ECE 2508

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

TOPIC-5
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS AND
GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN

1
 Subsurface Investigations
Subsurface/Site Investigations
 Site investigations refers to the procedure
of determining surface and subsurface
conditions in an area proposed for
construction
 Surface and subsurface features may
influence what can be built and will affect
design and construction procedure
 Information on surface condition is
important for planning construction
techniques
Objectives for Subsurface Investigation
• Determine depth, thickness and nature
of lithological of various soils or rocks
• Determine horizontal and vertical
variability of the rock strata
• Determine engineering properties of
various strata
• Determine depth of water table (ground
water)
Stages of subsurface investigation
(i) Reconnaissance (office and field)
(ii) Drilling, Samplings and Soundings
Sampling An example of Boring logs after drilling, showing soil
(iii) Laboratory Testing of the samples stratification, ground water and with laboratory testing 2
 Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance
 Collection of all the available information about subsurface prior to drilling and sampling, sounding.
 Depending on the engineering organization and the nature of project, varying amount of effort are
expended in the reconnaissance stage
 Drilling and sampling program can be planned more effectively if available information is reviewed
prior to initiation of drilling
 Reconnaissance is commonly accomplished in two phases
Office Reconnaissance
Field Reconnaissance
Office Reconnaissance
Several tasks can be accomplished during office phase
It should be kept in mind that gaining information by drilling and sampling is expensive. Hence Office
Reconnaissance can be achieved through
 Review of design plan and Preliminary plans:
 Review of Engineering Reports
 Review of published Information (Topographic Maps, Google earth maps, Geological Maps, Agricultural soil maps,
Aerial photographs, well log data)

3
 Office Reconnaissance

Office Reconnaissance
Review of Engineering Reports
o Engineeering reports may provide general information on the soil, rock and ground water conditions of the
area.
o Many private companies and private agencies have a ccumulated information on certain geographical
information and specific type of project
o Report on previous construction may be helpful for anticipated foundation problems
o Government agencies are the primary source of information of public records

Review of published Information or open file Geological report

Other information pertaining to site area can be obtained from
Topographic Maps
Google earth maps
Geological Maps
Agricultural soil maps
Aerial photographs
Well log data)

Next formulated field visit, decide on the number and depth of boring and stake the boring location

4
 Field Reconnaissance
Field Reconnaissance
 After the office phase, the field phase should commence with a site visit
 Field reconnaissance has two major purpose
 Allow experiences observer to view the site and record information that is pertinent
to boring plan or foundation design
 Gather information needed by drilling crew to accomplish boring program
 Number of items to look for in the field during reconnaissance are
(a) Proposed location of structure: If the location is poor, we can shift the location
(b) Topography and vegetation: Accessibility etc
(c) Soil geology, gully and natural slopes: surface depression or slope stability problems
(d) Surface and subsurface water: Indicate drainage problem
(e) Geology of the site: Any rock outcrop
(f) Information needed by drilling crew
i. Boring plan: Staking the boring
ii. Type of equipment required: Truck mounted (dry areas)or Track mounted
(marshy terrain)
iii. Right of access: Properties owner need to be notified and permission to access
obtained
iv. Location of utility: Waterline, Sewer line, gas lines electrical line ( Any part of
the drilling rigs must be 6 m away from power line) must be shown on the plan

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 Formulation of the Boring Plan-Spacing and depth of borings
Fomulation
 Boring plan should be developed during final stage of office reconnaissance for subsequent preview during field
reconnaissance
 Several factors help determine the number depth and layout of borings
 Nature of construction project
 Complexity of subsurface materials
 Personal judgements of the construction manager
 Policy of the organization involved
 Below are common guidelines to selecting the spacing and depth of borings
Spacing
Most Engineering companies use guidelines set by American Society of Civil Engineers
• For important structures one hole per 232 m2 or one hole per 465 m2giving spacing of 15 m and 22m per hole
• Some Engineers prefer to prefer to use a random boring plan rather than a grid patter
Depth (minimum)
Minimum Depth of hole depends on loads that are likely to be imposed on the structure. Multistory building depth will
depend on number of stories. Guidelines used are
(a) Depth of 2B below the footing bottom (B= width of footing)
(b) Depth= Bedrock depth if bedrock is shallower than 2B with some rock coring
(c) Number of story : Db=3S0.7 (Light steel and narrow concrete) and Db=6S0.7 (heavy streel and wide concrete) where
Db=depth of boring and S= number of stories
(d) Depth ∆σ/σ’o<10% (∆σ =change is stress from foundation, σ’o =effective overburden stress)

Note: No Boring should be terminated in loose ground

6
Influence Zone of stress below a foundation

Depth of influence Zin is equal to 2B below the footing bottom (B= width of footing)

∆σv = profile of Change σ’o = Effective

in pressure due to overburden pressure due
application of loading on to insitu soil profile
foundation with depth

7
 Pressure distribution below loaded foundation

 Foundation needs to be desired to

resist
(a) Bearing failure
(b) Settlement of the foundation due to
addition load from foundation
 The influence load diminishes at
depth equal to 2B hence settlement
is minimal at that depth
 Subsurface investigation
information up to depth of 2B
below the foundation footing.

8
Distribution of stress underneath structures (Bossiness method- Point Load)

Load Q is in kN

Z is any distance below the

footing

r is radial distance away from

the footing. For stress
directly below the center of
footing r=0

9
 EXAMPLE 1: Distribution of stress underneath structures (Bossiness method- Point Load)
Review of previous subsurface investigation revealed that a site for the construction of city lighting pole and sign structure consists
of 3 m thick sand layer overlying 8 m thick sandy gravel layer. The unit weights of the subsurface materials are as shown.
Highway design code stipulates that the boring for sign structure be advanced at least to a depth where the change in stress due to
load on the sign structure is approximately 5% of the effective overburden pressure. Calculate the required depth of boring for a
sign structure that will be required to carry 150kN load.
Q=150 kN Effective
Maximum change in stress
overburden stress
with be at the center of light
structure r=0 corresponding σ’v0 =∑γ∆Z
to IB=0.48 Depth,
Unit weight,γ stress due to layer σ'v0 ∆σv ∆σ v/σ 'vo Advance
Layer
Z(m) ∆Z(m) (kN/m )
3 2
thickness (kN/m ) (kN/m2) (kN/m )
2
(%) boring to
0 0 17 0 0.0 -
atleast
0.5 0.5 17 8.5 8.5 288.0 3388.2

SAND
1 0.5 17 8.5 17.0 72.0 423.5 between 4-
with clay
1.5
2
0.5
0.5
17
17
8.5
8.5
25.5
34.0
32.0
18.0
125.5
52.9
4.5 m deep
2.5 0.5 17 8.5 42.5 11.5 27.1 where the
3
3.5
0.5
0.5
17
18
8.5
9
51.0
60.0
8.0
5.9
15.7
9.8
change in
Dense SAND with clay
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/m3
4 0.5 18 9 69.0 4.5 6.5 stress due to
3m

4.5 0.5 18 9 78.0 3.6 4.6

foundation
2.5 m

Water content, w=10%

5 0.5 18 9 87.0 2.9 3.3
5.5 0.5 18 9 96.0 2.4 2.5 will be at
Sandy
6
6.5
0.5
0.5
18
18
9
9
105.0
114.0
2.0
1.7
1.9
1.5
approximate
Very dense Sandy Gravel 7 0.5 18 9 123.0 1.5 1.2 ly 5% of the
Gravel with Silt with Silt 7.5 0.5 18 9 132.0 1.3 1.0
Unit weight, γ=18 8 0.5 18 9 141.0 1.1 0.8
effective
overburden
8m

kN/m3 8.5 0.5 18 9 150.0 1.0 0.7

Water content, 9 0.5 18 9 159.0 0.9 0.6
w=12% 9.5 0.5 18 9 168.0 0.8 0.5 stress
10 0.5 18 9 177.0 0.7 0.4
10.5 0.5 18 9 186.0 0.7 0.4
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Distribution of stress underneath structures (2V:1H Method)

q is in kN/m2

q0 is in kN then

𝑞𝑞0
Δ𝜎𝜎 =
𝐵𝐵 + 𝑧𝑧 + 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑧𝑧

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 Subsurface Explorations: Sounding, Drilling and Sampling
Soil boring
Exploration
 Exploration can be accomplished in two
ways
(a) Test Pits: Provide visual identification of soil
strata. Excavated to limited depth
(b) Boring: Can be extended to greater depths

Test Pit

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Subsurface Explorations: Sounding, Drilling and Sampling

13
Subsurface Explorations: Sounding, Drilling and Sampling

14
 Test Pits
 Excavation by hand or an excavator
 Soil lithology, type, depth of layer
and color is observed and logged
 Sample collected are disturbed
samples
 Different soils types are represented
by different shading.

