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CONTENTS

Preface ........................................................................... xvii

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

PART 1 CONCEPT DEvElOPmENT iN Brain connecTion THE BrAiN AND mATH

ANxiETy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
mATHEmATiCS AND SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Technology Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

ChaptER 1 Development, Acquisition, Problem ASSiSTivE TECHNOlOGy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Solving, and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1-3 Six Steps in Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1-1 Concept Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Assessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Relationships Between Science, Technology, Engineering, SPECiFiC TASk ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Math, and Art (Stem and Steam) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 ASSESSmENT By OBSErvATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Rationale for Standards and Common Core Curriculum Choosing Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Planning Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
PriNCiPlES OF SCHOOl mATHEmATiCS ..................7
Selecting Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
STANDArDS FOr SCHOOl mATHEmATiCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
STANDArDS FOr SCiENCE EDuCATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Evaluating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
NAEyC DAP GuiDEliNES FOr mATH AND SCiENCE ....8
Problem Solving and Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Movement Toward National Core State
Curriculum Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 PrOBlEm SOlviNG AND iNquiry
iN SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
National Standards for Professional Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
FOur STEPS iN SCiENCE PrOBlEm
Constructivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SOlviNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
PiAGETiAN PEriODS OF CONCEPT DEvElOPmENT OvErviEW OF PrOBlEm SOlviNG
AND THOuGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 AND iNquiry iN mATHEmATiCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
PiAGET’S viEW OF HOW CHilDrEN ACquirE ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
kNOWlEDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
TeachSource Video 5–11 yEArS: PiAGET’S
CONCrETE OPErATiONAl STAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ESTimATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

vyGOTSky’S viEW OF HOW CHilDrEN lEArN mulTiCulTurAl PrOBlEm SOlviNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

AND DEvElOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 HElPiNG CHilDrEN WiTH SPECiAl NEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
BruNEr’S AND DiENES’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1-4 National Assessment Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
The Learning Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Assessment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Adapting the Learning Cycle to Early Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
OBSErvATiONAl ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1-2 Types of Learning Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 ASSESSmENT THrOuGH iNFOrmAl
Naturalistic Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 CONvErSATiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Informal Learning Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 iNTErviEW ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Adult-Guided Learning Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Assessment Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Diverse Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 ExAmPlE OF AN iNDiviDuAl iNTErviEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Assessment Task File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Record Keeping and Reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Using the Learning Cycle to Build Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Maintaining Equity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 uSiNG PArT OF THE lEArNiNG CyClE TO BuilD
rESPONSE TO iNTErvENTiON (rTi) CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Strategies That Encourage Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 ASSESSiNG AND EvAluATiNG iNquiry lEArNiNG 64
Concept Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Types of Learning Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2-3 Integrating Science into the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Six Steps in Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Children Learn in Different Ways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Organizing for Teaching Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
National Assessment Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
PlANNiNG FOr DEvElOPiNG SCiENCE CONCEPTS 65
ChaptER 2 Basics of Science, Engineering, PlANNiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
BASiC SCiENCE ACTiviTy PlAN COmPONENTS . . . . . 67
2-1 The Framework and Standards for Science Education. . . 50 Assessment Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Science as Inquiry and Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Evaluating the Investigation Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Processes of Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Three Basic Types of Science Investigations and Units . . . 71
Science Process Skills Used in Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 OPEN-ENDED AND NArrOW quESTiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
OBSErviNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
COmPAriNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The Framework and Standards for Science Education . . . . 71
ClASSiFyiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
SCiENCE AS iNquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
mEASuriNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
SCiENCE CONTENT kNOWlEDGE AND
COmmuNiCATiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 lEArNiNG AND THE DEvElOPmENT
iNFErriNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 OF liTErACy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
PrEDiCTiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 APPrOPriATE SCiENCE CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

HyPOTHESiziNG AND CONTrOlliNG vAriABlES Concept Understanding in Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

= iNvESTiGATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 SElF-rEGulATiON AND CONCEPT
Developing Scientific Attitudes Used in Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 ATTAiNmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
CuriOSiTy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 DiSCrEPANT EvENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

SkEPTiCiSm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 uSiNG THE lEArNiNG CyClE TO BuilD

CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
POSiTivE APPrOACH TO FAilurE AND
SElF-imAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 STrATEGiES THAT ENCOurAGE iNquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Integrating Science into the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Science Content Knowledge and Learning and the OrGANiziNG FOr TEACHiNG SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Development of Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Appropriate Science Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
liFE SCiENCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 PART 2 FuNDAmENTAl CONCEPTS
PHySiCAl SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 AND SkillS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
EArTH AND SPACE SCiENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
ChaptER 3 Prekindergarten and kindergarten
ENGiNEEriNG, TECHNOlOGy, AND APPliCATiONS
OF SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Concepts and Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Important Developmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3-1 One-to-One Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2-2 Concept Understanding in Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Pre-Assessment Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Enhancing Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

TeachSource Video DATA COllECTiON AND NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

viSuAlizATiON iN THE ElEmENTAry ClASSrOOm . 58 iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Teacher Magic and Misconceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Self-Regulation and Concept Attainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Helping Children with Special Learning Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Discrepant Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3-2 Number Sense and Counting Standards Logic and Classification Standards and Description . . . . . 110

and Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Number Sense and Its Relationship to Counting . . . . . . . . . . 84 ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

rOTE AND rATiONAl COuNTiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 iNFOrmAl POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Brain connecTion NumBEr SENSE AND Comparison Standards and Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
COuNTiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 iNFOrmAl POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 ChaptER 4 more Prekindergarten and kindergarten

iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Concepts and Skills: Early Geometry, Parts and Wholes,
ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 and Applications of Fundamental Concepts to
Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Science and Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4-1 Expectations and Characteristics of Shape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3-3 Logic and Classification Standards for Science Brain connecTion iS GEOmETry HArDWirED
iNTO Our BrAiNS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
and Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Shape Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 TeachSource Video WHAT iS A TriANGlE? . . . . . . 118

Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

PErCEPTuAl-mOTOr CHAllENGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3-4 Comparison Standards and Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
BiliNGuAl GEOmETry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
The Basic Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
mulTiCulTurAl GEOmETry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Comparison Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4-2 Spatial Sense and Spatial Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Brain connecTion SPATiAl
TeachSource Video COmPAriNG TOWErS TO iNTElliGENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
FiGurE OuT HOW mANy CuBES: A kiNDErGArTEN Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
lESSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Informal Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

One-to-One Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4-3 Standards and Part–Whole Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
PArTS OF WHOlES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
iNFOrmAl POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
DiviSiON OF GrOuPS iNTO PArTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Number Sense and Counting
Standards and Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 DiviSiON OF WHOlE THiNGS iNTO PArTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Brain connecTion NEurAl BASiS
OF FrACTiON kNOWlEDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
iNFOrmAl POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Part–Whole Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

TeachSource Video THE HiDiNG ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

ASSESSmENT 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Helping Children with Special Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5-2 Measurement Standards and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Stages of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4-4 Science and Engineering Standards and Connection TeachSource Video liNEAr
to Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 mEASurEmENT 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 How the Young Child Thinks About Measurement . . . . . . . 156

Science and Engineering Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Brain connecTion CAN BrAiN SCiENCE
Shape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
imPrOvE SPECiAl EDuCATiON? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5-3 Time Measurement Standards
Spatial Sense and Spatial Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Kinds of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Language of Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Standards and Part–Whole Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 NATurAliSTiC ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

PArT–WHOlE ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 iNFOrmAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 ADulT-GuiDED ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Science and Engineering Standards and Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Connection to Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5-4 Data and Graphing Standards
ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
POST-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Stages of Development for Making
and Understanding Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Discussion of a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
PART 3 APPlyiNG FuNDAmENTAl Materials for Making Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Topics for Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

