periodic motion like Spring, Pendulum, water wave , Electric wave,
Sound wave, Light wave

Any Periodic Wave that has Amplitude varied with time, Phase sinusoidally can be expressed
mathematically as

R(t , θ) = R Sin (ωt + θ)

Minimum or Trough at angle 0, π, 2π, ...

F(R,t,θ) = 0 tại θ = nπ

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Maximum Point or Peak or Crest

at π/2, 3π/2, ...

F(R,t,θ) = R tại θ = (2n+1)π/2

Wave Length, distance between

two crests, λ = 2π .

λ = 2π Một Vòng tròn hay Một

Sóng
2λ = 2(2π) hai vòng tròn hay hai
sóng
kλ = k2π k vòng tròn hay k sóng

Wave Number,

Velocity or Angular Velocity,

A wave with constant amplitude.
ω = 2πf

Time Frequency,

f=1/t

Time

t=1/f

Wave speed is equal to the frequency times the wavelength. It can be understood as how frequently a
certain distance (the wavelength in this case) is traversed.

Frequency is equal to speed divided by wavelength.

Period is equal to the inverse of frequency.

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λ: wavelength (m)
v: wave speed (m/s)
f: frequency (1/s), (Hz)
T: period (s)

Wavelength (λ): The length of one wave, or the distance from a point on one wave to the same point
on the next wave. Units: meters (m). In light, λ tells us the color.

Wave speed (v): the speed at which the wave pattern moves across the surface. Units: meters per
second, (m/s)

Frequency of oscillation (f) (or just frequency): the number of times the wave pattern repeats itself in
one second. Units: seconds-1 = (1/s) = hertz (Hz) In sound, f tells us the pitch. The inverse of frequecy
is the period of oscillation.

Period of oscillation (T) (or just period): duration of time between one wave and the next one passing
the same spot. Units: seconds (s). The inverse of the period is frequency. Use a capital, italic T and not
a lowercase one, which is used for time.

Amplitude (A): the maximum height of the wave measured from the average height of the wave (the
wave’s center). Unit: meters (m)

Image here

The wave’s extremes, its peaks and valleys, are called antinodes. At the middle of the wave are points that
do not move, called nodes.

Examples of waves: Water waves, sound waves, light waves, seismic waves, shock waves, ultrasonic waves
…

A wave is said to oscillate, which means to move back and forth in a regular, repeating way. This fluctuation
can be between extremes of position, force, or quantity.

Different types of waves have different types of oscillations.

Longitudinal waves: Oscillation is parallel to the direction of the wave. Examples: sound waves, waves in a
spring.

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Transverse waves: Oscillation is perpendicular to direction of the wave. Example: light

When waves overlap each other it is called interference. This is divided into constructive and destructive
interference.

Constructive interference: the waves line up perfectly and add to each others’ strength.

Destructive interference: the two waves cancel each other out, resulting in no wave.

In real life, waves usually give a mishmash of constructive and destructive interference and quickly die out.
However, at certain wavelengths standing waves form, resulting in resonance. These are waves that bounce
back into themselves in a strengthening way, reaching maximum amplitude.

Resonance is a special case of forced vibration when the frequency of the impressed periodic force is
equal to the natural frequency of the body so that it vibrates with increased amplitude, spontaneously.

For resonance in a taut string, the first harmonic is determined for a wave form with either one antinode
and two nodes. That is, the two ends of the string are nodes because they do not vibrate while the middle of
the string is an antinode because it experiences the greatest change in amplitude. This means that one half of
a full wavelength is represented by the length of the resonating structure.

The frequency of the first harmonic is equal to wave speed divided by twice the length of the string.
(Recall that wave speed is equal to wavelength times frequency.)

F1 = v/2L

The wavelength of the first harmonic is equal to double the length of the string.

λ1 = 2L

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The "nth" wavelength is equal to the fundamental wavelength divided by n.