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 Drilling Hole Advancing Techniques

 When soil investigation extends to some depth, mechanical means of drilling are used.
 Two techniques are widely used
 Auger method: hollow stem auger, Solid flight auger or continuous flight auger
 Wash boring
 Augering/ wash boring are means of advancing the boring
 When advancing the hole casing may be required to protect the hole from collapsing/caving in

Auger head contains

Wash boring replicable carbide teeth.
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 Augering & Wash boring

Wash boring have to be cased to be Hollow stem auger have distant

advanced. Normally they are used to advantage over solid stem auger in
clean the holes after solid stem that they do not need to be removed
auguring frequently for sample to be taken

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 In-situ sampling
SPT Sampling: Collecting
disturbed samples for
Gradation and Atterberg
limits
Moisture content
Remolded strength

Shelby tube sampling: Collecting

Test Pit Sampling: Collecting rock sample soil samples for
disturbed soil samples for (i) Strength test: Direct shear or
(i) Gradation and Atterberg Triaxial/ unconfined
limits compressive strength
(ii) Proctor and CBR sampling (ii) Permeability test
(iii) Water content

Rock coring: Collecting rock All the test are for

sample soil samples for determining engineering
(i) Rock compressive strength/ properties of the soils and
Point load test rock
(ii) Rock triaxial testing
(iii) Rock soundness test
 Insitu Soil Sampling
disturbed
Standard Penetration Testing
Soil sampling can be disturbed (SPT)/ Split spoon sampling
or undisturbed sample

undisturbed
Shelby Tube sampling
SPT sampling

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 SPT SAMPLING

SPT hammer

SPT Sampler

Casing

SPT Testing
 Split spoon sampler is used to collect sample
 The split spoon has an inside diameter of
34.93 mm and outside diameter of 50.8 mm
 The sampler is driven into the soil by hammer
blow. The weight of the hammer is 622.7 N
the hammer drops a distance of 0.762 m
 The number of blows required for a split
spoon to penetrate Three (3)-152 mm are
recorded
 The number of blow required for the last
two- 152 mm intervals are added and given
Standard Penetration Number, N at that depth
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 Sample storage
SPT Testing Example 2: Sample disturbance
 The Split spoon is opened, and the recovery of
the sample is measured (length of the sample
inside the spoon)
 Visual classification of soil is done
 Boring logs are produced
 The sample are recovered from the split
spoon and stored in a glass jar or zip lock bag
to preserve the moisture
 Indicate boring number, depth, sample number

Sample
stored in
Ziplock
bag to Example 3: SPT, N value
preserve
moisture QUESTION
Standard Penetration Test was conducted using a
standard split spoon sample. The recorded blow
counts for the three 150 mm penetrations were 8-
12-7. Determine the SPT, N value
Solution
N-value is the sum of the blow counts for the last two- 152
mm intervals
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N=12+7=19
 Factor affecting N-value
Factors affecting N- value
We need to correct N-value for both hammer type
 The type of soil and density
state. Dense soils have high (efficiency) and soil overburden pressure
N-value than loose soil.
Soil above water table have
higher values than soil
below water table Correction for overburden
 The type of hammer:  The effect of the effective
Different hammers have overburden pressure so
different efficiency ( Auto should be accounted for
Hammer =80% efficiency,  The coefficienct CN varies
safety Hammer 60% with effective overburden
efficiency) hence N-vanue stress
from Donout hammer will  The Coefficient is multiplied
Correcting for Hammer efficiency by N60 to obtain (N1)60
be more that the N-value
 The standard practice is to express N-value
from Auto hammer
to an average energy ratio of 60%
 The depth where the sample is
collected: The effect of
ηH=80% for Auto hammer and 60% for safety
effective soil overburden
hammer and 45% for Donut hammer
pressure at very deeper
Other coefficients can be neglected
depth. N value at deeper
N60=N ηH /60
depth will be more than
For Safety hammer N60=N
N-values at shallower
For Auto hammer N60=80N
depth.
/60=1.333 N
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 EXAMPLE 4: Correction for overburden
• several correlations existing
for determining CN
• value of CN≤2.0
SAND with Silt
Unit weight, γ=16
3m

kN/m3
Water content, Solution
w=15%
SAND with gravel and
Determine N-value
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/ (1) N =8+12=20
8m

m3
SPT= 2-8-12 Water content,
w=18% Determine N60
N60= Nx80/60=20x80/60=26.6=27
Correction for overbudden
Determine (N1)60
Boring logs showed soil lithology consist of 3 m
CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5
of Sand with silt overlying 8 m thick layer of
sand with gravel and silty. The properties of the σ’v0 =∑γH= (16x3)+(18x5)=138kN/m2
soils are as shown on the figure. SPT was taken a
depth of 5 m below the SAND with gravel and CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5=(100/138) 0.5=0.85
Silt layer using an Auto Hammer Rig .The blow
counts were 2-8-12 for each 152 mm penetration (N1)60= CN xN60=0.85x27=22.95
was calculated for the spoon sampler. Determine
(N1)60 (N1)60=23
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 EXAMPLE 5: Correction for overburden
SAND with Silt Solution
Unit weight, γ=16

2m
3m
Ground water kN/m3
Water content, Determine N-value
w=15% (1) N =8+12=20
SAND with gravel and
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/ Determine N60
8m

m3 N60= Nx80/60=18x80/60=24
SPT= 2-7-11 Water content,
w=22%
Determine (N1)60
CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5
Correction for overbudden
Boring logs showed soil lithology σ’o =∑γH- ∑ γwHw= (16x3)+(18x5)-
consist of 3 m of Sand with silt (9.81x6)=(138-58.9)kN/m2=79.1 kN/m2
overlying 8 m thick layer of sand with
gravel and silty. The properties of the CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5=(100/79.1) 0.5=1.12
soils are as shown on the figure.
Ground was encountered at 2 m below (N1)60= CN xN60=1.12x24=26.98
the ground surface. SPT was taken a
depth of 5 m below the SAND with (N1)60=27
gravel and Silt layer using an Auto
Hammer Rig .The ]blow counts were 2-
8-12 for each 152 mm penetration was
calculated for the spoon sampler.
Determine (N1)60
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 Correlation between N-value Soil properties

SAND with Silt

Unit weight, γ=16
2m
3m

Ground water kN/m3

Water content,
w=15%
SAND with gravel and
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/
8m

m3
SPT= 2-7-11 Water content,
w=22%

Coarse grained soil the is defined by

relative density while fine grained soil
are defined by consistence

Determine density state of the sand deposit.