ChaptER 5 Pre-k–k: Ordering, measurement, 5-5 Science Standards and Expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
and Data Collection and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Ordering and Patterning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5-1 Standards and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Measurement: Volume, Weight, Length, and
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Communicating with Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 6-2a Concept Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

PraCtiCe GraPhs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 6-2b Mathematics, Science, Engineering,
Pets GraPh and Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6-2c Literature, Reading and Writing,
Favorite Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Mathematics, and Science and Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
GraPhinG attraCtions: MaGnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Brain connecTion Brain-Based BeneFits oF
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 WritinG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Comparison Standards and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

assessMent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 sPeeCh, lanGuaGe, and CoMMuniCation . . . . . 200

aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 MaintaininG a MultiCultural aPProaCh to

lanGuaGe With Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
inForMal Post-evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Measurement Standards and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Pre-assessMent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 National Standards Support Stem and Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Play and learninG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

inForMal Post-evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 theMatiC ProjeCts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Time Standards and Expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 FoCus on nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Pre-assessMent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Language, Literacy, and Concept Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 MatheMatiCs, sCienCe, enGineerinG,

and literaCy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
inForMal Post-evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

staGes oF develoPMent For MakinG and

understandinG GraPhs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Materials for Making graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

topics for graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

PART 4 syMBols and hiGher-level
Science Standards and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
ConCePts and aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
orderinG and PatterninG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Chapter 7 transitioning from Preschool to
MeasureMent: voluMe, WeiGht, lenGth, kindergarten to Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
and teMPerature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
CoMMuniCatinG With GraPhs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7-1 Number Symbols and Concepts: Standards
Chapter 6 integrating the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
and Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
The Number Symbol Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6-1 Standards and Stem and Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Play and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Dramatic Role Playing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
naturalistiC aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
A Thematic Project Example: Food. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
inForMal aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Food and draMatiC Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
adult-Guided aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Food and Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Food and sCienCe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Food and enGineerinG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Food and soCial studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

7-2 Groups and Symbols: Standards
Food and the arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
and Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Working with Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Focus on Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
naturalistiC aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6-2 Language, Literacy, and Concept Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 inForMal aCtivities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
TeachSource Video an environMent Where
adult-Guided aCtivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
We learn FroM eaCh other: a kinderGarten
Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Working with Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Brain connecTion THE BrAiN AND ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

NumBErS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Groups and Symbols: Standards and Explanations . . . . . . 243
7-3 Standards and Explanations of Higher-Level iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 iNFOrmAl POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

TeachSource Video COuNTiNG OBjECTS 2 . . . . . 225 Standards and Explanations of Higher-Level Concepts 244
Activities, Skills, and Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
AlGEBrAiC THiNkiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 ACTiviTiES, SkillS, AND CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
ClASSiFiCATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 End-of-Kindergarten Science Standards and
SHAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
SPATiAl rElATiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 CONCEPTS THAT CrOSSCuT SCiENCE AND
ENGiNEEriNG CONTENT ArEAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
DESiGN TECHNOlOGy/ENGiNEEriNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
PErFOrmANCE ExPECTATiONS iN
GrAPHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
kiNDErGArTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
CONCrETE WHOlE NumBEr OPErATiONS
PrOBlEmS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

THE SymBOliC lEvEl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 TECHNOlOGy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

quANTiTiES ABOvE 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

ESTimATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

rOBOTiCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
PART 5 mATHEmATiCS CONCEPTS AND
Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
OPErATiONS FOr THE PrimAry GrADES . . . . . 246
7-4 End-of-Kindergarten Science Standards
and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 ChaptER 8 Whole Number Operations,
Concepts That Crosscut Science and Engineering Patterns, and Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Content Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8-1 Background and Basics of Primary Grade
PATTErNS AND ClASSiFiCATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
CAuSE AND EFFECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Basic Combinations (Facts) and Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
SCAlE, PrOPOrTiON, AND quANTiTy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Computational Fluency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
SySTEmS AND SySTEm mODElS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Action and Relational Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
STruCTurE AND FuNCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Instructional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
NGSS Performance Expectations in Kindergarten . . . . . . . . 237
iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Algebraic Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
vEGETABlE TimE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
STONE SOuP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