λn = λ1/n

Harmonics for a taut string*

Harmonic number Overtone number F= λ=

F1 First harmonic --- F1 = v/2L λ1 = 2L
F2 Second harmonic First overtone F2 = 2F1 λ2 =λ1/2
F3 Third harmonic Second overtone F3 = 3F1 λ3 = λ1/3
Fn Nth harmonic (Nth - 1) overtone Fn = nF1 λn = λ1/n

* or any wave system with two identical ends, such as a pipe with two open or closed ends. In the case of a pipe with two open
ends, there are two antinodes at the ends of the pipe and a single node in the middle of the pipe, but the mathematics work out
identically.

Frequency (F): Units: (1/s), hertz (Hz)

Fundamental frequency, first harmonic (F)1: The lowest frequency (longest wavelength) allowed
for the system.

Length of string (L): (or pipe, etc.) Units: meters (m).

Wavelength (λ): Units: meters (m).

The first overtone is the first allowed harmonic above the fundamental frequency (F1).

In the case of a system with two different ends (as in the case of a tube open at one end), the closed end is a
node and the open end is an antinode. The first resonant frequency has only a quarter of a wave in the tube.
This means that the first harmonic is characterized by a wavelength four times the length of the tube.

F1 = v/4L

The wavelength of the first harmonic is equal to four times thelength of the string.

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λ1 = 4L

The "nth" wavelength is equal to the fundamental wavelength divided by n.

λn = λ1/n

Note that "n" must be odd in this case as only odd harmonics will resonate in this situation.

Harmonics for a system with two different ends*

Harmonic number Overtone number F = λ=

F1 First harmonic --- F1 = v/4L λ1 = 4L
F2 Third harmonic First overtone F2 = 3F1 λ2 =2λ1/3
F3 Fifth harmonic Second overtone F3 = 5F1 λ3 = 2λ1/5
Fn Nth harmonic† (Nth - 1)/2 overtone F(n-1)/2 = nF1 λn = 2λ1/n

* such as a pipe with one end open and one end closed
†In this case only the odd harmonics resonate, so n is an odd integer.

Vs: velocity of sound

dependant on qualities of the medium transmitting the sound, (the air) such as its density, temperature,
and “springiness.” A complicated equation, we concentrate only on temperature.
increases as temperature increases (molecules move faster.)
is higher for liquids and solids than for gasses (molecules are closer together.)
for “room air” is 340 meters per second (m/s).
Speed of sound is 343 meters per second at 20 degrees C. Based on the material sound is passing
through and the temperature, the speed of sound changes.

Wave speed is equal to the square root of tension divided by the linear density of the string.

µ = m/L

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Linear density of the string is equal to the mass divided by the length of the string.

λmax = 2L

The fundamental wavelength is equal to two times the length of the string.

λ: wavelength (m)
λmax: fundamental wavelength (m)
µ: linear density (g/m)
v: wave speed (m/s)
F: force (N)
m: mass (g)
L: length of the string (m)
l: meters (m)

Tension (F): (not frequency) in the string (t is used for time in these equations). Units: newtons (N)

Linear density (µ): of the string, Greek mu. Units: grams per meter (g/m)

Velocity (v) of the wave (m/s)

Mass (m): Units: grams (g). (We would use kilograms but they are too big for most strings).

Length of the string (L): Units: meters (m)

Fundamental frequency: the frequency when the wavelength is the longest allowed, this gives us the lowest
sound that we can get from the system.

In a string, the length of the string is half of the largest wavelength that can create a standing wave, called its
fundamental wavelength.

When two glasses collide we hear a Sound, when we pluck guitar string we hear a Sound

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Different Sound generated from different sources . Generally speaking when two objects collides will result
in a Sound

Sound does not exist in Vacuum . Sound needs medium's materials to travel .