N =8+12=20
N60= Nx80/60=18x80/60=24
Medium dense, relatyive density between 40-70%

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 Soil Boring Logs and logging
 During drilling, soil samples are collected in
SPT spoon
 Blow counts are recorded
 Description of the soil type, density state ,
consistency is recorded
 Soil stratum/ layering is recorded
 For finned grained soil we take pocket
penetrometer test or Torvane Test to define
the unconfined compressive strength in the
field
 Ground water depth measured at the end of
drilling and 24 hrs after drilling ( 24 hrs
ground water depth is the design ground
water depth)
Laboratory Tests that can be performed on
disturbed samples are:
 Gradation: Soil classification
 Atterberg limits : Clay soils
 Direct shear test: Strength for remolded
samples
 Corrosion Testing
26
 UNDISTURBED SAMPLING-Shelby Tube Sampling

 When compressible soils/ fine grained soils are

Prior to sealing and shipping the samples, Torvane
encountered where SPT is impossible Shelby
tube sampling may be taken Tests or Pocket Penetrometer Tests can be used to
 Shelby Tube sampling is for compressible soils determine the undrained shear strength of the fine-
(clays and silts) grained soils
 The tube is attached and the end of the rig
and pushed down to the desired depth using
hydraulic jack
 Some torque is provided to shear the soil
 The tube is left in position for 20 minutes and
then pulled out
 Both ends of the tube is sealed with wax to
preserve moisture
 The tube is marked for depth and transported
in an upright manner 27
 Laboratory Test on Undisturbed Samples

Laboratory Tests that can be performed on undisturbed samples are:

 Consolidation test: For estimating consolidation settlement parameters for
fine grained soils
 Unconfined Compressive strength: Determine the undrained shear strength
 Unconsolidated Undrained Test : Short term undrained parameters for fine
grained soils
 Consolidated Undrained Test: Long term undrained parameters for fine
grained soils
 Consolidated Drained Test: Long term drained parameters for clay soils
 Permeability Test: Coefficient of permeability for fine grained soil

28
OBTAINING SOIL PARAMATERS FROM SPT
(a) Soil density, γ

29
OBTAINING SOIL PARAMATERS FROM SPT
(b) Friction Angle, φ

30
OBTAINING SOIL PARAMATERS FROM SPT
(b) Friction Angle, φ

AASHTO LRFD Manual provides Corrected correlation

between friction angle, φ and corrected N1(60)

31
OBTAINING SOIL AASHTO LRFD Manual
PARAMATERS provides Corrected
correlation between friction
FROM SPT angle, φ and corrected
(b) Elastic modulus N1(60) and soil elastic
modulus, Es
,E s
1 ksi =6895 kPa

32
SOIL DENSITY FROM SPT TESTING

33
HOUGH METHOD FOR SETTLEMENT

Used to calculate settlement of foundation based on

Corrected SPT N-Value N1(60)

1 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + Δσ𝑣𝑣
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒 = 𝐻𝐻 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10
𝐶𝐶𝐶 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣

Laboratory Tests that can be performed on undisturbed

samples are:
Se= Settlement of the subdivided layer
H= Thickness of the layer
σ’vo = Effective initial overburden pressure estimating
∆σ’vo = change in preesure due to foundation loading
C’= Bearing capacity index

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Design example (a) Interpret the log
Develop soil parameters for the boring logs given.
For Automatic Hammer
(Note 3.3 feet= 1 m)
Layer 1: N=4+3=7, N=0+2=2, N=2+2=4
Layer 2: N>50
Layer 3: N=19+26=45

Simplify the boring log into soil profile as shown

with ground water table

2.1 m
Loose fine SAND

4.9 m
(SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)

Very dense coarse SAND

2.3 m

(SPT N >50 )

Dense fine SAND

0.9 m

(SPT N=45 )

Rock/Hard ground 35
 Develop soil parameters (b) Soil density
Soil density were estimated from the table by Bowels
1977 below. For conservative design the bulk density will
be taken to be equal above and saturated density

2.1 m
• Layer 1: N=3, γ<15.7kN/m3 use 13kN/m3 Loose fine SAND
• Layer 2: N>50, γ>20.4kN/m3 use 20kN/m3 (SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)

4.9 m
γ=13 kN/m3
• Layer 3: N=46, 17.3<γ<20.4kN/m3 use 18kN/m3

Very dense coarse SAND

2.3 m
Estimated soil density is (SPT N >50 )
included in the profile γ=20 kN/m3

Dense fine SAND

(SPT N=45 )

0.9 m
γ=18 kN/m3

Rock/Hard ground

36
 Develop soil parameters (c) φ
Calculate N160 from the average N value from layer, estimate
effective overburden at the center of each later.

2.1 m
Loose fine SAND
Layer 1: (SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)

4.9 m
N=3 , N60=3×80/60=4, therefore N60=4 γ=13 kN/m3
φ=30°
σ’vo=(13×2.45)-(9.81×0.35)=28.42kN/m2
CN=(Pa/σ’vo)0.5=(100/28.42)0.5=1.88
N160=N60× CN =4×1.88=7.52, therefore N160 =7
Very dense coarse SAND
φ =(15.4× N160)0.5= (15.4×7)0.5 +20=30.3° therefore φ =30° (SPT N >50 )

2.3 m
(Conservative approach is to use the lower N-value) γ=20 kN/m3
φ=47°
Layer 2:
Dense fine SAND
N>50 , N60=50×80/60=66, therefore use N60=66 (SPT N=45 )

0.9 m
σ’vo =(13×4.9)+(20×1.15)-(9.81×3.95)=47.95kN/m2 γ=18 kN/m3
φ=45°
CN=(Pa/σ’vo)0.5=(100/47.95)0.5=1.44
Rock/Hard ground
N160=N60× CN =66×1.44=95, therefore use N160 =50 (limit)
φ =(15.4× N160)0.5= (15.4×50)0.5 +20=47.7° therefore φ =47°

Layer 3:
N=46 , N60=46×80/60=61, therefore use N60=61
σ’vo =(13×4.9)+(20×2.3)+(18×0.45)-(9.81×5.55)=63.35kN/m2
CN=(Pa/σ’vo)0.5=(100/63.35)0.5=1.25
N160=N60× CN =61×1.25=76, therefore use N160 =50 (limit)
φ =(15.4× N160)0.5= (15.4×50)0.5 +20=47.7° therefore reduce
φ =44° since the soil is less denser than layer 2
37
 Design of foundation(d) Bearing Capacity
Plans calls for construction of 5 story
building with foundation load of P=250 kN
on a square foundation of B=1 m.
Determine (i) if the loose will provide
enough strength bearing capacity failure (ii) Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
If the permissible immediate settlement of 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝐵γ𝑁𝑁γ
the foundation is 25 mm, is foundation safe
against excessive settlement (Use Hough For φ=30°, Nc =37.16 , Nq =22.46, Nγ =19.13
Method? 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = (0 × 37.16) + (1.0 × 13 × 22.46) + (0.5 × 13 × 1 × 19.13)
P=250 kN
𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = (0 × 37.16) + (1.0 × 13 × 22.46) + (0.5 × 13 × 1 × 19.13)

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 416.3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Df =1.0 m

Allowable bearing capacity

2.1 m

B=1.0 m 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 416.3

𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = = 138.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
4.9 m

Loose fine SAND 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 3

(SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)
γ=13 kN/m3 Foundation Pressure
φ=30°
𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 250
Very dense coarse SAND 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 250 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
(SPT N >50 ) 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 1 × 1
2.3 m

γ=20 kN/m3
φ=47°
Dense fine SAND qall < q max hence foundation fails against bearing capacity
(SPT N=45 )
check
0.9 m

γ=18 kN/m3
φ=45° 38
Rock/Hard ground
 Design of foundation(e) Settlement
P=250 kN
Hough Method of settlement
calculation
1 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + Δσ𝑣𝑣
Df =1.0 m

𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒 = 𝐻𝐻 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10
𝐶𝐶𝐶 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣

2.1 m
B=1.0 m
4.9 m

Loose fine SAND • Settlement be excessive

(SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)
γ=13 kN/m3 • Settlement mostly on the
φ=30° loose fine sand
Very dense coarse SAND
(SPT N >50 )
• Minimal settlement in the
2.3 m

