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1pu Lab Manual

Biology laboratory manual

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Ayesha M Z 9A
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1pu Lab Manual

Biology laboratory manual

Uploaded by

Ayesha M Z 9A
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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BIOLOGY: 1 PUC PRACTICAL MANUAL ACCORDING TO NATIONAL CORE CURRICULUM ad = BIOLOGY, FORUM/OF Pan BANGALORE Exercise 1 Exercise 2 Exercise 3 Exercise 4 Exercise 5 Exercise 6 Exercise 7 Exercise 8 Exercise 9 Exercise 10 Exercise 11 Exercise 12 Exercise 13 Exercise 14 Exercise 15 Exercise 16 Exercise 17 Exercise 18 Exercise 19 Exercise 20 Exercise 21 Exercise 22 Exercise 23 24 25 : Compound Microscope Bacteria, Fungi and Plants : Animal Morphology : Plant Tis ues : Anatomy of Stem and Roots. Animal Tissues : Root Modifications : Stem Modifications : Leaf modifications : Inflorescence : Taxonomy of Flowering Plants : Potato Osmoscope : Plasmolysis : Distribution of Stomata : Rate of Transpiration : Paper Chromatography : Rate of Respiration : Physiological Experiment Setup : Detection of Biological Molecules : Urine Analysis : Salivary Amylase Activity : Human Skeleton, Bone Joints :1 PUC Practical Examination Model Question Paper : Scheme of Valuation 13 24 7 30 35 39 43 45 48 st 52 53 54 55 56 37 62 63 64 69 73 74 EXERCISE - 1: COMPOUND MICROSCOPE Him To study parts of a compound microscope. Prmele: The compound microscope is an optical instrument used to observe magnified images of “pete objects. It is an assemblage of two fundamental lens-systems namely eye piece or ocular ‘get objectives to give magnified images of the minute living organisms and details of cells and ‘See A compound microscope is normally used in a biology laboratory. Beserements: Compound microscope, silk cloth / muslin cloth, lens cleaning fluid and lens cleaning i ‘Piece the microscope on the working table and dust it off with silk cloth or muslin cloth Geen the lens with lens cleaning fluid and lens cleaning paper. ‘Stedy the different parts of the compound microscope. Geserve o permanent slide or a temporary slide to get practical experience of using a microscope. we pa lcunanon rue ‘COMPOUND MICROSCOPE Pes of 2 compound microscope: Dee Simple or compound leaves with parallel venation. {sem 4. Trimerous flowers 5. Reproductive organs are stamens and carpels. Within carpels ovules are located. 6. Seeds have single cotyledon. = ra E.g., Maize Plant. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA. 10 EXERCISE — : ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY ‘Aim: To study some selected animals on the basis of their external features. Principle: Morphology is the study of external features of the organisms. It helps in the identification of animals. Morphological similarities and dissimilarities along with their phylogenetic relationships is the basis of classification. Requirements: Slides / museum specimens / models / photographs / charts of Amoeba, Hydra, Fasciola, Ascaris, Pheretima, Hirudinaria, Palaemon, Bombyx mori, Apis indica, Pila globosa, Asterias, Scoliodon, Labeo rohita, Rana tigrina, Calotes, Columba livia and Oryctolagus lagomorpha, microscope 3.1. AMOEBA Kingdom + Protista Phylum : Protozoa coronas Class : Sarcodina nati Genus : Amoeba =o 1 Microscopic, free living, acellular, freshwater ‘a S protozoan. y 2. Irregular body shape with many blunt pseudopodia. 3. Distinct, spherical shaped nucleus is present. 4. Cytoplasm contains many food vacuoles and a contractile vacuole. Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Coelenterata Class : Hydrozoa Genus Hydra 1. Fresh water coelenterate. 2. Body appears like a cylinder with an attached aboral end and a free oral end. 3. Oral end has mouth on a conical elevation called hypostome or manubrium 4. from the base of hypostome arise a circlet of 6 to 10 ong and slender tentacles. 5. Aboral end has a pedal disc or basal disc which is used for attachment. 6. Mature individual possesses gonads and external buds. 3.2. HYDRA ours TENTACLE \ Lae reat ose sussTRaTUM BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 13 3.3. FASCIOEA (LIVER FLUKE) Kingdom Animalia Phylum Platyhelminthes salace Class :Trematoda ‘conoPoRe ‘ACETABULUM, Genus Fasciola \ (vena suck) 1. Endoparasite in the bile ducts of sheep, buffalo etc. . 2. Body is leaf-like dorso-ventrally flattened with a broad anterior end and a narrow posterior end. 3. Anterior end has a small conical head lobe with terminal mouth surrounded by oral sucker. 4, Near the junction of the head lobe and the body, there is @ vencral sucker or acetabulum. 5. Gonopore is present just above the acetabulum. 6. Excretory pore is located at the posterior end of the body. [excRETORYPORE 7. Itis hermaphrodite (bisexual) FASCIOLA (LIVER FLUKE) 3.4. ASCARIS (ROUND WORM) Kingdom Animalia Phylum Aschelminthes Class Nematoda Genus : Ascaris 1. Endoparasite in the small intestine of human beings. 2 Body is elongated, cylindrical, unsegmented with onorore: tapering ends 3. Body surface is marked with four longitudinal lines — dorsal, ventral and two lateral lines 4. Anterior end has @ mouth and is surrounded by three lips. Posterior end has an anus. 5. Just behind the mouth on the ventral side, there is an excretory pore. 6. Sexes are separate. 7. Male is shorter than the female. it has a cloaca with two pineal setae. 8. In females, the anus lies towards posterior end and ASCARIS gonopore lies mid-ventrally at about 1/3" the distance from anterior end. FEMALE BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 14 3.5. PHERETIMA (EARTHWORM) kingdom Anim Phylum : Annelida Class : Oligocheta Genus : Pheretima 1 2. Body is elongated, cylindrical and made up of about 100: 120 segments or metameres 3. First segment is called peristomium. It contains a ventral mouth which is overhung by a fleshy projection called prostomium. 