Velocity of Sound wave depends on Temperature and the Pressure of the Medium . Sound travels at different
speed in air, through water

The amplitude is the magnitude of sound

pressure change within a sound wave.
Sound amplitude can be measured in
pascals (Pa), though its more common to
refer to the sound (pressure) level as
Sound intensity(dB,dBSPL,dB(SPL)),
and the percieved sound level as
Loudness(dBA, dB(A)). Sound intensity
is flow of sound energy per unit time
through a fixed area. It has units of watts
per square meter. The reference Intensity
is defined as the minimum Intensity that
is audible to the human ear, it is equal to
10-12 W/m2, or one picowatt per square
meter. When the intensity is quoted in
Fig. 1: The Fletcher-Munson equal-loudness contours. Phons are
decibels this reference value is used.
Loudness is sound intensity altered labelled in blue.
according to the frequency response of
the human ear and is measured in a unit called the A-weighted decibel (dB(A), also used to be called phon).

The decibel is not, as is commonly believed, the unit of sound. Sound is measured in terms of pressure.
However, the decibel is used to express the pressure as very large variations of pressure are commonly
encountered. The decibel is a dimensionless quantity and is used to express the ratio of one power quantity
to another. The definition of the decibel is , where x is a squared quantity, ie pressure

squared, volts squared etc. The decibel is useful to define relative changes. For instance, the required sound
decrease for new cars might be 3 dB, this means, compared to the old car the new car must be 3 dB quieter.
The absolute level of the car, in this case, does not matter.

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I0 = 10 − 12 W / m2

Intensity (I): the amount of energy transferred through 1 m2 each second. Units: watts per square
meter

Lowest audible sound: I = 0 dB = 10-12 W/m2 (A sound with dB < 0 is inaudible to a human.)

Threshold of pain: I = 120 dB = 10 W/m2

Sample equation: Change in sound intensity

∆β = β2 - β1
= 10 log(I2/I0) - 10 log(I1/I0)
= 10 [log(I2/I0) - log(I1/I0)]
= 10 log[(I2/I0)/(I1/I0)]
= 10 log(I2/I1)
where log is the base-10 logarithm.

f' is the observed frequency, f is the actual frequency, v is the speed of sound (v = 336 + 0.6T), T is
temperature in degrees Celsius v0 is the speed of the observer, and vs is the speed of the source. If the
observer is approaching the source, use the top operator (the +) in the numerator, and if the source is
approaching the observer, use the top operator (the -) in the denominator. If the observer is moving away
from the source, use the bottom operator (the -) in the numerator, and if the source is moving away from the
observer, use the bottom operator (the +) in the denominator.

Example problems

A. An ambulance, which is emitting a 400 Hz siren, is moving at a speed of 30 m/s towards a stationary

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observer. The speed of sound in this case is 339 m/s.

B. An M551 Sheridan, moving at 10 m/s is following a Renault FT-17 which is moving in the same direction
at 5 m/s and emitting a 30 Hz tone. The speed of sound in this case is 342 m/s.

Thermodynamics deals with the movement of heat and its conversion to mechanical and electrical energy
among others.

First Law

The First Law is a statement of conservation of energy law:

∆U = Q - W

The First Law can be expressed as the change in internal energy of a system (∆U) equals the amount of
energy added to a system (Q), such as heat, minus the work expended by the system on its surroundings (W).

If Q is positive, the system has gained energy (by heating).

If W is positive, the system has lost energy from doing work on its surroundings.

As written the equations have a problem in that neither Q or W are state functions or quantities which can
be known by direct measurement without knowing the history of the system.

In a gas, the first law can be written in terms of state functions as

dU = Tds − pdV

Zero-th Law

After the first law of Thermodynamics had been named, physicists realised that there was another more
fundamental law, which they termed the 'zero-th'.

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This is that:

If two bodies are at the same temperature, there is no resultant heat flow
between them.

An alternate form of the 'zero-th' law can be described:

If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third, all are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

This second statement, in turn, gives rise to a definition of Temperature (T):

Temperature is the only thing that is the same between two otherwise
unlike bodies that are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Second Law

This law states that heat will never of itself flow from a cold object to a hot object.

where kB is the Boltzmann constant ( ) and Ω is the partition

function, i. e. the number of all possible states in the system.

This was the statistical definition of entropy, there is also a "macroscopic" definition:

where T is the temperature and dQ is the increment in energy of the system.

Third Law

The third law states that a temperature of absolute zero cannot be reached.