γ=20 kN/m3 dense sand fine sand due to

φ=47°
Dense fine SAND
less effect of loading on
(SPT N=45 ) those layers
0.9 m

γ=18 kN/m3
φ=45°
Rock/Hard ground
Thickness γ Depth, Z ∆σ v
Layer N 160 C' Depth (m ) 3 σ ' vo (kPa) B+Z (m ) L+Z (m ) S e (m) S e (mm )
H (m ) (kN/m ) (m ) (kPa)
7 35 0 0 13 0.0 - - - -
7 35 1 1 13 13.0 0 1 1 250.0 0.0373 37.3
Fine Sand
7 35 2.1 1.1 13 27.3 1.1 2.1 2.1 56.7 0.0153 15.3
7 35 4.9 2.8 3.19 36.2 3.9 4.9 4.9 10.4 0.0088 8.8
Coarse 95 35.00 6.05 1.15 10.19 48.0 5.05 6.05 6.05 6.8 0.0019 1.9
Sand 95 300 7.2 1.15 10.19 59.7 6.2 7.2 7.2 4.8 0.0001 0.1
76 175 7.65 0.45 8.19 63.4 6.65 7.65 7.65 4.3 0.0001 0.1
Fine Sand
76 175 8.1 0.45 8.19 67.0 7.1 8.1 8.1 3.8 0.0001 0.1

Total 63.6
 Review of Rocks-Igneous rocks

Formation
 Formation by cooling of molted
rock materials (lava or magma)
 Magma is generated by local
heating and meting of rocks
within the earth’s crust
 Melting occurs at depths of 10-
100 km
 Most composition of rock melt at
temperatures of 800-1200° C
 Unweather igneous rocks generally have excellent
 When magma cools it solidifies
engineering properties and good materials to build on
by crystallizing into mosaic of Intrusive rocks are especially good (slow cooling).
minerals to form ingenious rocks  Cooling process, along with various tectonic forces within
 Igneous rocks can be classified as the earth produce fracturs especially in extrusive rocks
 Extrusive igneous rocks  Intact rocks between the cracks can be very strong, but
 Intrusive igneous rocks fractures form plane of weakness
 Igneous rocks are composed  The rock can slide along these weak planes, potentially
mainly of silicate minerals. causing instability of rock mass
 Engineering properties of weathered igneous rock are less
desirable because the rock is changing into a more soil like
materials.
Example of Identification of igneous rocks and types
 Sedimentary Rocks

Formation
 Are created from sediments
 Sediments form from outer skin
of earth crusts
 Most sedimentary rocks are of
secondary origin, the contain
detrital materials derived by
breakdown of existing rocks
 Some sedimentary rocks are a
product of chemical or biological
precipitation whereas others are
organic origin.
 Since sedimentary rocks are
formed from deposits, they are
mostly bedded or stratified.
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Soil deposits can be transformed back into rocks through the hardening process called induration or
lithification, thus forming sedimentary rocks.
 There re two types of such rocks
Clastic rocks and
Carbonate rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic Rocks:
• Form when deep soil deposits become hardened as a result of pressure
from overlying strata and cementation though precipitation of water-soluble
minerals such as calcium carbonate or ion oxide.
• These rocks are layered or stratified ,which makes the them
different from massive formation. The interface between these
layers are called bedding planes. Most clastic rocks are interbedded
such as conglomerates, breccia and sandstone. Those cemented
with silica or iron oxides are generally durable but may be
difficult to excavate. However, some are weakly indurated, often Slaking of clay bearing sedimentary
only cemented only with clay and other water-soluble minerals. rocks
These may behave much like a soil and may be much easier to
excavate.
• Fine grained and very fine-grained clastic rocks are more
common and much more problematic. Sometimes mudstone is
used to collectively described these rocks (siltstone ( derived from
silt) , claystone (derived from clay)or shale (derived from clay and well
indurated))
• These rocks have distinct bedding planes (bedding planes) and are
subjected to opening or shearing (failure) along those planes. All
except shale are easy to excavate with conventional earth
moving equipment (bulldozer).
• Some fine grained and very fine-grained elastic rocks are
subjected to slaking, which is deterioration after excavation and
exposure to atmosphere and wetting and drying cycles. Rock
which experience slaking will rapidly degenerate to soils and
thus create problem for engineering structure built on them
 Sedimentary Rocks ( Carbonate rocks)
Carbonates Rocks:
• Sometimes rock is covered with soil, so the
• forms when organic material accumulate
surface expression of karst topography may
and become indurated. Because oof their
be hidden.
organic origin they are called carbonates e.g.
• Nevertheless, the underground caverns
limestone, chalk and dolomite.
remain and sometimes the ground above
• Carbonate rocks, especially limestones can
caves into them This creates sinkhole.
be dissolved by long exposure to water,
• The caving in process may be trigged by
especially if it contains mild solution of
lowering of water table, which occurs when
carbonic acid.
well are installed for water supply purposes.
• Ground water often gains small quantities
of this acid through exposure to carbon
dioxide in the ground. This process often
produce karst topography which exposes may
underground very ragged rock at the
ground surface and many underground
caves and passageways.
Example of Identification of sedimentary rocks and types
 Metamorphic Rocks

Formation
 Derived from pre-existing
rock types and have gone
mineralogical, textural
and structural changes
 These changes are
brought by physical and
chemical environment
 Changing condition of
temperature and/ or
pressure are the primary
agent causing
metamorphic reactions in
rocks
 Metamorphic rock may
be foliated
 Metamorphic Rocks
• Both igneous and sedimentary rocks can be subjected to intense heat and pressure within earths crust.
• These condition produces dramatic change in minerals within the rocks, thus forming metamorphic rocks.
• The metamorphic process generally improve the engineering behavior of these rocks by increasing their
hardness and strength. Nevertheless, some metamorphic rocks can still be problematic.
• Some metamorphic rocks are foliated, which means they are oriented grains similar similar to bedding planes
in sedimentary rocks. These foliations are important because the shear strength is less for shear stress acting parallel
to the foliation.
• Other metamorphic rocks are nonfoliate and have no such orientation
• Unweathered, non foliated rocks generally provide excellent support for engineering works, and is similar to
intrusive igneous rocks in their quality.
• Some foliated rocks are prone to slippahe along foliated planes
• Metamorphic rocks are also subjected to weathering, thus forming weathered rocks, residual soils and
transported soils and beginning the new geological cycle.
 Rock Coring
• Rotary rock coring is used to obtain
Determining Top of rock during
cylindrical rock samples
subsurface investigation
• Coring by rotary method is accomplished
(a) Depth of spoon refusal: more that 50
using diamond drilling bit and a core
blows with a spoon penetration of less
barrel
than 1 mm. Then follow with
• The core barrel and drill bit are attached
auguring.
to the drill rods attached to the drilling
(b) Depth Auger refusal: No advancement
machine
of the auguring bit
• During drilling the core drilling bit is cooled
using water circulated by the drilling
machine
• At the end of the coring the core barrel is
pulled from the oil and rock sample
extruded.
• The amount of rock recovery is measured (
Ratio of the length of the rock sample to
the penetration depth of core barrel during
coring)
• Rock samples are stored in a core box and
depths partitioned
49
 Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
∑ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≥10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (%)
RQD=
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

No recovery/Low recovery of rock could be

either rock pieces being highly weathered
or presence of void in the rock mass 50
 Rock Quality Designate (EXAMPLE 2)

Mechanical break:
Fracture by driller. They
are ignored and the
rock piece is treated as
one piece.