4, Anus is present in the last segment and the segment is called pygidium. 5, Prominent circular band called clitellum is present around 14” to 16" segment. 8. Ventral surface of the body has a single female genital aperture on the 14” segment and a pair of male genital apertures on the 18” segment. 7. Pair of genital papillae is present in the 17” and 19 segment. Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Annelida Class :Hirudinea Genus : Hirudinaria 1. Blood sucking (sanguivorous) ectoparasite on cattle, man et. 2. Body is slimy, elongated and metamerically segmented with dark green dorsal and yellowish brown ventral surfaces. 3. Body is made up of 33 segments and each segment is further divided superficially into $ smaller rings or annul 4. It has two suckers, an anterior sucker or oral sucker bearing the mouth and a ventral or posterior sucker formed by fusion of last seven segments 5. Anus is situated on the dorsal side of the 26" segment. 6. 5 pairs of eyes are present in the first five segments, 0 pair each per segment. 7. 17 pairs of nephridiopores are present from 6" to 22 segment. 8. Terrestrial, burrowing animal which lives in the moist soil PRosToMUN eu FEMALE GENITAL —— APERTURE addctt MALE GENITAL Pape feenie J PHERETIMA (EARTHWORM) uum 3.6. HIRUDINARIA (LEECH) const sucker MALE GENITAL PORE. VENTRAL SUCKER HIRUDINARIA (LEECH) Male and female genital apertures are present on the mid-ventral line of the 10” and 11 segments respectively. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 15 3.7. PALAEMON (PRAWN) Kingdom : Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda cee) erates oe CEPHALGTHORAX COMPOUND EYE Genus: Palaemon ithe 1. Fresh water prawn found in arena ponds, lakes and rivers. RS : 2. Body is divided into an anterior (> = wan cs NR cephalothorax and a posterior abdomen. 3. Cephalothorax is covered by hard exoskeletal shield called PALAEMON ‘carapace which is produced anteriorly into a serrated rostrum. Head bears a pair of stalked compound eyes. There are 19 pairs of jointed appendages: @. Cephalothorax has 13 pairs which includes antennules, antenna, and walking legs (chelate legs and non-chelate legs) b. Abdomen consists of six segments each with 0 pair of appendages called pleopods or swimmerets (swimming legs). The last pair is broader and called uropods. 6. Last abdominal segment has a pointed structure called telson. 3.8. BOMBYX MORI (SILK MOTH) Kingdom: Animalia FeaTHERY Phylum — : Arthropoda ANTENNA : WeAD Class Insecta poe Genus: Bombyx Species: mori sme appowen 1. Domesticated insect reared for procuring ie Fain iis encoons. BOMBYX MORK: SILK MOTH 2. Body is creamy white in colcur and divisible into head, thorax and abdomen. 3. Head bears a pair of compound eyes and a pair of feathery antennae. Thorax bears three pairs of jointed legs and two pairs of wings. 5. Males are smaller in size with a narrow abdomen while females are larger in size with a br abdomen. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA Kingdom Phylum, Class Genus Species : Animalia : Arthropoda Insecta + Apis : indica 1. Social insects and lives in colonies. 2. Individuals are classified into three morphological forms with distinct division of labour namely queen, drones and workers. 3. The common features of honey bees are. a. Body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen. b. Head bears a pair of compound eyes, three ocell @ pair of antennae and mouth parts. Cc. Thorax consists of three segments and bears three airs of jointed legs and two pairs of wings. d. Abdomen consists of six visible segments. 4. The following are the specific features of queen, drones and worker bees: |. Queen: apeaogse Only fertile female of the colony. Largest in size (15 ~ 20 mm). Eyes, wing and legs are smaller in size. Abdomen is long and tapering. Wax glands are absent. Sting is present. Il. Drones: a. Haploid, fertile males unfertilized eggs. developed from b. Larger than the worker and smaller than queen. ©. Eyes are very large d. Wax glands and sting are absent. Ill, Worker: ver a._ Sterile female and occur in large numbers. b. Smallest member of the colony. c. Pollen brushes and pollen baskets are present on thoracic legs. d. Wax glands are present in the last four visible segments of abdomen. e. Sting is present in the last abdominal segment. 3.9. APIS INDICA (HONEY BEE) ANTENNA re THORAX 9 WINGS ABDOMEN Les b. DRONE POLLEN POLLEN BASKET sa ©, WORKER APIS INDICA (INDIAN HONEY BEE) BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 7 3.10. PILA GLOBOSA (APPLE SNAIL) Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Mollusca Class : Gastropoda Genus : Pila 4 Species :globosa OPERCULUI 1. _ Lives in fresh water ponds, pools, paddy fields ete, 2. Soft body of the animal is enclosed in a spirally coiled calcareous shell, 3. Large body whorl (last whorl) encloses the animal. 4. The end of the last whorl has a wide opening which remains closed by a calcareous lid called operculum. PILA (SHELL AND OPERCULUM) | 5. Soft body is divisible into head, foot, visceral ‘mass and mantle. 3.11, ASTERIAS (STAR FISH) Kingdom : Animalia Phylum i Class : Asteroidea Genus : Asterias 1. Marine, carnivorous animal. 2. Body is star shaped, radially symmetrical and pentamerous with a central disc and five radiating arms 3. It has an upper aboral surface and the lower oral surface. 4. Oral surface has a central mouth. 5. Radiating from mouth are five ambulacral grooves which continue into arms 6. Tube feet are present in the ambulacral aco ASTERIAS (STAR FISH) : ORAL VIEW 7. Anus and sieve-like structure called madreporite are present on the aboral surface. 8. Entire body surface is covered with spines. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA, 18. 3.12. SCOLIODON (SHARK) Phylum ——_: Chordata Sub phylum: Vertebrata Super class: Pisces Class : Chondrichthyes Genus _: Scoliodon N Marine cartilaginous Hes pare TRE noorséL rn Taw, fish. ‘snout, 2 Body is elongated, streamlined and _wostek. laterally compressed. snuL pm CAUDAL FY 3. It is divisible into head, trunk and tail 4. Entire body is covered with minute placoid scales. 5. Head is dorso-ventrally flattened and produced into snout. It bears a pair of eyes, nostrils and sub-terminal ventral crescent shaped mouth. Behind the eyes, five pairs of gill slits are present laterally. There are paired pectoral and pelvic fins, unpaired two dorsal fins, a ventral fin (anal fin) and heterocercal caudal fin 8. Cloacal aperture is situated ventrally between the pelvic fins. 9. Lateral lines are present on each side of the body, extending from head to tail, 10. Males possess copulatory organs called claspers connected with the base of pelvic fins. SCOLIODOW (SHARK) 3.13. LABEO ROHITA (ROHU) Phylum Chordata Sub phylum: Vertebrata oi Super class: Pisces Class sOsteichthyes Genus :Labeo Species :rohita 1. Freshwater carp found in rivers, ponds, lakes etc. alee 2. Body is elongated, LABEO ROHITA (CARP) streamlined, laterally compressed and is covered with cycloid scales. Itis divisible into head, trunk and tail Head has a blunt snout with terminal mouth, a pair of nostrils and a pair of eyes. Gills are covered with operculum (gill cover). Fins include paired pectoral and pelvic fins and unpaired dorsal fins, a ventral fin (anal fin) and a homocercal caudal fin. Lateral line is present on each side of the body, extending from head to tail BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 19 3.14. RANA TIGRINA (FROG) Phylum, : Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class : Amphibia Genus : Rana Species : tigrina 1. Common Indian bull frog found in ‘and around fresh water bodies. 2. Body divisible into head and trunk Neck is absent. 3. Skin is naked, smooth, moist and slippery 4. Head is triangular with o blunt “™°UM® snout and has a wide mouth, a pair RANATIGRINA (FROG) of nostrils, a pair of bulged eyes and a pair of tympanum. 5. Transparent nictitating membrane covers the eye when the animal isin water. 6. Forelimbs are smaller in length with four fingers while hind limbs are longer with five webbed digits 7. Males are smaller in size and have vocal sacs that help in croaking. 3.15. CALOTES (GARDEN LIZARD) Phylum hordata a EXTERNAL EAR eye Sub phylum: Vertebrata eS Class eptilia Genus :Calotes = che bom gro Arboreal reptile found in bushes, shrubs and trees. Body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and a long tail Entire body is covered with rough epidermal scales which form spiny crest on the dorsal side of neck and CALOTES (GARDEN LIZARD) trunk. Head is triangular and bears a wide mouth, a pair of nostrils, a pair eyes and a pair of external ear openings. Fore limbs and hind limbs are pentadactyle and digits are clawed. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 20 3.16. COLUMBA LIVIA (PIGEON) Phylum : Chordata ‘HEAD. EYE Sub phylum : Vertebrata NOSTRIL Class : Aves Genus Columba me Species livia 1. Most common, cosmopolitan bird adapted to aerial mode of life. 2 Body is streamlined, and divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail 3. Entire body is covered with feathers. 4. Head bears a beak, a pair of nostrils and a pair of eyes with nictitating membranes. CLAWED TOES Fore limbs are modified into wings. 6. Hind limbs have four clawed digits COLUMBA LIVIA (PIGEON) one of which is backwardly directed. 7. Tail is short and bears tail feathers 3.17. ORYCTOLAGUS LAGOMORPHA (RABBIT) Phylum: Chordata Sub phylum : Vertebrata Class : Mammalia Genus : Oryctolagus Species: lagomorpha 1. Herbivorous and fossorial (burrowing) mammal. 2. Body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail. 3. Entire body is covered with fur. FORE UME HIND UM 4. Head is slightly elongated and ORYCTOLAGUS LAGOMORPHA (RABBIT) bears a pair of nostrils, mouth, a pair of eyes and a pair of external ears or pinnae. 5. Mouth is in the form of transverse slit and the upper lip has a median cleft through which the incisor teeth are exposed. Long stiff hair called whiskers or vibrissae project on either side of the external nostrils. Hind limbs are longer than the fore limbs. Tail is short, bushy and is usually curved upwards. Males have a muscular penis and a pair of scrotal sacs enclosing testes. Females have four to five pairs of mammary glands. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA a1 EXERCISE 4: PLANT TISSUES ‘Aim: Study of simple plant tissues namely parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. Principle: A tissue is a group of similar cells that usually have a similar embryological origin and are specialized for a particular function. Plant tissues are classified into meristematic and permanent tissues. Permanent tissues may be simple (parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma) i.e., containing only one type of cells or complex (xylem and phloem) i.e., containing more than one type of cells, Requirements: Permanent slides of stem, leaf, shoot tip and root tip of different plants showing different plant tissues and compound microscope. Observation: 4 4.1. PARENCHYMA 1. Simple, permanent, living and storage tissue. 2. Cells are spherical, oval, rectangular or polygonal in shape. vacuo 3. Loosely arranged cells with prominent intercellular sohoacsat spaces. 