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There are several different scales used to measure temperature. Those you will most often come across in
physics are degrees Celsius and kelvins.

Celsius temperatures use the symbol Θ. The symbol for degrees Celsius is °C. Kelvin temperatures use the
symbol T. The symbol for kelvins is K.

The Celsius Scale

The Celsius scale is based on the melting and boiling points of water.

The temperature for freezing water is 0 °C. This is called the freezing point

The temperature of boiling water is 100 °C. This is called the steam point.

The Celsius scale is sometimes known as 'Centigrade', but the CGPM chose degrees Celsius from among the
three names then in use way back in 1948, and centesimal and centigrade should no longer be used. See
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centigrade) for more details.

The Kelvin Scale

The Kelvin scale is based on a more fundamental temperature than the melting point of ice. This is absolute
zero (equivalent to −273.15 °C), the lowest possible temperature anything could be cooled to—where the
kinetic energy of any system is at its minimum. The Kelvin scale was developed from an observation on how
the pressure and volume of a sample of gas changes with temperature- PV/T is a constant. If the temperature
( T)was reduced, then the pressure ( P) exerted by Volume (V) the Gas would also reduce, in direct
proportion. This is a simple experiment and can be carried out in most school labs. Gases were assumed to
exert no pressure at -273 degree Celsius. ( In fact all gases will have condensed into liquids or solids at a
somewhat higher temperature)

Although the Kelvin scale starts at a different point to Celsius, its units are of exactly the same size.

Therefore:

Temperature in kelvins (K) = Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) +

273.15

Energy is needed to break bonds when a substance changes state. This energy is sometimes called the latent
heat. Temperature remains constant during changes of state.

To calculate the energy needed for a change of state, the following equation is used:

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Heat transferred, ∆Q (J) = Mass, m (kg) x specific latent heat capacity, L

(J/kg)

The specific latent heat, L, is the energy needed to change the state of 1 kg of the substance without
changing the temperature.

The latent heat of fusion refers to melting. The latent heat of vapourisation refers to boiling.

The specific heat capacity is the energy needed to raise the temperature of a given mass by a certain
temperature.

The change in temperature of a substance being heated or cooled depends on the mass of the substance and
on how much energy is put in. However, it also depends on the properties of that given substance. How this
affects temperature variation is expressed by the substance's specific heat capacity (c). This is measured in
J/(kg·K) in SI units.

Change in internal energy, ∆U (J) = mass, m (kg) x specific heat capacity,

c (J/(kg·K)) x temperature change, ∆T (K)

The force resulting from two nearby charges is equal to k times charge one times charge two divided by the
square of the distance between the charges.

The electric field created by a charge is equal to the force generated divided by the charge.

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Electric field is equal to a constant, “k”, times the charge divided by the square of the distance between
the charge and the point in question.

Electric potential energy is equal to a constant, “k” multiplied by the two charges and divided by the
distance between the charges.

F: Force (N)
k: a constant, 8.988×109 (N·m2/C2)
q1: charge one (C)
q2: charge two (C)
r: distance between the two charges, (m)

Electricity acts as if all matter were divided into four categories:

1. Superconductors, which allow current to flow with no resistance. (However these have only been
produced in relatively extreme laboratory conditions, such as at temperatures approaching absolute
zero)
2. Conductors, which allow electric current to flow with little resistance.
3. Semiconductors, which allow some electric current to flow but with significant resistance.
4. Insulators, which do not allow electric current to flow.

Charges are positive (+) or negative (-). Any two like charges repel each other, and opposite charges attract
each other.

A charge in an electrical field feels a force. The charge is not a vector, but force is a vector, and so is the
electric field. If a charge is positive, then force and the electric field point in the same direction. If the charge
is negative, then the electric field and force vectors point in opposite directions.

A point charge in space causes an electric field. The field is stronger closer to the point and weaker farther
away.

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Electricity is made of subatomic particles called Electrons and so are Electric Fields and Magnetic Fields.