51
Rock Quality Designate(EXAMPLE 3)

52
Example of Identification of metamorphic rocks and types
 Compressive Strength
Properties of intact rocks include
(2) Strength Properties
 Unconfined compressive strength:
also known as uniaxial compressive
strength
The test involves failing an Nx-size(54
mm) over sample with length to diameter
ratio of 2.0
the unconfine compressive strength is
obtained as
𝑃𝑃 EXAMPLE:
𝜎𝜎𝐶𝐶 =
𝐴𝐴 Arock core of limestone is 7.6 cm in diameter and 152 cm long. Its
P=load at failure loaded to failure in an unconfined compression testing machine. If failure
A= cross section are of the specimen load is 28,250 kg what is the unconfined compressive strength of
limestone
𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎𝐶𝐶 =
𝐴𝐴
P= 28250 kg=28250x9.81/(1000)=277kN (Mega Pascal)
A= (3.14x3.802)/(10000)=0.00453m

σc= 277/0.00453=61147kPa=61.1MPa
 Estimation of compressive strength-Point Load Test
Sometimes the rock sample are so
much broken such that its not possible
to perform unconfined compression
test. In such a case we can estimate the
unconfined compressive by
(a) Point Load Test
(b) Schmidt Hammer Test
ROCK POINT LOAD
TEST
Point load Test
For the failure load, P and platen separation D, The point
load index, Is is determined as follows
𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒

The corrected point load index Is(50)

0.45
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠(50) = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠
50
The unconfined compressive strength of the rock is
related lineally to point load test by
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠(50)

k = 22
 Estimation of compressive strength-Point Load Test

Point load Test

For the failure load, P and platen separation D, The point
load index, Is is determined as follows
𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒

The corrected point load index Is(50)

0.45
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠(50) = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠
50
The unconfined compressive strength of the rock is
related lineally to point load test by
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠(50)

k = 22

56
 Estimation of compressive strength-Point Load Test
Point load Test
For the failure load, P and platen separation D, The point
load index, Is is determined as follows
𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒

The corrected point load index Is(50)

0.45
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠(50) = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠
50
The unconfined compressive strength of the rock is
related lineally to point load test by
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠(50)

k = 22
The test can be used to quantify the strength anisotrophy index,
Ia(50)defined as the ratio of obtained when testing Is(50)
perpendicular and parallel plane of weakness. This
index greater than unity when there is anisotropy.

57
 Schmidt Hammer Test
Schmidt Hammer Test
Schmidt Hammer (L-shaped) portable device that can
be used to estimate compressive strength in both lab
and field
It is considered less reliable estimator of compressive
strength
 Indirect Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength
• Tensile strength of rock is important in the
design of roof span for underground excavation where
rock is subjected to bending stress
• Tensile strength of rock is approximately 10%
of the compressive strength
• Tensile strength is obtained by applying tensile
load on to a rock sample
• Tensile test can also be performed on a
compressive test on a disc shaped sample and
failing it in tension in Brazilian Test.
• The tensile test is obtained by the following
equations
2𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 =
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

0.636𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 =
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

P= failure load
D= Disc diameter
t= disc thickness
 Shear Strength
Shear Strength
• Shear strength of a rock is evaluated by
determining the shear strength parameters
of cohesion and friction angle ( c and φ)
• This is accomplished by the Mohr envelop
by performing triaxial test
• Trixial test in compression test on rock under
different confining pressure
σ1 = confining pressure
σ3= pressure at failure
Radius of Mohr circle, R= (σ3 - σ1)/2

Shear strength of the rock, τ is given by

τ=c+ σn tan φ
σ1 = Effective stress acting on the rock

R= (σ3 - σ1)/2
R= (σ3 - σ1)/2
R= (σ3 - σ1)/2
 EXAMPLE: Shear Strength
Triaxial testing was conducted on three rock
samples at confining pressure of 100ka,
150kPa and 200kPa as shown in the Figure.
Determine,
(i) The shear strength parameters of the rock
(ii) The shear stress of the in-situ rock mass
given than if the rock experiences an
overburden stress (normal stress) of
300kPa
(i) Shear strength of the rock parameters
τ=c +σ tanφ
τ1= 60 kPa and σ1=175 kPa (ii) Shear strength of the rock for 300 kPa
τ2= 80 kPa and σ1=250 kPa normal stress
The friction angle is tangent inverse of the slope
τ=c +σ tanφ
τ2 − τ1 80 − 60
ϕ = tan−1 = tan−1 = 14.9° τ=13.4 kPa +300 kPa tan 14.9
𝜎𝜎2 − 𝜎𝜎1 250 − 175
Cohesion
τ=c +σ tanφ τ=93.2 kPa
c = τ -σ tanφ
c = 60kPa -175kPa tan (14.9)=13.4 kPa
or NOTE : If the x-axis (σ axis started at
c = 80kPa -250kPa tan (14.9)=13.4 kPa zero, the we could read off the
c =13.4 kPa and φ=14.9° cohesion value at the y-axis intercept
 Elastic Properties of Rock
Elastic Properties of Rock Poisson's ratio
• Elastic properties indicates deformation properties • Extension during loading occurs perpendilarly to the direction of
of the rock loading
• Cylindrical samples subjected to axial compression • The lateral extension expressed in terms of a fraction of the vertical
with decrease in length and increase in diameter strain is called Poisson’s ration
• Upon removal of the compressive force some but
not all deformation will be recovered. Δ𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷
• μ=
Δ𝐿𝐿/𝐿𝐿
• The recoverable deformation is the elastic
D= original diameter of the sample (m)
deformation and the non recovery is the plastic
∆D= The decrease in diameter (m)
deformation
∆L= The decrease in length (m)
• The elastic properties thats are frequently used are
L= the original length of the sample (m)
to evaluate deformation behavior of rocks are
Poisson’s ratio of rocks ranges from 0.1 to 0.5
Young’s Modulus and Poisson's ratio
Young’s Modulus
𝜎𝜎 𝑃𝑃/𝐴𝐴
𝐸𝐸 = =
𝜀𝜀 Δ𝐿𝐿/𝐿𝐿

σ=Compressive stress
ε=axial strain
P= applied load (N)
A= The loaded cross-sectional area
∆L= The decrease in length (m)
L= the original length of the sample
Young’s modulus is used to determine the deformation
that will occur in the foundation
 EXAMPLE 4: Elastic Properties of Rock
EXAMPLE
A 5.4 cm in diameter and 10.8 cm long granite rock sample is tested in unconfined compression. The modulus of elasticity of the
rock is 63.45 GPa and poisons ratio of 0.21and its unconfined compressive strength of 169 MPa. If the core is loaded to one
quarter of its unconfined compressive strength, answer the following
(a) What is the axial load on the sample
(b) What axial strain occur at this load, what's the deflection?
(c) What lateral strain occur at this load, what's the lateral deflection?

Solution
(a) What is the axial load on the sample
𝑃𝑃 169,000𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 π 0.054𝑚𝑚2 =96.76𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
axial stress 𝜎𝜎 = , Therefore 𝑃𝑃 = 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴 = 𝑥𝑥
𝐴𝐴 4 4

(b) What axial strain occur at this load, what's the deflection?
𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎 (169,000𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)/4
Young’s Modulus 𝐸𝐸 = , Therefore ε = = = 0.0006659
𝜀𝜀 𝐸𝐸 63450000𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Deflection 𝐿𝐿 = ε𝐿𝐿 = 0.0006659𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥.8𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.00719𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

(c) What lateral strain occur at this load, what's the?