4. Cell wallis thin and made up of cellulose. weercaunan © 5. Cells have granular cytoplasm, a large vacuole and a mero nucleus. Modifications of Parenchyma: 2. Aerenchyma: | i. Star shaped cells with radiating arms. ii. Show distinct air spaces between cells. ili, Provide buoyancy to plant organs. iv. Found in petiole of banana and canna. b. Chlorenchyma: i. Cells. possess chloroplast to perform photosynthesis. E.g., mesophyll of leaves. ii, Mesophyll of dorsi-ventral leaf (dicot leaf) is differentiated into upper palisade and lower spongy parenchyma, iil, Palisade parenchyma is made up of vertically elongated, compactly arranged, columnar cells with narrow intercellular spaces and abundant chloroplasts. ee ee BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA, | are rent ice rype ving 3 \v. Spongy parenchyma is made up of loosely arranged, oval or irregular shaped cells with prominent intercellular spaces with relatively few chloroplasts when compared to palisade parenchyma. simple, permanent, living, mechanical tissue. Cells are spherical in T.S. and elongated in L.S. with Each cell shows cellulosic cell wall localized pectin deposition. Intercellular spaces are absent. Cell contains granular cytoplasm, distinct nucleus and a central vacuole. Simple, permanent, dead, mechanical tissue at maturity. Cells are polygonal in T.S and spindle shaped in L.S. Cells are compactly arranged without any intercellular spaces. They show primary cellulosic wall and secondary lignified wall. Protoplasm is absent. There is 0 (intracellular space). narrow central lumen 4.2. ANGULAR COLLENCHYMA nucteus VaCuoLE cyroptasm CELL WALL COLLENCHYMA 4.3. SCLERENCHYMA FIBRES ND ruven IDOLE tue igure Wat ono or aut A-LS. OF FIBRE 8-7.5. OF FIBRES SSCLERENCHYEA BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 25 EXERCISE — 5: ANATOMY OF STEM AND ROOT ‘im: To study the anatomy of stem and root of monocots and dicots Principle: Plant anatomy deals with the study of internal structure of plant organs like stem, root aed leaf. The organization of various tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem aed phloem differ in root, stem and leaf. Requirements: Samples of stem and root of dicot E.g., Sunflower / Tridax and monocot E.g., Maize/ enna or any locally available plants, safranin stain, water, glycerine, watch glass, glass slide, cover ‘ip, brush, blade, blotting paper, compound microscope. Procedure: MICROPREPARATIOI Micropreparation is a technique in which thin sections of plant parts are taken, stained and mounted on a clean glass slide for observation Take a small wetted piece of stem / root, preferably of thickness of a toothpick. 2. Hold it firmly in a vertical position in between the thumb and the index finger in such a way that the tip of the index finger and smooth surface of the material are in line, while the thumb is just a few mm below the upper surface of the material. 3 Wet the surface of razor blade and carefully move it horizontally over the surface of the material so as to get thin and complete sections. Using brush, transfer the sections into a petri dish or watch glass containing water. Select one or two thin complete sections and transfer into a watch glass containing safranin for staining. & After 2 to 3 minutes, take out a stained section and transfer it into another watch glass containing water to remove excess stain. > Take a clean glass slide with a drop of glycerine and transfer the stained and washed section to it & Carefully place a cover slip over it avoiding air bubbles. Observation: ANATOMY OF DICOT STEM E.g., HELIANTHUS ANNUUS (SUNFLOWER) The anatomical features of a typical young dicot stem are: 1 TS of a young dicot stem shows 3 distinct regions: outer epidermis, middle cortex and inner stele. 2. Epidermis is a single layer of parenchyma with multicellular ‘epidermal hairs or trichomes. 3. Hypodermis is collenchymatous. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 27 t 4. Endodermis is single layered and parenchymatous. The cells contain starch grains. 5. Pericycle is made up of alternate patches of sclerenchyma — and_—_ parenchyma. Sclerenchyma patch forms the bundle cap. 6. Vascular bundles. @. Arranged in the form of a ring. Conjoint, collateral, open with endarch xylem. EPIDERMAL HAIR EPIOERMIS "— HYPODERIS ENDODERMIS PERICYCLE, PHLOEM CAMBIUN xylem 7. Pith is large and parenchymatous. Parenchyma tissue present between adjacent vascular bundles forms the medullary ray. pra 7.8 OF DicoT stem ANATOMY OF MONOCOT STEM E.g., ZEA MAYS (MAL: The anatomical features of a typical monocot stem are: 1. TS of a monocot stem shows epidermis, hypodermis, ground tissue and large number of vascular bundles. Epidermis is a single layer of parenchyma Trichomes are absent. Hypodermis is sclerenchymatous Ground tissue is not differentiated. Vascular bundles Ahawn a. Inregularly scattered. b. Vascular bundles present towards the periphery are smaller in size and more in number while towards the centre larger in size and less in number. ¢. Conjoint, collateral, closed with 7. SOF MONocoT STEM endarch xylem d. Sclerenchymatous bundle sheath is present. Xylem vessels are fewer in number and are arranged in ‘Y’ shape. f. _Lysigenous cavity (water cavity) is present in the vascular bundle. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA -SNATOMY OF DICOT ROOT E.g., HELIANTHUS ANNUUS (SUNFLOWER) Seatures of a typical young dicot root are: root shows 3 distinct regions: epiblema, cortex and pith layer is called epiblema or layer which is made up of a Seer of parenchyma cells with root hairs and without ROOT HAIR EPIOERMIS. % parenchymatous and is parenchymatous with shaped cells. Inner tangential and walls are deposited with suberin casparian bands. | cells opposite to elements lack casparian ss and are called passage cells sfusion cells. T. SOF ADICOTROOT is made up of a single layer of parenchyma cells. bundles are radial, closed and xylem is exarch patches of vascular tissues are present and therefore, the condition is tetrarch. very much reduced or totally absent. “between xylem and phloem, parenchymatous conjunctive tissue is present. ANATOMY OF MONOCOT ROOT E.g., ZEA MAYS (MAIZE) ‘geatomical features of a typical monocot we TS of a monocot root shows 3 distinct segions: epiblema, cortex and pith. ‘Qutermost layer is called epiblema or pliferous layer which is made up of a single layer of parenchyma cells with unicellular root hairs and without ct Cortex is parenchymatous and multilayered. Endodermis is parenchymatous with barrel shaped cells. Inner walls are deposited with suberin to form U - shaped casparian strips. le. 7.8 OF MoNOCOT ROOT BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 5. Endodermal cells opposite to protoxylem elements lack casparian thickenings and are called Passage cells or transfusion cells. Pericycle is single layered and parenchymatous. Vascular bundles are radial, closed and xylem is exarch, More than six patches each of xylem and phloem are present. Hence, polyarch. Pith is well developed, very large and parenchymatous. 10. In between xylem and phloem, parenchymatous conjunctive tissue is present. yeaua OBSERVATION Signature of the Batch in-charge BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA EXERCISE 6: ANIMAL TISSUES : To study different types of animal tissues. Principle: Tissue is a group of similar cells that usually have a similar embryological origin and are specialized for a particular function. The body tissues are classified into four fundamental types according to their structure and function: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous. Epithelial tissue is composed of a sheet of cells covering the free surfaces of the body ~ inner and ‘outer. Connective tissue binds and support other tissues and organs of the body. Muscular tissue helps in movement of body parts and locomotion, Nervous tissue is controls and coordinate body activities in response to external and internal stimul: 6.1, EPITHELIAL TISSUE: E.g., SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM Source: Tissue collected from the scrapings of buccal cavity/Permanent slide. Requirements: Buccal smear, Methylene blue, 0.9% NaCl, Glycerine, Glass slide, Cover slip, Needles, Dropper, Spatula or Tea spoon, Absorbent paper, Compound microscope. Procedure: Rinse the mouth with clean water. Gently scrape the wall of the oral cavity (cheek) using a spatula or a tea spoon. Transfer the scraping to a clean glass slide. Place a drop of 0.9% NaCI solution or physiological saline and a drop of methylene blue stain on the scraping. After about 2-3 minutes, place a cover slip carefully with the help of a needle. Remove excess stain and NaCI solution with absorbent paper. Observe the slide under the microscope. Observation: 1. Cells are extremely thin, flat and scale like having polygonal shape. Cells are compactly arranged without intercellular spaces. Spherical and centrally located single nucleus produces a bulge in the cell Cells rest upon the common basement membrane, SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA, 6.2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE: E.g., BLOOD Source: Capillary blood obtained by fingertip / Permanent slide Requirements: Disposable sterile lancet, Rectified spirit (70% alcohol), Sterilized cotton, Glass slides, Leishman / Geimsa / Wright stain, Glycerine, Distilled water, Needles and Compound microscope, Procedure: {SPREADER SUDE 1 Clean the tip of the middle finger with alcohol / rectified spirit, allow the finger to air dry. Hold the finger firmly and prick the finger tip with a sterile lancet. 3. Discard the first drop of blood. 4 Carefully place a drop of blood on one end of @ slide in the middle (about 1 cm from the end). Take care not to touch the skin of the tip of the finger with the slide. Place the specimen slide on the flat surface of the table, and hold it in position at the opposite end of the slid firmly with middle and thumb of the left hand. & Place the smooth edge of another slide on the specimen slide at approximate angle of 45° in front of the drop of the blood and pull the slide back until it touches the drop of blood. Wait for few seconds till the STEPS OF PREPARATION OF BLOOD SMEAR blood run along the line of contact. sacar sue Move the slide towards the other end of the slide with a smooth, quick, and controlled movement so that a thin blood film is formed. 8 Airdry the blood smear for about 5-10 minutes. 2 Pour few drops of stain (Leishman’s / Geimsa / Wright's stain) on the smear and leave it for 2-3 minutes. 10. Add double the amount of distilled water on the smear with a dropper. Do not spill out water 11. Mix the stain and water evenly by blowing gently. Leave it till its colour becomes light violet. 12. Drain out the stain, and wash the slide gently and thoroughly under tap water. While washing, ensure that the smear is not directly under the stream of water. 13. Air dry the slide and mount with a cover slip using a drop of glycerine. 14. Observe the side under a compound microscope first under low magnification and then at higher magnification. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 31 Observation: 1. Blood is composed of pale yellow transparent fluid called plasma and different ss Re types of cells or corpuscles. Css 2. There are three varieties of cells or corpuscles, namely the erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles (RBC), leucocytes or white blood cells (WBC) and Thrombocytes or platelets. 3. Red blood corpuscles (RBC) are circular, biconcave and, enucleated discs. 4. White blood cells (WAC) are of two types, namely granulocytes and agranulocytes. 5. Granulocytes have lobed nucleus and Srintlee ohoneatie Rese are OF falowing aang ees ee adr types a. Neutrophils: Nucleus is multi-lobed (2-5 lobed). b. Eosinophils: Nucleus is trilobed and twisted into an 'S' shape. c. Basophils: Nucleus is bilobed. 