For a good introduction to Gauss' Law and Ampere's Law, check out this website
(http://slacker.yosunism.com)

The magnetic force exerted on a moving particle in a magnetic field is the cross product of the magnetic
field' and the velocity of the particle, multiplied by the charge of the particle.

Because the magnetic force is perpendicular to the particle's velocity, this causes uniform circular motion.
That motion can be explained by the following

The radius of this circle is directly proportional to the mass and the velocity of the particle and inversely
proportional to the charge of the particle and the field strength of the magnetic field.

The period and frequency of this motion (referred to as the cyclotron period and frequency) can be derived
as well.

The magnetic field created by charge flowing through a straight wire is equal to a constant, , multiplied
by the current flowing through the wire and divide by the distance from the wire.

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The magnetic field created by a magnetic dipole (at distances much greater than the size of the dipole) is
approximately equal to a constant, , multiplied by the dipole moment divided by the cube of the
distance from the dipole. EDIT: This forumla is incomplete. The field from a dipole is a vector that depends
not only on the distance from the dipole, but also the angle relative to the orientation of the magnetic
moment. This is because of the vector nature of the magnetic moment and its associated magnetic field. The
field component pointing in the same directions as the magnetic moment is the above formula multiplied by
(3*(Cos[theta])^2-1).

B = µ0nI

The magnetic field created by an ideal solenoid is equal to a constant, µ0, times the number of turns of the
solenoid times the current flowing through the solenoid.

The magnetic field created by an ideal toroid is equal to a constant, µ0, times the number of turns of the
toroid times the current flowing through the toroid divided by the circumference of the toroid.

The magnetic force between two wires is equal to a constant, , times the current in one wire times the
current in the other wire times the length of the wires divided by the distance between the wires.

The torque on a current loop in a magnetic field is equal to the cross product of the magnetic field and the
area enclosed by the current loop (the area vector is perpendicular to the current loop).

The dipole moment of a current loop is equal to the current in the loop times the area of the loop times the
number of turns of the loop.

The magnetic potential energy is the opposite of the dot product of the magnetic field and the dipole
moment.

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F: Force (N)
q: Charge (C)
v: Velocity (m/s)
B: Magnetic field (teslas (T))
r: Radius (m)
m: Mass (kg)
T: Period (s)
f: Frequency (Hz)
µ0: A constant, 4π×10-7 N/A
y: Distance (m)
µ: Dipole moment
x: Distance (m)
n: Number of turns
: Length (m)
d: Distance (m)
τ: Torque (N·m)
A: Area (m2)
U: Potential energy (J)

Electronics is the application of electromagnetic (and quantum) theory to construct devices that can perform
useful tasks, from as simple as electrical heaters or light bulbs to as complex as the Large Hadron Collider.

To discuss electronics we need the basic concepts from electricity: charge, current which is flow of charge,
and potential which is the potential energy difference between two places. Please make sure these concepts
are familiar before continuing.

The interest of electronics is circuits. A circuit consists of wires that connect components. Typical
components are resistors, voltage sources and so on, which will be discussed later. A circuit can be open,
when there is a break so that no current can flow, or it can be closed, so that current can flow. These
definitions allow us to discuss electronics efficiently.

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V=IxR

Where V= Voltage; I= Current and R= Resistance. This applies only to a linear device, however.

Current is the rate of flow of charge.

I = Current [amperes - A]
Q = Charge [coulombs - C]
T = Time [seconds - s]

howstuffworks.com (http://www.howstuffworks.com)

Voltage is equal to current multiplied by resistance

Power is equal to the product of voltage and current

Electronics is the flow of current through semiconductor devices like silicon and germanium.

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Semiconductor devices are those which behave like conductors at higher temperature.

Transistor, diode, SCR are some electronic devices.

[[Category:Physics Study Guide]

Light is that range of electromagnetic energy that is visible to the human eye, the visible colors. The optical
radiation includes not only the visible range, but a broader range of invisible electromagnetic radiation that
could be influenced in its radiation behavior in a similar way as the visible radiation, but needs often other
transmitters or receivers for this radiation. Dependant on the kind of experimental question light - optical
radiation behaves as a wave or a particle named lightwave or photon. The birth or death of photons needs
electrons - electromagnetic charges, that change their energy.