Δ𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷 Δ𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷 Δ𝐷𝐷

μ= = therefore = εμ = 0.000659𝑥𝑥𝑥.21 = 0.0001398
Δ𝐿𝐿/𝐿𝐿 ε 𝐷𝐷

Δ𝐷𝐷
lateral deflection = 0.0001398 Therefore Δ𝐷𝐷 = 0.0001398𝐷𝐷 = 0.0001389𝑥𝑥𝑥.4 = 0.00754𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐷𝐷
 Rock Durability
 Durability: Resistance of rock to climatic
change such as heating and cooling, wetting
and drying, freezing and thawing
 Shales especially clay shales, clay stones and
mudstone frequently exhibit nondurable
behavior (slaking behavior)
 Several tests have been developed to study
slaking on rock the common is slake
durability index test
Slake durability index test.
• Place 10-12 pieces of overdried samples each
weighing 40-60 grams the machine with a Slaking of different rocks in atmosphere
2mm mesh drum
• Rotate the drum through water for 10 min at
a fixed speed
• The sample that remains in the drum is oven
dried and weighed
• Slake durability Index (Id) is the ratio of the
weight of the remaining sample to the initial
weigh expressed as percentage
Slaking of durability test equipment
 Engineering Classification of Intact Rocks
(ii) Classification bases on RQD
(i) Classification bases on Compressive Rocks are divided into Six RQD categories
strength RQD= Rock pieces>10cm/Total core run
Rocks are divided into five strength categories length

(MPa)

>250
100-250
50-100
25-50
<25

Joint
spacing is
important
factor
Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

Example: Detertermine RMR for

rock with the following
parameters for foundation
(a) Uniaxial compressive
strength=130 Mpa
(b) RQD=80%
(c) Joint spacing=500mm
(d) Slightly rough surface and
slightly weathered
(e) No joint water pressure
(f) Favorable condition for
foundation
Bearing resistance of rock
Bearing resistance of rock
Bearing resistance of rock
 Bearing
resistance of
rock
 Other exploration methods ( Insitu Sounding)
Using special rig, the following i. Vane Shear Test ( fine grained) while
tests can be performed CPT ( for all types of soil)
(a) Vane Shear Test ii. No sample is collected
(b) Cone Penetration Tests iii. Insitu soil strength properties determined
Vane shear Test
• Test used to determine undrained shear strength (Cu)of clay
• The shear vane shear consist of four blades on each end of
the rod
• The heigh H is twice the diameter of the, D.
• Vane can be rectangular of tapered
• The vane is pushed into the soil and a torque applied at a
rate of 0.1°/sec
• This rotation will induce failure in a of the cylindrical
surrounding the vane
• The maximum Torque applied to cause failure is measure.

• T= f (Cu, H and D)

Vane shear Test 𝑇𝑇

• K= Constant with magnitude depending on the C u=
𝐾𝐾
dimension and shape of the vane
• Cu is in kN/m2. D and H in71cm
 EXAMPLE( Vane Shear Test)

A vane shear test was conducted in saturated clay. The height and diameter
of the vane were 101.6 mm and 50.8 mm respectively. During the test, the
maximum torque applied was 0.035 kN-m. Determined the undrained shear
strength
𝑇𝑇
𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 =
𝐾𝐾

K= 4.805𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑚𝑚3
𝑇𝑇 0.035𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−𝑚𝑚
C u= = = 72.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐾𝐾 4.805𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥−4𝑚𝑚3

72
 Cone Penetration Test ( CPT)
CPT
• Known as Dutch cone is used to determine material properties and measure their engineering properties
• CPT can measure. It's fitted with pressure sensor.
(a) Cone Pentration Resistance (qc): Measured using earth pressure sensors at the tip ,
(b) Friction resistance ( fr): Measured using earth pressure sensors at the sleeve
(c) Porewater pressure (u): Measured using pore water pressure sensors near the tip

Undrained shear strength of fine grained soil

𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 =undrained shear strength
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = cone tip resistance
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0
𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 =
σ𝑣𝑣0 = total overburden pressure 𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾
𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =cone factor (𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =15 electric cone and
𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =20 mechanical cone)

73
74
75
CPT Profiles

76
CPT Profiles

77
 Types of soil from normalized CPT data
Normalized cone tip resistance= Ratio of the difference between cone tip resistance and the total overburden
stress to the effective overburden stress sleeve friction to the cone tip resistance

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0
𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡 =
σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = 𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 + 𝑢𝑢2(1 − 𝑎𝑎)

σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢𝑜𝑜

u2= pore water pressure measured during CPT sounding

u0 =Static water pressure (γwz)
a=ratio of shaft rod connected to the top of the cone compared to the area of cone
tip
Friction factor = Ratio of sleeve friction to the cone tip resistance

𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟
𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣

Normalized pore water pressure ratio

𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢0
𝐵𝐵 =
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣
78
 Types of soil from normalized CPT data
Graphs of Qt and Fr and also from graph of Qt and B, the soil type can be obtained.

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢0

𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝐵𝐵 =
σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣

79
 Example of soil type from CPT
From one location at a proposed construction site, the CPT results obtained at a depth of 8 m is included below.
Groundwater for the site is encountered at a depth of 3 m. The soil wet unit weight is 16kN/m3.For the geometry
of cone-friction sleeve, a=0.75.
Cone tip resistance, qc=600kPa
Friction sleeve resistance, fs= 30kPa
Cone pore pressure u2=90kPa

Based on Friction Factor Based on Normalized porewater ratio

𝑢𝑢 = 9.81𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 5𝑚𝑚 = 49 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 σ′ 𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 9.81𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 5𝑚𝑚 = 49 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 16𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 8𝑚𝑚 = 128 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 16𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 8𝑚𝑚 = 128 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

σ′ 𝑣𝑣𝑣 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − γ𝑤𝑤 × 5 σ′ 𝑣𝑣𝑣 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − γ𝑤𝑤 × 5

= 128 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 9.81𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 5𝑚𝑚 = 79 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 128 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 9.81𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 5𝑚𝑚 = 79 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = 𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 + 𝑢𝑢2 1 − 𝑎𝑎 = 600𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 90 1 − 0.75 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = 𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 + 𝑢𝑢2 1 − 𝑎𝑎 = 600𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 90 1 − 0.75 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
= 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 128𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 128𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = = 6.25 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = = 6.25
σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 79𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 79𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢0 90𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 49𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 × 100% 30𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 × 100% 𝐵𝐵 = = = 0.083
𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = = = 6.1% 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 622.5𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 128𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 128𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

From CPT based SBTFr chart is Type 3, From CPT based SBTBq chart is Type 3,
 Q/A Review SESSION
SAND with Silt
Unit weight, γ=16  Which sampling method can be used in point X to
2m
3m

kN/m3
Ground water
Water content, obtained subsurface investigation
w=15% (i) What's N-value
SAND with gravel and
(ii) What's N60
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/
(iii) What's (N1)60
8m

X m3
Water content,
w=22%
Soft Lean Clay
 If the soil is soft in point Y, The spoon sampler
Y Unit weight, γ=12 kN/ penetrated 0.45 m due to weight of hammer
7m

m3
Water content, (i) What sounding methods can be used to obtain
w=45% subsurface information at point Y
(ii) What can parameters can be measured in each of the
Shale bedrock above sounding methods at Point Y
Z (iii) Can samples be collected from the above sounding
methods? If not, what sampling methods can be used to
collected undisturbed samples.
(iv) What two test can be used to determine undrained shear
strength of the disturbed sample in (iii) above
Answer the following (v) What laboratory strength tests can be performed on the
questions questions based undisturbed samples collected in (iii)
on the subsurface profile
given above  What sampling method can be used in point Z
(i) What RQD of the rock
(ii) How is mechanical breaks accounted for?
81
 TOPIC-4B
EARTHQUAKE AND GEOPHYSICS
 Types of Waves
 Earthquake are shock waves that Types of waves; Body and Surface waves
travel through the earth (1)Body waves:
 They occur as a result of elastic Body waves travel through the volume of the mass body .Two types
rebound of rock when strain (a) Primary or Longitudinal waves (P-waves):
energy is suddenly released  Compression in nature
 Push pull type of wave
 These waves vibrates parallel to the direction of propagation
 Have greatest velocity of the earthquake waves
(b) Secondary or Shear waves (S-wave):
 Transverse in nature
 Vibrate perpendicular to direction of propagation
 They push out into the medium and medium must push back
 This occurs in material with shear strength
 The waves cannot propagate in liquids since they cannot supply the
push and pull
(2) Surface wave:
Occur at the boundary of the
• When body waves contact the earth’s surface they cause a new wave called
surface wave
• Several types of surface waves
(a) Love wave
(b) Rayleigh waves
• Surface waves are collectively referred to as Long waves
• Their velocities are slower than S wave hence they are the third wave to
arrive at the location following and earthquake
• VP> V S> VL
 P-wave and S-waves
P-wave and S-wave velocities can be Young’s modulus, E Bulk modulus,K
defined in terms of several material Compressive stress and longitudinal Stress divided by volumetric strain in a rock
properties of rock strain relationship of a rock 𝜎𝜎
𝜎𝜎 𝐾𝐾 =
The rock properties of interest are Δ𝑣𝑣/𝑣𝑣
𝐸𝐸 =
E, The modulus of elasticity or Young’s 𝜀𝜀
Density, ρ
modulus
Shear modulus, S Mass per unit volume of a rock
K, the bulk modulus
S, Shear modulus, Provided relationship between shear Poissons’s ratio, m
ρ, the density stress and deformation Compressive stress and longitudinal
µ, Poisson’s ratio τ strain relationship of a rock
𝑆𝑆 =
δ Δ𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷
μ=
Δ𝐿𝐿/𝐿𝐿
S=Shear modulus
τ =shear stress D=diameter of the sample
δ=deformation L= Length of the sample strain

