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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
25 views62 pagesEeen 306
All about electronics and how they operate in different regions.
Uploaded by
abdulateefmo2Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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/ 62
Introduction
* Concept of Power Electronics
* Applications of Power Electronics
Advantages and Disadvantages of Power-electronic Converters
* Power Electronic Systems
* Power Semiconductor Devices
* Types of Power Electronic Converters
* Power Electronic Modules
cs object of this chapter is to discuss briefly the concept of power electronics, applications
of power electronics and the types of power converters described in this book.
1.1 CONCEPT OF POWER ELECTRONICS
Power electronics belongs partly to power engineers and partly to electronics engineers [2]
Power engineering is mainly concerned with generation, transmission, distribution and
utilization of electric energy at high efficiency. Electronics engineering, on the other hand, is
guided by distortionless production, transmission and reception of data and signals of very
low power level, of the order of a few watts, or milliwatts, without much consideration to the
efficiency. In addition, apparatus associated with power engineering is based mainly on
electromagnetic principles whereas that in electronics engineering is based upon physical
phenomena in vacuum, gases/vapours and semiconductors.
Power electronics is a subject that concerns the application of electronic-principles
into situations that are rated at power level rather than signal level. It may also be defined
as a subject that deals with the apparatus and equipment working on the principle of
electronics but rated at power level rather than signal level. For example, semiconductor
power switches such as thyristors, GTOs ete, work on the principle of electronics (movement
of holes and electrons), but have the name power attached to them only as a description of
their power ratings. Similarly, diodes, mercury-arc rectifiers and thyratrons (gas-filled
triode), high-power level devices, form a part of the subject power electronics; because their
working is based on the physical phenomena in gases and vapours, an electronic process. As
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BBtmooucrion [Arr 1.3] [3
Table 1.1
Me Applications of Power Electroni
1. Aerospace :
Space shuttle power s:
upplies, satellite power supplies, aircraft power systems.
2. Commercial : po pplies, aircraft p uaa
sparising, heating, airconditioning, central refrigeration, computer and office equipment,
uninterruptible power supplies, elevators, light dimmers and flashers
3. Industrial :
Are and industrial furnaces, blowers
, and fans, pumps and compressors, industrial Insers,
transformer-tap changers, rolling mills, textile mills, exeavators, cement mills, welding,
4. Residential :
fare Teonditioning, cooking, lighting, space heating, refrigerators, eletrie door openers, dryers,
fans, personal computers, other entertainment equipment, vacuum cleaners, washing and
sewing machines, light dimmers, food mixers, electric blankets, food-warmer trays.
5. Telecommunication :
Battery chargers, power supplies (de and UPS),
6. Transportation :
Battery chargers, traction control of electric vehicles, electric locomotives, street cars, trolley
__ buses, subways, automotive electronics. f %
1. Utility systema: 7 7
High voltage de transmission (HVDC), excitation systems, VAR compensation, static cireuit
breakers, fans and boiler-feed pumps, supplementary energy systems (solar, wind).
1.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POWE! ‘ONIC
i aiaisy
The advantages possessed by power-electronic systems are as under :
(i) High efficiency due to low loss in power-semiconductor devices. |
(i) High reliability of power-clectronic converter systems.
(iii) Long life and less maintenance duie to the absence of any moving parts.
(iv) Fast dynamic response of the power-electronic systems as compared to
electromechanical converter systems. atau
(v) Small size and less weight result in less floor space and therefore lower installation
cost. aguas Yas
(vi) Mass production of power-semiconductor devices has result
converter equipment. Sie ie
Systems based on power electronics,
disadvantages : <
(a) Power-electronic converter circuits
supply system as well as in the load cireuit.
motor heating and more acco
to filter these out from the outp
Sat ae Arr. 1.4)
In the supply
influence the perform,
the harmonies in the
(called radio interfor
converter.
Powen Letom,
System, the harmonics distort the voltage waveform anq se
nce of other equipment connected to the same supply line, In idditi
Supply line can also cause interference in audio- and video-equipn,
ence). It is, therefore, necessary to insert filters on the input
ously
q
Side of 4
(6) Ac to de and ac to
ae converters operate at a low input power factor under certain
operating conditions, In ord
ler to avoid a low pf, some special measures have to he adopted
{©) Power-electronic controllers have low overload capacity. These converters mi;
therefore, be/ rated for taking macmedtaty, Gyatemti Manin (cart of power slectronie
controller may increase.