The speed of light is fastest in the vacuum.

In a wave we have to distinguish between the speed of transport of energy or the speed of the transport of on
phase state of a wave of a defined frequency. In vacuum the speed of waves of any photon energy -
wavelength is the same, but the transmission speed through material is dependent on wavelength - photon
energy. At the time the measurement of the speed of light in vacuum reached the uncertainty of the unit of
length, the meter, this basic unit got in 1960 a new definition, based on the unit of time. Taking the best
known measurement values it was defined without any uncertainties of length, that the speed of light is
299,792,458 meters per second. For this reason the only uncertainty in the speed of light is the uncertainty of
the realization of the unit of time, the second. (If you like to get the standard of length, cooperate with the
watchmaker).

However, when electromagnetic radiation enters a medium with refractive index, n, its speed would become

where cn is the speed of light in the medium.

Refraction

Refraction occurs when light travels from one medium into another (i.e. from air into water). Refraction is
the changing of direction of light due to the changing speed of light. Refraction occurs toward the normal
when light travels from a medium into a denser medium. Example when light travels from air into a block of
glass, light is refracted towards the normal. The ratio between the sine of the angle of the incident ray and
sine of the angle of the refracted ray is the same as the ratios of the indexes of refraction.

This is known as Snell's Law - an easy way to remember this is that 'Snell' is 'lens' backwards.

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Focal length

f is the focal length.

f is negative in convex mirror and concave lens.
f is positive in concave mirror and convex lens.
di is the distance from the image to the mirror or lens
For a mirror, it is positive if the image appears in front of the mirror. It is negative if the image
appears behind.
For a lens, it is positive if the image appears on the opposite side of the lens as the light source.
It is negative if the image appears on the same side of the lens as the light source.

do is the distance from the object to the mirror or the lens (always positive). The only case, when it is
negative, is the case, when you don't have a real object, but you do have an imaginary object - a
converging set of rays from another optical system.
an easy way to remember the formula is to memorize "if I Do I Die", which stands for 1/f = 1/d_0 +
1/d_i

Magnification

M is the magnification.
If it is positive the image is upright
If it is negative the image is inverted
hi is the image height.
ho is the object height.
di is the distance from the image to the mirror or lens (also often v)
For a mirror, it is positive if the image appears in front of the mirror. It is negative if the image
appears behind.
For a lens, it is positive if the image appears on the opposite side of the lens as the light source.
It is negative if the image appears on the same side of the lens as the light source.
do is the distance from the object to the mirror or lens (also often u)

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Uncertainty should be read as 1.234(56) = 1.234 0.056

Relative
Name Symbol Value Units
Uncertainty
Speed of
light (in c (exact)
vacuum)
Magnetic
µ0 (exact)
Constant
Electric
(exact)
Constant
Newtonian
Gravitaional G
Constant
Plank's
h
Constant
Elementary
e C
charge
Mass of the
me kg
electron
Mass of the
mp kg
proton
Fine
structure dimensionless
constant
Molar gass
R
constant
Boltzman's
k
constant
Avogadro's
Number
NA mol − 1
Rydberg
constant m−1
Standard
acceleration g defined
of gravity
Atmospheric
atm Pa defined
pressure
Bohr Radius
Electron
eV J
Volt

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This list is prepared in the format

Constant (symbol) : value

Coulomb's Law Constant (k) : 1/(4 π ε0) = 9.0 × 109 N·m2/C2

Faraday constant (F) : 96,485 C·mol−1
Mass of a neutron (mn) : 1.67495 × 10−27 kg
Mass of Earth : 5.98 × 1024 kg
Mass of the Moon : 7.35 × 1022 kg
Mean radius of Earth : 6.37 × 106 m
Mean radius of the Moon : 1.74 × 106 m
Dirac's Constant ( ) : h / (2π) = 1.05457148 × 10−34 J·s
Speed of sound in air at STP : 3.31 × 102 m/s
Unified Atomic Mass Unit (u) : 1.66 × 10−27 kg