Using established relationships

4
K+
Velocity of P-wave 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 3𝑆𝑆
𝜌𝜌

S
Velocity of S-wave , 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 =
𝜌𝜌

By inspecting the equations, we observe that when the shear modulus, S is zero or when shear stress, τ is zero,
the VS is zero, its in agreement with understanding that liquids do not propagate shear waves
 P-waves and S-waves
Using established relationships
4
K+
Velocity of P-wave 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 3𝑆𝑆
𝜌𝜌

S
Velocity of S-wave , 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 =
𝜌𝜌
By inspecting the equations, we observe that when the shear modulus, S is zero or when shear stress, τ is zero, the VS
is zero, its in agreement with understanding that liquids do not propagate shear waves
Its also well established
𝐸𝐸
Shear modulus of a rock, 𝑆𝑆 =
2 1+𝜇𝜇
𝐸𝐸
Bulk modulus of a rock, K =
3 1−2𝜇𝜇
Subsituting S and K in the above equations
4
1 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝑬𝑬(𝟏𝟏−𝝁𝝁)
P-wave, 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = [ + 3
] reduces to 𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷 =
ρ 3 1−2𝜇𝜇 2 1+𝜇𝜇 𝛒𝛒 𝟏𝟏−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏+𝝁𝝁 )

S 𝑬𝑬
S-wave, 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = reduces to 𝑽𝑽𝑺𝑺 =
𝜌𝜌 𝟐𝟐𝛒𝛒 𝟏𝟏+𝝁𝝁
Therefore,
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃= K 4
Therefore , +
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 S 3
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃= 𝟏𝟏−𝝁𝝁
Giving, 1 >1
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 −𝝁𝝁−
2
VP> VS shows that the velocity of primary wave is always greater than that of the secondary wave
 Example
(a) A rock has a Poisson’s ratio of µ=0.25. What is the ratio of VP /VS ?
(b) If E=44.8x106kN/m2, What is the values of Shear modulus and Bulk modulus?.
(c) If VP =4420 m/s, What is VS in m/s?

Solution
(a) Ratio VP /VS
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃= 𝟏𝟏−𝝁𝝁 𝟏𝟏−𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟎𝟎.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
Given, 1 = 1 = = 1.732
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 −𝝁𝝁 −𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
2 2

(b) Shear modulus and Bulk modulus?

Shear modulus of a rock,
𝐸𝐸 44.8𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥/𝑚𝑚2
𝑆𝑆 = = = 17.9𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥/𝑚𝑚2
2 1+𝜇𝜇 2 1+0.25

Bulk modulus of a rock,

𝐸𝐸 44.8𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥/𝑚𝑚2
K= = = 17.9𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥/𝑚𝑚2
3 1−2𝜇𝜇 3 1−2𝑥𝑥0.25

(c) Shear Wave velovity, VS

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃
Given , = 1.732
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 4420 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐/2
Therefore, 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = = = 2552 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
1.732 1.732
 EARTHQUAKE SCALES
Two distinct scales are used to measure level of (b) Intensity Scale
earthquake Measure of the damage done to human-made structures that
(a) The magnitude scale: Measure the amount of energy occur as a results of ground shaking
released It describes the damaging effect that the earthquake motion
• Richter scale (ML)used to measure the magnitude of inflicts on building and other engineering works
earthquake Its not measured by instrument instead it is determined from
• Its based on maximum displacement or amplitude of reports supplied by trained observers of damage effects
earthquake wave measured on a standard seismograph Based on the damage caused the intensity of the earthquake can
100 km from the epicenter be assigned a scale value ranging from I to XII called the
• The Richter value is determined by measuring the Modified Mercalli scale
maximum amplitude in thousand of millimeters and The ground acceleration induced by earthquake, designated in
taking common logarithm of this number term of equivalent acceleration oof gravity is of interest because
 0.100 mm displacement= Richter value of 2 structural engineers work on this units when analyzing building
 0.500 mm displacemet=Richter value of 2.698 safety.
 1.000 mm= Richter values of 3
• A factor of 10 times the displacement is involves from one
integer value to another
• Earthquake of ML above 6 are important, and those of
7 or more are major earthquakes
• Massive and devastating earthquakes have been in the
range of 8 or more have occurred quite infrequently in the
record past
• The empirical relationship between the amount of energy
released and the Richter scale as
log 𝐸𝐸 = 11 ⋅ 4 + 1 ⋅ 5𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿
E= energy in ergs and ML=on the Richter scale
WHAT’S RECORDED DURING EARTHQUAKE EVENT

Ground acceleration is measured during

earthquake by seismograph
88
 Earthquake Damages
Earthquake damage to human-made structures is influenced by five
principal elements
1. Strength of the earthquake wave: Magnitude of the earthquake
2. Length of the earthquake motion: Structural crack may propagate
while shaking continue so the weak members may eventually fall
3. Proximity of the fault zone: Energy dissipation seems to be
concentrated in the fault area
4. Types of geological foundations: Massive bedrock provides best
foundations because it passes wave motion on with minimum
attenuation resulting in less vibrations
5. Building design
• Surface wave generate horizontal movements and contribute to
earthquake damage
• Tall buildings must resist transverse motion and to the frequency at
which the building vibrates during earthquake
• If resonant frequency of the building develop, severe damage will be
induced, called Site resonance and it involves natural period of the
ground and the natural period of the structure
• S-wave is typically the most destructive waves
• Field measurement of the secondary wave velocities, Vs commonly
provide valuable information concerning earthquake shaking
 EARTHQUAKE RELATED DAMAGES

The damage caused by earthquakes is

from ground shaking, ground rupture,
landslides, tsunamis, and liquefaction.