6. Agranulocytes have non-lobed nucleus with agrenular cytoplasm. These are of the following types. a. Monocytes: Larger cells with kidney shaped nucleus. b. Lymphocytes: Cells are slightly bigger than RBC and have spherical nucleus. 7. Platelets or thrombocytes are very small cells. They do not possess nucleus but have granular cytoplasm snvtmRocrTes ‘svo00 PLarHAETS 6.3. MUSCULAR TISSUE Requirements: Permanent slides of skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscles, and a compound a microscope. DARK BAND Observation: Record the observation and draw labelled lat BAND diagrams SARCOLEMMA |, Skeletal / Striated / Striped muscle fibres: Skeletal muscles are voluntary and striated muscles found attached to the skeleton, except the diaphragm and tongue. These exhibit the following features: 1. Muscle fibres are elongated, cylindrical, unbranched, multinucleated (syncytium) and occur in bundles. 2. Fibres are externally bound by distinct sarcolemma, SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBRES BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 32 3 Nuclei lie along the periphery of the fibre. 4 Myofibrils are abundant and are seen as alternate dark and light bands = Smooth/ Visceral muscle fibres: Smooth muscles are non-striated, involuntary muscles found in the walls of hollow visceral organs namely stomach, intestine, blood vessels, uterus etc. These exhibit the following features: 1. Muscle fibres are elongated, spindle shaped with a broad central part and tapering ends. 2. Sarcolemma is absent. Eoch fibre has a single centrally placed nucleus. 4 Myofibrils are scanty and randomly distributed without forming alternate dark and light bands. Cardiac muscle fibres: Cardiac muscles are striated, involuntary muscles found in the wall of heart. These undergo highly rhythmic contractions and are indefatigable. These exhibit the following features: 1. Muscle fibres are elongated, cylindrical, branched and reticulate. Sarcolemma is thin but distinct. Each fibre (myocyte) has centrally placed single nucleus. Myofibrils possess faint cross striations. 5. At the junction of cells, the sarcolemma is unevenly thick and forms intercalated dise Nuceus SARCOLEMMA INTERCALATED DISC (CROSS STRIATIONS CARDIAC MUSCLE FIBRES (junctional complex). BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 33 EXERCISE Aim: To study the modifications of root : ROOT MODIFICATIONS Principle: Roots are primarily for anchorage and absorption of water and nutrients from the soil However, in many plants, roots are variously modified to perform different functions like storage, climbing, floating, etc. Requirements: Specimens or charts of radish, carrot, beet, turnip, Asparagus, sweet potato, pneumatophores, stilt roots, climbing roots, leguminous plants showing root nodules 7.1, Root modifications for food storage i 2, CONICAL ROOT FUSIFORM ROOT —_NAPIFORM ROOT Fusiform root: E.g., Radish Ee, CARROT Eg, RADISH Eg, BEET 1 Primary tap root modification for storage of TAP ROOTS MODIFICATION FOR STORAGE reserve food material. 2. Primary root is spindle shaped. It is swollen in the middle and tapers at both the apex. 3. Secondary roots are many and thin thread like. Conical root: E.g., Carrot 1. Primary tap root modification for storage of reserve food material 2. Primary root is cone shaped with a broad base and gradually tapers towards the lower end. 3. Secondary roots are many and thin thread like. Napiform root: E.g., Beet and Turnip 1. Primary tap root modification for storage of | TUEROUS ROOTS FASICULATED ROOTS - Eg, SWEET POTATO Eg, DAHUA reserve food material. Women) 2. Primary root is globular or top shaped. It is ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS MODIFICATION FOR STORAGE very broad, almost spherical and tapers abruptly towards the apex. 3. Secondary roots are many and thin thread like. Tuberous root or Root tubers: E.g., Sweet potato 1. Modified adventitious roots that arise from the nodes of stem. 2. Roots are swollen, occur singly and have no definite shape. 3. Store reserve food material. Fasiculated root: E.g., Asparagus and Dahlia 1. Modified adventitious roots. 2. Roots are fleshy, occur in groups and usually have a definite shape. 3. Store reserve food material. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 35, 7.2. Tap root modification for nitrogen fixation | Nodulated or Tuberculate roots of a legume: E.g., Pea 41. Roots nodules are the characteristic pink coloured rere swellings found on the primary tap root and its branches aaereat of leguminous plants. 2. Rhizobium, a nitrogen fixing bacteria lives in the root ican nodules. 3. The association between the plant and the bacterium is symbiotic where both are benefitted. The rhizobium fixes 4 atmospheric free nitrogen which is absorbed by the plant 2 and in return the plant provides food and shelter to 3 bacteria. NOoULATEDROOTOFALEGUME 7.3. Root modifications for mechanical support Prop roots: .g., Banyan . Stilt roots: E.g., Maize and Sugar cane i PROP ROOTS OF BANYAN Adventitious roots produced in trees like Banyan (Ficus bengalensis). Arise vertically downward from horizontal branches of the tree and penetrate into the soil. Provide mechanical support to the horizontal branches of the tree like pillars. Adventitious roots produced in monocots like Maize, Sugarcane and Pandanus. Arise obliquely in clusters from lower nodes of stem. Provide mechanical support to the main stem, BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA, 36 Gimbing roots: E.g., Betel, Pepper ‘CLIMBING ROOTS OF PEPPER Adventitious roots produced in plants like Betel, Pepper etc. Arise from the nodes or internodes for attachment to a supporting object. The claw-like roots clasp the support and help the climber in twining around it 7.4, Root modification for gaseous exchange Preumatophores or Breathing roots: E.g., Rhizophora NORMALROOT [MANGROVE PLANT WITH PHEUMATOPHORES Pneumatophores found in plants growing in mangroves or saline marshes. They grow vertically upward from the surface of the soil or water like conical spikes. Terminal parts of pneumatophores have numerous minute pores of special lenticels (air pores or pneumatothodes) which help in respiratory exchange of gases. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 37 EXERCISE — 8: STEM MODIFICATIONS Aim: To study the modifications of stem Principle: Stem is the central axis that provides support to all the aerial parts of the plant. It conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves and synthesized food from the feaves. It bears flowers and fruits. However in some plants, the stem is variously modified to perform secondary functions like food storage, perennation, vegetative propagation, photosynthesis, protection, support etc. Requirements: Specimens of Ginger, Potato, whole plant of Oxalis, Eichornia, tendrils of Passion ower, thorns of Bougainvillea / Acacia, Opuntia. ‘Observation: Some of the modifications of stem are 8.1. Stem modifications for food storage GERMINATING noots SCAROFSCALELEAF GERMAIN BASE OF POTATO PLANT SHOWING TUBERS SINGLE TUBER OF POTATO Tuber: E.g., Potato 1 Fleshy, swollen underground stem that arises at the tip of underground stem branch or stolon. Nodes and internodes are present. Nodes are called eyes and each eye consists of a scaly leaf and one or more axillary buds. Adventitious roots are absent. Tuber of potato contains reserve food in the form of starch. a) Rhizome: E.g., Ginger Thick underground stem. 2 Stores food material and a means of perennation during unfavourable season. 2 Nodes and internodes are present. 4 Nodes bear brown papery scale leaves and they develop adventitious roots on getting favourable 2%) No colour change Glucose is absent Test for Albumin ~ Nitric acid ring test Take 5 ml of conc. HNO; and add § ml of | White ring is formed at urine sample, slowly along the side of the | the junction of 2iquids | NPUMInisPresent test tube. No white ring. Albumin is absent j Test for Bile pigments — Lugol's lodine test Take 4 ml of urine sample, add 4 mi of | Green colour Bile pigments present iodine solution and shake well. Yellow to brown Bile pigments absent Tabulation of results Sample | Test for urea Test for glucose _| Test for albumin | Test for bile pigments | A B c Lo } Note: ‘#’ indicates ‘Presence, ‘—’ indicates ‘Absence’ BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA. 62 surgical cotton, distilled water and funnel. into a test tube through wet cotton. EXERCISE — 21: SALIVARY AMYLASE ACTIVITY Aim: To study the action of salivary amylase on starch. Principle: Salivary amylase or ptyalin is an enzyme present in saliva secreted by the salivary glands. It hydrolyses starch into maltose and dextrins. Salivary amylase activity can be tested by detecting the presence or absence of starch. lodine test is an indirect test. Positive result indicates the absence of salivary amylase activity and vice versa. Requirements: 1% of starch, saliva, iodine, test tubes, test tube holder, test tube stand, beaker, Preparation of enzyme extract: Chew a piece of rubber and pour the saliva into a beaker. Filter it Experiment Observation Inference Take 5 ml of starch solution in a test tube and | No colour Starch absent due to add 1 mi of saliva. Leave for about 20-30 | change Salivary amylase activity. minutes. Add 1 ml of lodine solution. Take 5 ml of starch solution in a test tube and | Blue colour Starch present due to add 1 mi of distilled water. Leave for about 20- absence of — Salivary 30 minutes. Add 1 ml of lodine solution. amylase activity, Tabulation of results: { Sample Starch Salivary amylase activity A B : “# indicates ‘Presence’, ‘— indicates ‘Absence’ BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 63 EXERCISE — 22: HUMAN SKELETON ‘Aim: To study the human skeleton. Principle: Adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. It is divisible into axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs. The appendicular skeleton consists of pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle and limbs. Requirement: Specimen of human skeleton. Observation: i. Observe different types of bones and joints present in a human skeleton. ji. Draw labelled diagrams of your observations. Observation: SKULL 1. Skull is the skeleton of head region. It is made up of two sets of bones: cranial bones and facial bones. 2. Sutures are the immovable joints present between the bones of the skull 3. There are 8 cranial bones: frontal (1), parietal (2), temporal (2), occipital (1), sphenoid (1) and ethmoid (1). Cranial bones form the cranial cavity and enclose the brain. 5. There are 14 facial bones: nasal (2), maxillae (2), zygomatic (2), mandible (1), lacrimal (2), palatine (2), nasal conchae (2) ‘and vomer (1) Facial bones form the front part of the skull Pair of depressions called orbits (eye sockets) is present that contain eyeball 8. The skull is dicondylic i.e., it has 2 occipital condyles that articulate with the first cervical vertebra, the atlas. 9. Occipital bone encloses a large opening called foramen ‘magnum through which the brain continues posteriorly as spinatcord, 10. Maxilla forms the upper jaw and the mandible forms the lower jaw. They bear the teeth. 11. A single U-shaped hyoid bone is present at the base of buccal cavity. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA HUMAN SKULL, Cheevx VERTEBRAL COLUMN 64 VERTEBRAL COLUMN (SPINE) 1 2. It consists of a series of 26 bones called vertebrae. 3. They are cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (1) and coccyx (1). Intervertebral discs are present between vertebrae. A typical vertebra has a) Centrum or body. b) Neural canal through which passes the spinal cord. ©) Two laterally projecting transverse processes. d) Median neural spine. THORACIC CAGE 1. The thoracic cage is formed by the sternum, 12 pairs of ribs and thoracic vertebrae. 