ANimAl GrOuPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

mOrE FirST mAPPiNG ExPEriENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

ExPlOriNG PumPkiNS: OCTOBEr SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . 239 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

mEASuriNG THE WOrlD ArOuND uS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

POPCOrN TimE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

SPATiAl rElATiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Number Symbols and Concepts: Standards and
Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

NumBEr SymBOl SkillS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Integration with Other Content Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Second Grade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 GEOmETry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 DATA ANAlySiS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

8-2 Description and Explanation of Patterning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Third Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 GEOmETry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 DATA ANAlySiS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Brain connecTion HOW PATTErNS HElP Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Our THiNkiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 GEOmETry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Informal Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 TeachSource Video HOW mANy CuBES?
A quESTiON rEGArDiNG vOlumE: STuDENT
8-3 Standards and Descriptions of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 iNTErviEWS 1, 2, AND 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
TeachSource Video WHEN THE rOBOTiCS: lEGO AND lOGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
DOOrBEll rANG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
DESiGN TECHNOlOGy/ENGiNEEriNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
COllECTiNG AND ANAlyziNG DATA AND
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
CONSTruCTiNG GrAPHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
CHArTS AND TABlES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Informal Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
ESTimATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 PrOBABiliTy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Background and Basics of Primary Grade Mathematics . . . . 278 Integration Across the Content Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
iNSTruCTiONAl STrATEGiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Description and Explanation of Patterning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Informal Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
9-3 Standards and Description of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
iNFOrmAl POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Standards and Descriptions of Fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

THE CONCEPT OF uNiT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
mEASuriNG iNSTrumENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

iNFOrmAl EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Measurement Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Ideas for Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
ChaptER 9 Place value, Geometry, Data Analysis,
and measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

9-1 Standards and Description of Place Value and Numbers Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Above 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Standards and Description of Place Value
and Numbers Above 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Informal Pre-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
iNFOrmAl PrE-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Kamii’s Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Calculators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Standards and Descriptions of Geometry,
Helping Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Engineering, and Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Post-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

9-2 Standards and Descriptions of Geometry, Engineering ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

and Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 iNFOrmAl POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

First Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Standards and Description of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

GEOmETry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 iNFOrmAl PrE-ASSESSmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

DATA ANAlySiS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Subject Integrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

iNFOrmAl POST-EvAluATiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 SCiENCE AND mATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

SCiENCE AND SOCiAl STuDiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

SCiENCE AND lANGuAGE ArTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

PART 6 iNvESTiGATiONS iN PrimAry SCiENCE AND muSiC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 SCiENCE AND ArT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Additional Plant Activities Based on Science