(@) Regeneration of power is difficult in power electronic converter systems,
The advantages possessed by power electronic converters far outweigh their
tisadvantages mentioned above. As a consequence, semiconduetor-based converters su
being extensively employed in systems where power flow is to be regulated. As already
stated, conventional power controllers used in many installations have already been
replaced by semiconductor-based power electronic controllers.
1.4 POWER ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
‘The major components of a power electronie system are shown in the form of a block diagram
in Fig. 1.1. Main power source may be an ac supply system or a de supply system.
‘The output from the power electronic circuit may be variable de, or ac voltage, or q
may be a variable voltage and frequency. In general, the output of a Power electronic
Convertor circuit depends upon the requirements of the load. For example, if the load is a de
rotor, the converter output must be adjustable direct voltage. In case the load is a 3-phase
induction motor, the converter may have adjustable voltage and frequency at its output
terminals.
;The feedback component in Fig. 1.1 measures a parameter of the load, say speed in
case of a rotating machine, and compares it with the command, The difference of the two,
through the digital circuit components, controls the instant of turn-on of semiconductor
devices forming the solid-state power converter system. In this manner, behavieus of the
load circuit can be controlled, as desired, over a wide range with the adjustment of the
command.
Fig. 1.1, Block diagram of a typical power electronic system. Intropuction tar. 1.5) ME
eae) yaya
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) was first introduced in 195'
dev
thes
a power semiconductor
Since then, several other power semiconductor devices have been developed. Most of
emiconductor devices are listed below in Table 1.2 along with their circuit, or device,
symbol and present maximum ratings.
Table 1.2, Maximum ratings of power semiconductor devices
fer aU Le er a Upper
ea Pees
erry ae oe
|: = Ac—— Pt —oK 5000 V/5000 A 10
Thyristors i i
(a) SCR Ao— PKK 7000 V/5000 A 1.0
és
%
Ao PL. —k
(6) LASCR = 6000 v/3000 A. 10
e BE ta. 1.5)
is
Power ELectrowics
oes MSs 1200 V/1000 A 050 |
| le be |
3. Transistors : Peake |
| ———S—— ie ae :
| 1c 9c
|
| (@) BIT 8 8 1400 V/400 A 10.0
| npn pnp.
| E |
| c |
D |
() MOSFET ai
| (n-channel) P| 1000 V/50 A 100.0 = |
__
| S
| °D
| |
| str = 1200 W/300 4 100.0
os ;
| = oe |
| |
J
(@IcBr Ic
——
* al
}
In the above table, the various ab:
reviations are; SCR (silicon control i
LASCR (light-activated SCR), ASCR (asymmetrical SCR), RCT (reverse condhage et rectifier),
GTO (gate-turn off thyristor), SITH (static induction thyristor), MOT (Mos a
thyristor), BJT (bipolar junction transistor), MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconductor field =
transistor), SIT (static induction transistor) and IGBT (insulated gate bipolar ooo a
Based on (i) turn-on and turn-off characteristics, quran: F
(iii) degree of controllability,
(ii) gate signal
the power semiconductor devices can be.
(a) Diodes. These are uncontrolled rectifying devices. Their on
controlled by power supply. a
(6) Thyristors, These have controlled turn-on by a gate signal,
on, they remain latehed-in on-state due to internal regenerative
control. These can be turned-off by the power circuit. "IwtRooveTion
(c) Controllable switehes
application of control signals. The devices which by
MOSFET, GTO, SITH, IGBT, SIT and MCT.
‘Triac and RCT pos
devices (diode, SCR,
current devices.
arr. 1.6] mae
» lurned-on and turned-off by the
e as controllable switches are BJT,
These devices
bi-directional current c
3TO, BJT, MOS
bility whereas all other remaining
IGBT, SIT, SITH and MCT) are unidirectional
TYP
air
(AiR te iito) kee)
gy
A power electronic system consists of one or more power electronic converters. A power
electronic converter is made up of some power semiconductor devices controlled by
integrated circuits. The switching characteristics of power semiconductor devices permit a
power electronic converter to shape the input power of one form to output power of some
other form. Static power converters perform these functions of power conversion very
efficiently. Broadly speaking, power electronic converters (or circuits) can be classified into
six types as under :
1. Diode Rectifiers. A diode rectifier circuit converts ac input voltage into a fixed de
voltage. The input voltage may be single-phase or three-phase. Diode rectifiers find wide use
in electric traction, battery charging, electroplating, electrochemical processing, power
supplies, welding and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems.