Item Proton Neutron Electron

Mass 1 1 Negligible
Charge +1 0 -1

Wikipedia Article

NIST Physics Lab (http://www.physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html)

Material Kinetic Static

Rubber on concrete (dry) 0.68 0.90
Rubber on concrete (wet) 0.58 -.--
Rubber on asphalt (dry) 0.67 0.85
Rubber on asphalt (wet) 0.53 -.--
Rubber on ice 0.15 -.--
Waxed ski on snow 0.05 0.14
Wood on wood 0.30 0.42
Steel on steel 0.57 0.74
Copper on steel 0.36 0.53

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Teflon on teflon 0.04 -.--

Honey on Honey 2.6 negligible

While these are indeed common usages, it should be pointed out that there are many other usages and that
other letters are used for the same purpose. The reason is quite simple: there are only so many symbols in the
Greek and Latin alphabets, and scientists and mathematicians generally do not use symbols from other
languages. It is a common trap to associate a symbol exclusively with some particular meaning, rather than
learning and understanding the physics and relations behind it.

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Greek Alphabet
Lower
Capital Name Common use in Physics
case
Angular acceleration
Linear expansion
alpha Coefficient
Alpha particle (helium nucleus)
Fine Structure Constant
Beta particle — high energy electron
beta
Sound intensity
Gamma ray (high energy EM wave)
gamma Ratio of heat capacities (in an ideal gas)
Relativistic correction factor
∆="Change in"
delta
δ="Infinitessimal change in"
Emissivity
Strain
epsilon
Permittivity
EMF
zeta (no common use)
Viscosity
eta
Energy efficiency
Angle (°, rad)
theta
Temperature
The lower case is rarely used, while is sometimes used for the identity
matrix or the moment of inertia. Note that is not to be confused with the
iota
Roman character i; (which has a dot and is much more widely used in
mathematics and physics).
Spring constant
kappa
Dielectric constant
Wavelength
Thermal conductivity
lambda Constant
Eigenvalue of a matrix
Linear density
Coefficient of friction
Electrical mobility
mu
Reduced mass
Permeability
nu Frequency
xi Damping cofficient
omicron (no common use)
Product symbol Π
pi
Circle number π: = 3.14159...

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Volume density
rho
Resistivity
Sum symbol
Boltzmann constant
Electrical conductivity
sigma
Uncertainty
Stress
Surface density
Torque
tau Tau particle (a lepton)
Time constant
upsilon (pending)
Magnetic/electric flux
phi
Angle (°, rad)
Rabi frequency (lasers)
chi
Susceptibility
psi Wave function
Ohms (unit of electrical resistance)
omega
ω Angular velocity

Greek alphabet on the Wikipedia

Been a while since you used logs? Here is a quick refresher for you.

The log (short for logarithm) of a number N is the exponent used to raise a certain "base" number B to get N.
In short, means that Bx = N.

Typically, logs use base 10. An increase of "1" in a base 10 log is equivalent to an increase by a power of 10
in normal notation. In logs, "3" is 100 times the size of "1". If the log is written without an explicit base, 10 is
(usually) implied.

therefore: log(10–12) = –12

also: log(1000) = 3

Another common base for logs is the trancendental number e, which is approximately 2.7182818.... Since
, these can be more convenient than log10. Often, the notation is used instead of .

The following properties of logs are true regardless of whether the base is 10, e, or some other number.

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logA + logB = log(AB)

logA – logB = log(A/B)

log(AB) = B log(A)

Adding the log of A to the log of B will give the same result as taking the log of the product A times B.

Subtracting the log of B from the log of A will give the same result as taking the log of the quotient A divided
by B.

The log of (A to the Bth power) is equal to the product (B times the log of A).

A few examples:
log(2) + log(3) = log(6)
log(30) – log(2) = log(15)
log(8) = log(23) = 3log(2) Vectors are quantities that are characterized by having both a numerical quantity
(called the "magnitude" and denoted as |v|) and a direction. Velocity is an example of a vector; it describes
the time rated change in position with a numerical quantity (meters per second) as well as indicating the
direction of movement.