2. Sternum or Breast bone: a) Forms the floor of the branchial basket. b) Bears 7 notches for articulation with ribs. ¢) Top end has a hexagonal disc called manubrium. d) Lower end has a reduced bone called xiphoid process. 3. Ribs: The vertebral column forms the axial skeleton of the trunk of the body. a) Long flat bones having head and tubercle attached to the centrum and transverse process of vertebrae. ‘ATYPICAL VERTEBRA ‘THORACIC CAGE b) The first 7 pairs of ribs are attached directly to the sternum and hence called true ribs. ¢) 8”, 9" and 10” pairs of ribs are attached indirectly to the sternum and hence called false ribs. d) 11" and 12" pairs of ribs have no anterior attachment and hence called floating ribs. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 65 PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE 1. Each of the two pectoral girdles consists of 2 bones: scapula and clavicle. 2. Scapula (Shoulder blade): ) Large triangular flat triangular bone with a slightly elevated ridge called spine. b) The spine project as flat expanded process called acromion. ©) Acup-like glenoid cavity is present for articulation with the humerus. 3. Clavicle (Collar bone): a) Long, slender bone with two curvatures. 6) Itarticulates with the acromion of scapula. PELVIC (HIP) GIRDLE 1. The pelvic girdle consist of 2 the hip bones. 2. Each of the two hip bones is formed by the fusion of 3 bones: ilium, ischium and pubis. 3. At the junction of the 3 bones, there is a cavity called acetabulum. It articulates with the femur. 4. The two hip bones are united to each other anteriorly at a joint called the pubic symphysis. BONES OF HAND (FORE LIMB) 1. Each fore limb has 30 bones: humerus (1), radius (1), ulna (1), carpals (8), metacarpals (5) and phalanges (14). 2. Humerus 2) Long bone of the upper arm consisting of head, neck, a long shaft and a distal end. b) The head fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula. ©) The shaft has a deltoid ridge for the attachment of muscles. d) The distal end has a trochlear process, which form elbow Joint with radius and ulna. 3. Radius and Uina: a) Are the two separate bones of the fore arm. b)_Uina is longer than radius ¢)Ulna has a large olecranon process at its proximal end that articulates with the humerus. 4. Carpals consist of 8 bones and are arranged in two rows of four. They form the wrist. ‘ONES OF THE WRIST, PALM ANO FINGERS 5. Metacarpals consist of 5 long slender bones. They form the palm of the hand. 6. Phalanges consist of 14 bones: 2 in the thumb and 3 in each of the remaining 4 fingers. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA. 66 Bones or | ‘THE FOOT BONES OF THE FORE LIMB BONES OF THE HIND LIMB BONES OF LEG (HIND LIMB) TARSALS (ANKLE BONES) 1. Each lower limb has 30 bones: femur (1), tibia (1), fibula (1), patella (1), tarsals (7), metatarsals (5) and phalanges (14) 2. Femur or thigh bone: a) Femur is the longest and strongest bone in the body. b) It consists of a head, neck, shaft and BOWES Ce THE FOOT distal end. c) The head is spherical in shape and fits into the acetabulum of the hip bone. d) Proximal end has trochanters for attachment of thigh muscles. e) The distal end has two condyles. They articulate with the patella and tibia. 3. Tibia and Fibula: a) Are the two free bones present in the shank region of the leg. b) Tibia is larger than the fibula. ¢) The proximal end of tibia articulates with the femur and patella and forms knee. 4. The patelia is called the knee cap. 5. Tarsals: a) Consist of 7 bones arranged in two rows of 4 and 3. b) Form the ankle of the leg. c) The largest tarsal bone is calcaneus which form heel. 6. Metatarsals consist of 5 long bones and form foot. 7. Phalanges consist of 14 bones: 2 in great toe and 3 in each of the remaining 4 toes. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 67 EXERCISE — 23: BONE JOINTS Aim: To study the joints of human skeleton. Principle: A bone joint is a point of contact between bones, between cartilage and bones, or between teeth and bones. They may be freely movable, slightly movable or immovable. Requirement: Specimen of human skeleton. Procedure: 1 Observe different types of bones and joints present in a human skeleton. 2 Draw labelled diagrams of your observations. Observation: |. Gliding Joints a age BETWEEN THE TARSUS OF FOOT DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION 1. Allow back and forth or side to side movement of all or a few joining elements. 2. E.g,, Joints present between bones of tarsals. Il. Pivot Joints ONT BETWEEN THE ATLAS AND —_DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION AXIS VERTEBRA 1. Allow rotational movement i.e., the turning of the head from side to side. E.g,, Joints present between atlas and axis vertebrae. BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 70 II, Hinge Joints HUMERUS: bk Hance ONT RADIUS itl [BETWEEN HUMERUS AND ULNA DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION 1. Allow movement in one plane only. 2. Eg, Joints present between elbow and knee. Iv. Saddle Joints vat BSeTWEEN CARPAL ANO CIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION METACARPAL OF THUME, 1. Allow movement in two planes. 2. E,g,,Joints present between metacarpals and carpals of thumb, V. Ball and Socket Joints rans poem M *, Bo y FEMUR sa ovxcraaman BETWEEN PELVIS ANDFEMUR REPRESENTATION 1. Allow movement in more than two planes i.e., nearly in all directions. 2. Eg, Joints present between humerus and pectoral girdle, femur and pelvic girdle, malleus and Incus (in the ear ossicles) BIOLOGY FORUM OF KARNATAKA 71

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