2. AC to de converters (Phase-controlled rectifiers). These convert constant ac
voltage to variable de output voltage. These rectifiers use line voltage for their commutation,
as such these are also called line-commutated or naturally-commutated ac to de converters
Phase-controlled converters may be fed from 1-phase or 3-phase source. These are used in de
drives, metallurgical and chemical industries, excitation systems for synchronous machines
ete.
3. DC to de converters (DC choppers). A de chopper converts fixed de input voltage
to controllable de output voltage. The chopper circuits require forced, or load, commutation
to turn-off the thyristors. For lower power circuits, thyristors are replaced by power
tors. Classification of chopper circuits is dependent upon the type of commutation
e pone Capaniery Saale applications in de drives, subway
i ete, os”
ee Power FLecTROticg
n in these converters, though forced and load commutated cycloconverter, are al
empeyed These are primarily used fr slow-speed large a drives like rotary Kn.
© ¢. Static switches, The power semiconductor devices can operate as Static swig
or contactors. Static switches possess many advantages over mechanic i
eletromechanical iret breakers. Depending upon the input supply, the states),
called ac static switches or de static switches.
PM ihe hse Meena
A power electronic converter may require two, four or more semiconductor levies
depending upon the circuit configuration, For example, a single-phase half-bridge inverter
putes @ power module consisting of two power semiconductor devices; afull-convertes
HW bridge converter) requires a power module having four semiconductor devices, a three
Phase fall converter needs a power module having six semiconductor devices, Thus, a power
electronic converter can be assembled from power modules instead of from individual
Semiconductor devices. A power module has better performance characteristics as compared
to conventional devices so far as their switching characteristics, operating speed and losses
aze Goneerned. Gate drive circuits for individual devices or power modules are alse
commercially available. As a result of these developments, now intelligent modules have
come in the market.
Intelligent module, also called. ‘smart-power, is state-of-the-art power electronics and it
effective design of power converters. For this purpose, 2 is devoted to the study of
power semiconituctdr dior ajeese iseaeaantca Chapter 3 deals with diode circuits and
rectifiers. In Chapter 4, are discussed in detail the thyristor characteristies and its control
strategies. Thyristor commutation techniques are deseribed in Chapter 6. Other po
electronic converters mentioned in this chapter are described in detail in Chapter 6 onwards. Power Semiconductor Diodes
and Transistors
The p-n Junction
* Basic Structure of Power Diodes
* Characteristics of Power Diodes
© Types of Power Diodes
*© Power Transistors
* Power Mosfets
* _ Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) =
* Safe Operating Areas for PMOSFET and IGBT
* Static Induction Transistor (SIT)
* Mos-controlled Thyristor (MCT)
* New Semiconducting Materials
low-power diode, called signal diode, is a p-n junction device. A high-power diode, called
power diode, is also a p-n junction device but with constructional features somewhat
different from a signal diode. Likewise, power transistors also differ in construction from
signal transistors.
The voltage, current and power ratings of power diodes and transistors are much
higher than the corresponding ratings for signal devices. In addition, power devices operate
at lower switching speeds whereas signal diodes and transistors operate at higher switching
speeds.
Power semiconductor devices are used extensively in power-electronic circuits. Some
applications of power diodes include their use as freewheeling diodes, for ac to de conversion,
for recovery of trapped energy etc. Power transistors, used as a switching device in power-
electronic circuits, must operate in the saturation region in order that their on-state voltage
drop is low. Their applications as switching elements include de choppers and inverters.