ChaptER 10 Overview of Primary Science: Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
life Science, and Physical Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 CONCEPT: PlANTS GrOW FrOm rOOTS AND
STEmS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10-1 Next Generation Standards and Guidelines
CONCEPT: mOlDS GrOW iN DArk, mOiST
for Primary Grade Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 CONDiTiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
TeachSource Video 5–11 yEArS: PiAGET’S TEACHiNG NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
CONCrETE OPErATiONS STAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Animals in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Translating NGSS for Classroom Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
TiPS FOr kEEPiNG ANimAlS iN
ClASSrOOm iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 THE ClASSrOOm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
iNSTruCTiON iN THE ElEmENTAry TEACHiNG WiTH ANimAlS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
ClASSrOOm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
A Trip to the Zoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Conventional Science Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
BEFOrE, DuriNG, AND AFTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
COllECTiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
ADDiTiONAl zOO ANimAl ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
GETTiNG STArTED By uSiNG mAGNiFiErS . . . . . . . . . . 318
Strategies for Teaching About the
FOCuSiNG THE COllECTiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
COllECTiNG SmAll ANimAlS WiTHOuT Brain connecTion BrAiN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
BACkBONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 iNSiDE mE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Practices and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Our SkElETON HAS jOiNTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
SuPPOrTiNG SCiENCE iNvESTiGATiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
FiND THE jOiNTS ............................................ 338
Managing the Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 mAkE A muSClE ............................................. 339
OrGANiziNG CHilDrEN FOr lEArNiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
10-3 Physical Science for the Next Generation and
OrGANiziNG mATEriAlS FOr lEArNiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Conventional Physical Science Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
POCkET mANAGEmENT STrATEGy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
NGSS Performance Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Sample Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
FirST GrADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
ExAmPlES OF TOPiCS TO iNvESTiGATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
SECOND GrADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
10-2 Conventional and Next Generation Life Science THirD GrADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Next Generation Instructional Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
NGSS Life Science Performance Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Conventional Physical Science Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
FirST GrADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 PHySiCAl SCiENCE CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

SECOND GrADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Planning and Teaching a Project About Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
THirD GrADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 ExPlOriNG BuBBlES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Next Generation Instructional Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 iNvESTiGATiON quESTiONS FOr ExPlOriNG

Conventional Life Science Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Air AND BuBBlES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Subject Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
liFE SCiENCE CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
BuBBlES AND SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
CONvENTiONAl PlANNiNG FOr liFE SCiENCE . . . 329
BuBBlES AND ArT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
liviNG THiNGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
BuBBlES AND mATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Planning and Teaching a Seed Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
BuBBlES AND lANGuAGE ArTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
mOrE SEED SuGGESTiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
BuBBlES AND FOOD ExPEriENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Concept: Air Can Move Things and Slow rOCkS AND lANGuAGE ArTS AND rEADiNG . . . . . . 361
Things Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
WHiCH rOCk iS miNE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Exploring Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 rOCkS AND mATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
WiND iNSTrumENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
rOCkS AND A COOkiNG ExPEriENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 rOCkS AND SOCiAl STuDiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Exploring Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
liGHT BEAm TAG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Soil Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
iNSTruCTiONAl TECHNOlOGy: THE liGHT Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
SENSOr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
A lESSON ON TEmPErATurE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Assessment Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
ExTENDiNG THE CONCEPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 A THErmOmETEr TABlE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Standards and Guidelines for Primary Grade Science . . . 350 A PArTy FOr All SEASONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
TrANSlATiNG THE NGSS FOr ClASSrOOm Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
PuDDlE PiCTurES .......................................... 364
CONvENTiONAl SCiENCE iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Space Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
PrACTiCES AND DESiGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
mOON PATTErNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
mANAGiNG THE ClASSrOOm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
THE DOS AND DON’TS OF uSiNG BiNOCulArS . . . 365
SAmPlE iNvESTiGATiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
CrATErS OF THE mOON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Life Science Conventional Instruction and Life Science
for the Next Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 11-2 Standards and Guidelines for Environmental
NExT GENErATiON liFE SCiENCE iNSTruCTiONAl Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
PlANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Next Generation Environmental
CONvENTiONAl liFE SCiENCE iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . 350 Awareness Instructional Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Physical Science for the Next Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 TiTlE: EArTH AND HumAN ACTiviTy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
NExT GENErATiON iNSTruCTiONAl PlANS . . . . . . . 350 PErFOrmANCE ExPECTATiONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
CONvENTiONAl PHySiCAl SCiENCE The Constructivist Approach to the Next Generation
iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Science Standards in Primary Grades Environmental
ChaptER 11 Earth and Space Sciences, Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Environmental Awareness, Engineering, Brain connecTion THE TrANSPArENT BrAiN. . . . . 368
Technology, and Science Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Conventional Environmental Awareness Instruction. . . . 369