Liquefaction.
90
 SOIL LIQUEFACTION
• Liquefaction is a phenomenon that occur when saturated cohesionless sand exists in relatively loose
condition
• If subjected to vibrations or shockwaves as a results during earthquake or from explosion the grains
tend to densify but the presence of porewater interferes with the particle-to-particle contact.
• This causes much of the soils shear strength to be lost hence the soils flows as a viscous liquid
• In seismic condition, liquefaction is due to primary propagation of seismic shear wave.
• Susceptibility to liquefaction has been related corrected N160.
• A procedure for accessing the potential for a site to liquefy occurs when subject to a given magnitude
of earthquake is to access the average cyclic shear stress (τh)avg developed on horizontal plane of sand
deposit.
• Cyclic stress ratio ,(τh)avg / σ’v (CSRE) resulting from earthquake is compared to cyclic stress ratio
necessary to cause liquefaction

(𝜏𝜏ℎ)𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 σ𝑣𝑣 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

CSRE = = 0.65 𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 againts liquefaction =
σ′𝑣𝑣 𝑔𝑔 σ′𝑣𝑣 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= Horizontal acceleration at ground level expressed a fraction of decimal
𝑔𝑔

σ𝑣𝑣 = Vertical total overbudden stress in the soil at the depth being evaluates
σ′ 𝑣𝑣 = Initial vertical effective overbudden stress in the soil at the depth being evaluates
𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 = Deformation related stress reduction
CSRRL = Site resistance againts liquefaction

91
 FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINTS SOIL LIQUEFACTION

For determining CSRRL a

function of N160

For determining rd ,a function

of depth

For earthquake of any magnitude

Use Table 7 to convert to equivalent
CSRRL
 FROM PREVIOUS EXAMPLE
Seismic hazard map indicate the value of peak σ𝑣𝑣 = 13 × 4.8 = 62.4𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
ground acceleration to assume for the proposed σ′ 𝑣𝑣 = 13 × 4.8 − 9.81 × 2.7 = 35.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
structure to be 0.20 g for a magnitude of 7.5 𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 = 0.97 from figure 23
earthquake. Determine the factor of safety 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 σ𝑣𝑣 62.4
against seismic induced liquefaction at 4.8 m CSRE = 0.65 𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 = 0.65 0.20 0.97 = 0.22
𝑔𝑔 σ′𝑣𝑣 35.9
below the ground surface of (a) earthquake of
Previously as calculate for this site, 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 7
magnitude 7.5 (b) for earthquake of magnitude
8.5 As indicated in boring log that the layer is clean well graded
sand therefiore percentage of fine is less than 5%
P=250 kN
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 24𝑎𝑎, CSRRL=0.1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 0.1
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 againts liquefaction = = = 0.45
𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 0.22
Df =1.0 m

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 againts liquefactio < 1.0 therefore liquefaction will occur

2.1 m

B=1.0 m
4.9 m

Loose fine SAND

For Manitude of 8.5 we modify the CSRRL per Table 7
(SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)
γ=13 kN/m3
φ=30°
CSRRL = CSRRL M = 7.5 0.72 = 0.1 0.72 = 0.072
Very dense coarse SAND 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 0.072
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 againts liquefaction = = = 0.32
(SPT N >50 ) 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 0.22
2.3 m

γ=20 kN/m3
φ=47° Design the Liquefaction resistance structure
Dense fine SAND
(SPT N=45 )
(a) Buried pipes for water and sewer should have ductile
connections toa accommodate large movements
0.9 m

γ=18 kN/m3
φ=45°
(b) Piles driven thought strong layer beyond liquifying layer.
Rock/Hard ground
93
 ENGINEERING GEOPHYSICS

Geophysics: Application of physical

laws to discerns details about the nature
of the earth (Subsurface exploration)
It entails seismic through propagation of
waves into the ground for exploration

(1) Seismic Method

(a) Refraction method
(b) Reflection method
(2) Gravity and Magnetic method
(3) Electrical methods
(4) Ground Penetration radar
(5) Well log methods
 Seismic refraction method
 Seismic refraction survey are useful is obtaining preliminary information
about the thickness of the layering of various soils and the depth to rock of
hard soil at the site
 Geophones are driven into the ground at regular intervals and electric cable
connected to the seismic measuring equipment
 Seismic refraction survey is conducted by hitting a plate on the ground and
observed the first arrival of the disturbed waves
 The impact on the ground produces two types of waves, P-waves and S-
waves

Velocity of P- 𝑬𝑬(𝟏𝟏 − 𝝁𝝁)

wave is the 𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷 =
𝛒𝛒 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏 + 𝝁𝝁
medium
Seismic refraction
• Seismic refraction is useful in obtaining information
about the thickness of layer of various soils and the
depth to bedrock
• Conducted by impacting surface such as point A and
observing the first arrival of the disturbance (stress
wave) at several other points e.g. B, C D
• The impact can be created by a hammer blow
• The first arrival of disturbance waves are recorded by
geophones
• Impact on the ground creates two types of Stress
wave, P-wave and S-wave
 Seismic Site characterization from Seismic refraction test
Example of profile
produced from
seismic study giving
profiles and various
shear wave velocities
of the profiles

In post 1994 U.S. seismic codes (e.g. the

1994 and 1997 editions of NEHR
and the 2000 International Building Code)
a new soil categorization scheme
was introduced, which uses Vs,30 as the
main categorization parameter.
Standard penetration blow count N, SPT
and undrained shear strength Su may
also be used to characterize the top 30m of
the soil
 Seismic site characterization
Euro code site characterization 30
𝑣𝑣s,30 =
ℎ
� 𝑖𝑖
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖

30
𝑁𝑁SPT,30 =
ℎ
� 𝑖𝑖
𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖

30
𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢,30 =
ℎ
� 𝑖𝑖
𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

Characterization uses shear wave velocity, vs,30 as the Once the seismic class/Ground type has been
main categorization parameter. Standard determined, we can determine the elastic response
penetration blow count NSPT,30 , SPT and spectra on the site i.e. (a) Soil amplification factor, S
undrained shear strength cu,30 may also be used to and (b) Cornet periods, TB,TC,TD which define PGA
characterize the top 30m of the soil (Peak ground acceleration) normalized spectra
Site dependent elastic response

For earthquake
magnitude, ML>5.5

For earthquake
magnitude, ML<5.5
 EXAMPLE 1: classify the sites given the profiles below

vs,30 = 283 m/s vs,30 = 427 m/s vs,30 = 916 m/s

NSPT,30 = 21-36 NSPT,30 >50 Ground Type A
Ground Type C Ground Type B
 Example 2: Determine the site classification given the soil profile below
Medium dense silty Sand
vs=220 m/s (a) What is the seismic site
8m N=28
characterization based on
Medium dense silty Sand with gravel Euro code
vs=300m/s (b) What are the elastic site
6m

N=42
response given that earth
Vendy dense sandy Gravel
the contribute most hazard
10 m

vs=730 m/s defined for this site has a

N=70 magnitude of 5.0
Sandstone
6m

vs=1200 m/s
(Assume N=100)
vs,30 = 399
30 30𝑚𝑚 m/s
𝑣𝑣s,30 = = = 399𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 Ground
ℎ𝑖𝑖 8𝑚𝑚 6𝑚𝑚 10𝑚𝑚 6𝑚𝑚
� + + + Type B
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 220𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 300𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 730𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 1200𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
30 30𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑁SPT,30 = = = 47 NSPT,30 = 47 N value for Sandstone
ℎ𝑖𝑖 8𝑚𝑚 6𝑚𝑚 10𝑚𝑚 6𝑚𝑚
� + + + Ground Type rock taken
𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖 28 42 70 100
C conservatively as 100,
the N-value is more
Use the results from seismic data and classify the ground than 100
type as Type B
 Example 2 continued: Ground response spectrum

Medium dense silty Sand

vs=220 m/s
8m

N=28

Medium dense silty Sand with gravel

vs=300m/s
6m

N=42

Vendy dense sandy Gravel

10 m

vs=730 m/s
N=70

Sandstone
6m

vs=1200 m/s
(Assume N=100)

For earthquake
magnitude, ML<5.5
Example 3: In class working

Given that
(a) (a) SANDSTONE has a Poisson’s
ratio of m=0.25. What is the ratio
of VP /VS ?
(b) (b) If E=50x106kN/m2, What is
the values of Shear modulus and
Bulk modulus of sandstone?.
 P=250 kN
What is the Site class?
Euro code site characterization
Df =1.0 m

2.1 m
B=1.0 m
4.9 m

Loose fine SAND

(SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)
γ=13 kN/m3
φ=30°

Very dense coarse SAND

(SPT N >50 )
2.3 m

γ=20 kN/m3
φ=47°
Dense fine SAND
(SPT N=45 )
0.9 m

γ=18 kN/m3
φ=45°
Rock/Hard ground

104