‘The object of this chapter is to describe power diodes, power transistors and MOS-
controlled thyristor (MCT). A thyristor is more important component of power semi-
conductor devices, it is, therefore, discussed in detail in Chapter 4,
10 [POWER SeuconoucToR Diooes Ano Trasarsrons avr 21)
the basic build |
Duilding block of all power s iconductor devices. It is,
therefore, worthwhile here to review this junction at wey iedactary tert ©
A p-n junction is formed wh at an introductory le
“when p-type semiconductor is brought in metallurgical, or
physical, contact with n-type semicondag en cmmiconductor is brought in metallurg:
concentration of holes
holes are called majority
n, free electrons are called majority
nductor. A p-region has gi
‘oncentration. In p-region, fr
carriers. In n-re
‘d minority carriers
t
8 More electron-c
carriers and free electrons minority
carriers whereas free holes are calle
Doping densities in p and n semiconductors may be different. As such, p-type
material may be designated p*, P or p’ ; similarly n-type material as n*, n~ ete. Rough
guidelines for labelling of p as p*
1P ete and nas n°, n* ete are as under
(a) If doping (or acceptor) density in p-type se
in n-type semiconductor, then
pand n layers is about 10'°
miconductor = doping (or donor) density
it is called p-n junction. For example, if doping density in both
cm to 10" cm, junction is termed p-n junction.
(6) If doping density in p-region is much greater than that in n-region, it is called p* n
junction. For example, if doping densities are 10" cm-* in p layer and 10" em- in n layer,
then it is termed p* n junction.
(o) If doping density in n-type is less than that given in part (b), the junction is called
p* n junction. For example, if doping densities are 10! cm-* and 10” em~? for p and n types
respectively, then p* n= junction is formed.
(d) If both p and n-layers are heavily doped, it is called p* n* junction and if very
lightly doped, a p~ n~ junction is formed. For example, if density is 10" cm~ in both p and n
layers, p* n* junction is formed.
In general, p* indicates highly doped p region, n~ lightly doped n region and so on.
2.1.1 Depletion Layer
When physical contact between p and n regions is made, free electrons in n material diffuse
Dee ain rs Fig. 2.1 (a) iffsion of each electron from n tp, leaves
4 positive charge behind in the n-region near the junction Filey farina Bale
p to n, leaves a negative charge behind in the p region near the junction. As a result
diffusion, n region near the junction becomes positively charged and p region in the isa partly
ralize pal
cha: junction and thus ne ee into 7
ive terminal the battery injects electrons ite
ceria of p-n junction thereby
aterial, reach the
7 sadaeas
“sult, width of depletion region gets redu
immobile
tons
+
Pp +
+
a]
bey
Width of depletion layer
‘he battery and n material to
deduced that width of. depletion layer increases,
For power semiconductor devices, it should be kept in mind that @) a junction with
lightly doped layer on its one side requires large breaker voltage and (ii) a junction with
highly doped layers on its both sides requires low breakdewn voltage.
signal diodes. A signal diode constitutes a simple p-n
nas shown in Fig. 2.1. The intricacies in constructing Power diodes arise from the
© make them suitable for high-voltage and high-current applications, Thus, a power
‘beso designed as to handle high forward current and a large reverse breakdown,
ition and the resulting structure of a power diode is sl
Ped n* substrate*. On this substrate, a lightly doped n—
heavily do
iode, Fig. 2.2 (a). This show,
shown in Fig.
layer
ped p* layer is diffused into n- layer to form the anode
8 that n~ layer is the basic structural feature not found
al on which something grows, i
Power SEMICONDUCTOR DiooES ANo Taansisro
r 2.3) Gee
in signal diodes. The function of n~ laye ae
to absorb the depletion la
biased p* n~ junction Jy
voltage needed in
the thickne:
er of the reverse
The breakdown
€ power diode governs
of n- layer
greater th
breakdown voltage, more the n- layer 4 a ee
vol ; i
ss. This n- layer is lightly dope [Fesion
ic. Because of this reason, n s 6
layer is sometimes called i-layer and the cae a
device as p-i-n diode or PiN diode. a
The drawback of n- layer is to add
significant ohmie resistance to the diede = hae inks ox
when it is conducting a forward current Gy sa
This leads to large power dissipation in the Fie. 2.2 (a) Structural features of power diode
diode; so proper cooling arrangements in and (b) its circuit symbol.
large diode ratings are essential.
The circuit symbol of a power diode, shown in Fig. 2.2 (6), is the same as that for a
signal diode.
_ The modifications in the context of diode, presented above, makes them appropriate
for high-power applications. As diode, or p-n junction, is the basic building block of all other
power semiconductor devices; same basic modifications should be implemented in all low-
power semiconductor devices in order to raise their power-handling capabilities,
EULA LR O Lm elu T aye e sy
As stated before, power diode is a two-terminal, p-n semiconductor device. The two terminals
of diode are called anode and cathode, Fig. 2.2 (6) and Fig. 2.3 (a). Two important
characteristics of power diodes are now described.