The definition of a vector is any quantity that adds according to the parallelogram law (there are some
physical quantities that have magnitude and direction that are not vectors).

Scalars are quantities in physics that have no direction. Mass is a scalar; it can describe the quantity of
matter with units (kilograms) but does not describe any direction.

A scalar times a scalar gives a scalar result.

A vector scalar-multiplied by a vector gives a scalar result (called the dot-product).
A vector cross-multiplied by a vector gives a vector result (called the cross-product).
A vector times a scalar gives a vector result.

Q: What is a "dot-product"?

A: Let's take gravity as our force. If you jump out of an airplane and fall you will pick up speed. (for
simplicity's sake, let's ignore air drag). To work out the kinetic energy at any point you simply multiply the
value of the force caused by gravity by the distance moved in the direction of the force. For example, a 180
N boy falling a distance of 10 m will have 1800 J of extra kinetic energy. We say that the man has had 1800
J of work done on him by the force of gravity.

Notice that energy is not a vector. It has a value but no direction. Gravity and displacement are vectors.
They have a value plus a direction. (In this case, their directions are down and down respectively) The

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reason we can get a scalar energy from vectors gravity and

displacement is because, in this case, they happen to point in the same
direction. Gravity acts downwards and displacement is also
downwards.

When two vectors point in the same direction, you can get the scalar
product by just multiplying the value of the two vectors together and
ignoring the direction.

But what happens if they don't point in the same direction?

A Man walking up a hill

Consider a man walking up a hill. Obviously it takes energy to do this
because you are going against the force of gravity. The steeper the hill,
the more energy it takes every step to climb it. This is something we all know unless we live on a salt lake.

In a situation like this we can still work out the work done. In the diagram, the green lines represent the
displacement. To find out how much work against gravity the man does, we work out the projection of the
displacement along the line of action of the force of gravity. In this case it's just the y component of the
man's displacement. This is where the cos θ comes in. θ is merely the angle between the velocity vector and
the force vector.

If the two forces do not point in the same direction, you can still get the scalar product by multiplying the
projection of one force in the direction of the other force. Thus:

There is another method of defining the dot product which relys on components.

Q: What is a "cross-product"?

A: Suppose there is a charged particle moving in a constant magnetic field. According to the laws of
electromagnetism, the particle is acted upon by a force called the Lorentz force. If this particle is moving
from left to right at 30 m/s and the field is 30 Tesla pointing straight down perpendicular to the particle, the
particle will actually curve in a circle spiraling out of the plane of the two with an acceleration of its charge
in coulombs times 900 newtons per coulomb! This is because the calculation of the Lorentz force involves a
cross-product.

A cross product can be calculated simply using the angle between the two vectors and your right hand. If the
forces point parallel or 180° from each other, it's simple: the cross-product does not exist. If they are exactly
perpendicular, the cross-product has a magnitude of the product of the two magnitudes. For all others in
between however, the following formula is used:

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But if the result is a vector, then what is the direction? That too is fairly simple, utilizing a method called the
"right-hand rule".

The right-hand rule works as follows: Place your right-hand flat along the first of the two vectors with the
palm facing the second vector and your thumb sticking out perpendicular to your hand. Then proceed to curl
your hand towards the second vector. The direction that your thumb points is the direction that cross-product
vector points! Though this definition is easy to explain visually it is slightly more complicated to calculate
than the dot product.

Q:How do you draw vectors

A:Vectors in the lane of the page are drawn as arrows on the page. A
vector that goes into the plane of the screen is typically drawn as
circles with an inscribed X. A vector that comes out of the plane of
the screen is typically drawn as circles with dots at their centers. The
X is meant to represent the fletching on the back of an arrow or dart
while the dot is meant to represent the tip of the arrow.

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 Copyright (C) 2000, 2001, 2002,

2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. <http://fsf.org/>

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this

license document, but changing it is not allowed.
How to draw vectors in the plane of
the paper

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other

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