2.3.1 Diode i-v Characteristics*
When anode is positive with respect to cathode, diode is said to be forward biased. With
increase of the source voltage V, from zero value, initially diode current is zero. From V, = 0
to cut-in voltage, the forward-diode current is very small. Cut-in voltage is also known as
threshold voltage or turn-on voltage. Beyond cut-in voltage, the diode current rises rapidly
and the diode is said to conduct. For silicon diode, the cut-in voltage is around 0.7 V. When
diode conducts, there is a forward voltage drop of the order of 0.8 to 1 V.
For low-power diodes, current in the forward direction increases first exponentially
with voltage and then becomes almost linear as shown in Fig. 2.3 (b). For power diodes, the
forward current grows almost linearly with voltage, Fig. 2.3 (c). The high magnitude of
current in a power diode leads to ohmic drops that hide the exponential part of -v curve, The
n- region, or drift region, forms a considerable drop in the ohmic resistance of power diodes.
When cathode is positive with respect to anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased.
In the reverse biased condition, a small reverse current called leakage current, of the order of
microamperes or milliamperes (for large diodes) flows. The leakage current is almost
independent of the magnitude of reverse voltage until this voltage reaches breakdown
* Some authors write v-i characteristics. a BB a. 2.3)
voltage. At this reve
a eo
nt
reverse curre!
Tse break, it but se
i akdown, voltage st constan e_rever!
becomes quite high - limited ony? Y°lt@ee remains almost cor stat alld large etna
breakdown voltage, ociated yn’ by the external circu! sto excessive power loss ths
may destroy the diode. With high reverse current, leat ode must
by operating it below the
the i-v character istics of
shown in Fig. 2.3 (gy Here,
current = 0,
()
Fig. 2.3, (a) A forward-biased power diode.
* shows that reverse breakdown of ?
SPecific peak reverse 1 epetitive voltage
Power diode
Voltage drop across conducting
ut-in voltage = 0 and reverse breakdown voltage Venm
or dio - tes
8 POM er eee. 2.3 (c) illustra
Viana Fev racteribtics are
Je, the i-v chal kage
For an ideal diode, 0, reverse Jeal
eand V, iodo
RRM
is infinite.
Forward voltage
drop
> YaRm
v characteristics of (b) signal diode
(€) power diode and (d) ideal diode.
Diode manufacturers also
indicate the valué of peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a diode.
This is the largest reverse voltage to which a diode may basubjected during its working. PIV
is the same as Vapyy
The power diodes are now
available with forward current ratings of 1 A to several
thousand amperes and with reverse voltage ratings of 50 V to 5000 V or more.
2.3.2 Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics
After the forward diode current
decays to zero, the diode
continues to conduct in the
reverse direction because of the
Pressure of stored charges in
the depletion region and the
semiconductor layers. The
reverse current flows for a time
called reverse recovery time t,,.
The diode regains its blocking
capability until —_reverse
recovery current decays to zero,
The reverse recovery time t,, ig
defined as the time between the
instant forward diode current
becomes zero and the instant
te aise Tecovery current decays
to 25% of its reverse peak value
Tra 98 shown in Fig, 2.4 (a),
3)
(b)
Power :
(e) toss in
diode
Fig. 2.4. Reverse Tecover
TY Characteristic i .
Siren (b) forward voltage drop van torpation aia
ower Ossin a LE ———
[[Power Semconouctor Dioves ano Transistors [Arr. 2.3] a
The reverse recovery time is composed of two sey
Time f, is the time between zero eros ‘
During the time ¢,, charge stored 4
instant of reverse peak value 1,
" ‘aments of time t, and fy, i.e. t,, = ba * fy:
ing of forward current and peak reverse current Ipyy-
n depletion layer is removed. Time ¢, is measured from the
ne Zu to the instant when 0.25 Ipy, is reached, Fig. 2.4 (a). During
t,, charge from the semiconductor layers is removed. The shaded area in Fig. 2.4 (a)
represents the stored charge, or reverse recovery charge, Qp which must be removed during
the reverse recovery time t,,. The ratio fy/t, is called the softness factor or S-factor. This factor
is a measure of the voltage transients that occur during the time diode recovers. Its usual
value is unity and this indicates low oscillatory reverse recovery process. In case S-factor is
small, diode has large oscillatory over voltages. A diode with -factor equal to one is called
soft-recovery diode and a diode with S-factor less than one is called snappy-recovery diode or
fast-recovery diode. In Fig. 2.4 (b) is shown the waveform of forward-voltage drop v,across
the diode. The product of v, and i, gives the power loss in a diode. Its variation is shown in
Fig. 2.4 (c). The average value of v,i, gives the total power loss in a diode. Fig. 2.4 (c) reveals
that major power loss in a diode occurs during the period f,,.
It is noticed from Fig. 2.4 (a) that peak inverse current Ipj, can be expressed as
di
Tru = ta Fe pe (BAD
oe é is the rate of change of reverse current. The reverse recovery characteristics of
Fig. 2.4 (a) can be taken to be triangular. Under this assumption, storage charge Qz, ae
Fig. 2.4 (a), is given by 2 ob OS Sa
1
Ker
Qn =F Tam «tr,
or
seven, Ane
Set ee EY deer gence
ARE a. ened} eta
ite babe as 2 5 BEG ans. 2.4) ’
Power ELectRonics
It is seen fi
irom Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) that reverse recovery time ¢,, and peak inverse
current Ip), a
[nu are dependent on storage charge and rate of change of current 4. The storage
hh
ae depenis upon the forward diode current J. This shows that reverse recovery time
peck ates current depend on forward field, or diode, current.
power-electronics engineer must know peak
: peak reverse current Ipy, stored charge Qp,
‘S-factor, PIV ete. in order to be able to design the circuitry employing power diodes. These
parameters are usually specified in the catalogue supplied by the diode manufacturers.
2 BRT ashe ae ise ees dad
Diodes are classified according to their reverse recovery characteristics. The three types of
power diodes are as under :
(i) General purpose diodes
(ii) Fast recovery diodes
(iii) Schottky diodes.
‘These are now described briefly.
2.4.1. General-purpose Diodes
‘These diodes have relatively high reverse recovery time, of the order of about 25 ps. Their
aecvent ratings vary from 1 A to several thousand amperes and the rans of voltage rating is
from 50 V to about 5 kV. Applications of power diodes of this type include battery charging,
aaontrie traction, electroplating, welding and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
2.4.2 Fast-recovery Diodes
The diodes with low reverse recovery time, of about 5 us or less, are classified as fast-
recovery diodes. These are used in choppers, commutation circuits, switched mode power
supplies, induction heating ete. Their current ratings vary from about 1 A to several
thousand amperes and voltage ratings from 50 V to about 3 kV.
For voltage ratings below about 400 V, the epitaxial process is used for diode
fabrication. These diodes have fast recovery time, as low as 50 ns.
For voltage ratings above 400 V, diffusion technique is used for the fabrication of
diodes. In order to shorten the reverse-recovery time, platinum or gold doping is carried out.
But this doping may increase the forward voltage drop in a diode.
2.4.3 Schottky Diodes
This cass of diodes use metal-to-semiconductor junction for rectification purposes instead of
sa oestion, The metal is usually aluminium and semiconductor is silicon. Therefore, a
2 hy diode has aluminium-slicon junction. The silicon is n-type. 2
When Schottky diode is forward biased, free electrons in n material m
e . by love tor
‘Alin jovetion and then travel through the metal (aluminium) to Berri aoe ot
Abn jupturrent. Since metal does not have any holes, this forward current is d erie
erwin ct of electrons only. As the metal has no holes, there is no storage Biss cad ae.
reverse recovery time. It can, therefore, be said that rectified current ee Oe ee
fiode is by the movement of majority carriers (electrons) only and the turn-off slay caused
by recombination is avoided. As such, Schottky di i
by recombinat ch, y diode can switch off much faster than p-n OO —=—T=_:— EE
[[PaWER SemcoNoUCTOR Diodes AND Transistors
I cumpared, ia 7:8 tar 251
-n junction diode, a § ’
(iyhigher reverse leakage current and (iis hon ey Miode has (i) lower cut-in voltage,
ratings are limited to about 100 V and f
: ; forway
‘Applications of Schottky diode include hie ‘
supplies. clude high-frequency instrumentation and switching power
The electrical and thermal chara
thyristors which are deseribed in Ghat a of power diodes are similar to those of
2 POWER TRANSISTORS
Power diodes are uncontrolled devices. In other words, their turn-on and turn-off
characteristics are not under control. Power transistors, however, possess controlled
characteristics. These are turned on when a current signal is given to base, or control,
terminal. The transistor remains in the on-state so long as control signal is present. When
this control signal is removed, a power transistor is turned off.
Power transistors are of four types as under
( Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
(ii) Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs)
(iii) Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and
(iv) Static induction transistors (SITs).
These four types are now described one after the other.
2.5.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors
A bipolar transistor is a three-layer, two junction npn or pnp semiconductor device. With one
p-region sandwiched by two n-regions, Fig. 2.5 (a), npn transistor is obtained. With two
p-regions sandwiching one n-region, Fig. 2.5 (b), pnp transistor is obtained. The term
‘bipolar’ denotes that the current flow in the device is due to the movement of both holes and
electrons. A BJT has three terminals named collector (C), emitter (E) cen base (B). An
emitter is indicated by an arrowhead indicating the direction of eriiey current. na srray is
associated with base or collector. Power Goede CoE Pe re we ee Cs
are cheaper also. Therefore, use of power npn transistors is Ta ee
high-current applications. Hereafter, npn transistors would only be considered.
elect c collector 2
Te | I
£ Ip aa |e) lo
ee — ot tr] =>
£ B Base [—J B
ease :
Te | Ie
Emitter E Emitter E
)
(a)
Fig. 2.5. Bipolar junction transistors (a) npn type and (0) pnp tyPe: F Oe 28 Power ELECTRONICS |
25.1.1 Steady-state Characteristics. Out of the three possible circuit configura-
tions for a transistor, common-emitter arrangement is more common in switching
applications. So, a common emitter npn circuit for obtaining its characteristics is considered
as shown in Fig. 2.6 (a).
Input characteristics. A graph between base current 1, and base-emitter voltage
Vag gives input characteristics. As the base-emitter junction of a transistor is like a diode, I,
versus Vay graph resembles a diode curve. When collector-emitter voltage Vig, is more than
Vog,, base current, for the same Vix , decreases as shown in Fig. 2.6 (b).
Leakage
current Cuteff region
@) ) ©
Fig. 2.6. (a) npn transistor circuit characteristics, (b) input characteristics and (¢) output characteristics.
Output characteristies. A graph between collector current I, and collector-emitter
voltage Vp gives output characteristics of a transistor. For zero base current, i.e. for I, = 0,
as Vo is increased, a small leakage (collector) current exists as shown in Fig. 2.6 (c). As the
base current is increased from I, = 0 to I,, Ip, ete., collector current also rises as shown in
Fig. 2.6 (c).
_ Fig. 2.7 (a) shows two of the output characteristic curves, 1 for I, = 0 and 2 for I, + 0.
‘The initial part of curve 2, characterised by low Veg, is called the saturation region. In this
region, the transistor acts like a switch. The flat part of curve 2, indicated by increasing V,
and almost constant I,, is the active region. In this region, transistor acts like an amplifier.
Almost yeprically rising curve is the breakdown region which must be avoided at all costs.
For load resistor R,, Fig. 2.6 (a), the collector current Ig is given by
Ig= Yoo =Vox
This is the equation of load line, It is shown as line AB in Fi i
7 ot oaa tase, as line AB in Fig. 2. i
locus of all possible operating points. Ideally, when tran: fete Rie dantine Vet
x c= Noe
Re. This collector current is shown by point A on the vertical axis. Whea the transistor is off,
or in the cut-off region, Vee appears across collector-emitter terminals and there is no
collector current. This value is indicated by point 8 on the horizontal axis. For the resistive
joad, the line joining points A and B is the load line, ‘ (IPRHER'SehicondUcrToR Diooes Avo Travsisrons feos)
Saturation
region
Nec Emitter
(@) ()
Fig. 2.7. (a) Output characteristics and load line for npn transistor and (b) electron flow in an npn transistor.
Relation between a and f. Most of the electrons, proportional to J, given out by
emitter, reach the collector as shown in Fig. 2.7 (6). In other words, collector current J,
though less than emitter current Ip, is almost equal to [,.. A symbol a is used to indicate how
close in value these two currents are. Here a, called forward current gain, is defined as
ara (2.6)
As Ip