11-1 Standards and Guidelines for Earth and Space CONCEPTS AND APPrOACHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

NGSS ESS Performance Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 WATEr CHANGES THE EArTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

The Constructivist Approach to the Next Generation uSiNG WATEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Science Standards in Primary Earth and Space Science . . . . 354 BE A WATEr SAvEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Conventional Earth and Space Science Instruction . . . . . . 357 WATEr FOr A DAy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
EArTH AND SPACE SCiENCE AND THE iS iT SAFE TO DriNk? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
ENvirONmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Trash and Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Planning and Teaching a Unit on Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
HOW muCH TrASH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
How Rocks Are Formed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
kEEPiNG THE EArTH ClEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
iGNEOuS rOCkS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
liTTEr COllAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
SEDimENTAry rOCkS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
rECyCliNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
mETAmOrPHiC rOCkS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
rECyCliNG SurvEy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Subject Integrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
SAvE A TrEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
rOCkS AND SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
PAPEr lOGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
rOCkS AND ArT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

11-3 Description and Standards for Engineering Design, The Math Learning Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Technology, and Applications of Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 The Science Learning Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 DiSCOvEry CENTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

Links Among Engineering, Technology, Science, OPEN lEArNiNG CENTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 iNquiry lEArNiNG CENTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Next Generation Instructional Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 SCiENCE iNTErEST CENTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

PrOjECT ExAmPlES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 PlAN yOur CENTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

TeachSource Video GrAPHiNG CHANGE: Selecting Math Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

A TECHNOlOGy-iNTEGrATED lESSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Selecting Science Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
PrOjECT PlANS FOr NExT GENErATiON
SENSOry lEArNiNG CENTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
ENGiNEEriNG DESiGN, TECHNOlOGy, AND
APPliCATiONS OF SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 THiNkiNG likE A CrimiNOlOGiST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

DO yOu HEAr WHAT i HEAr? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
rED, yEllOW, AND BluE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Standards and Guidelines for Earth
and Space Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 SmEllS, SmEllS, SmEllS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

NExT GENErATiON iNSTruCTiONAl PlANS . . . . . . . 377 APPlE Or POTATO? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

CONvENTiONAl EArTH AND SPACE SCiENCE Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Materials That Help Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . . 390
Standards and Guidelines for Environmental
Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 12-2 Standards and Action Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
NExT GENErATiON ENvirONmENTAl AWArENESS Blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
iNSTruCTiONAl PlANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Blocks: Science and Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
CONvENTiONAl ENvirONmENTAl AWArENESS BlOCkS ENCOurAGE THiNkiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
iNSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
BlOCkS: BAlANCE, PrEDiCTiONS,
Description and Standards for Engineering Design, iNTErACTiONS, AND mOvEmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Technology, and Applications of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
rAmPS AND PATHWAyS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
ENGiNEEriNG DESiGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
STrAW AND PiPE ClEANEr
liNkS AmONG ENGiNEEriNG, TECHNOlOGy, CONSTruCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
SCiENCE, AND SOCiETy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
BlOCk CiTy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
NExT GENErATiON iNSTruCTiONAl PlANS . . . . . . . 377
THE EDiBlE villAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

Woodworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Math Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
PART 7 THE mATH AND SCiENCE
mAGiC TriANGlES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
ENvirONmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
THE lADy AND THE TiGEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

ChaptER 12 materials and resources: yOur NumBEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

math and Science in the Classroom FiNGEr PlAyS AND ACTiON SONGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
and the Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 mATH iN THE ENvirONmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

12-1 Overview of Materials and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 SOlviNG mATHEmATiCS PrOBlEmS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

Basic Math and Science Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Science in Action: The Outdoors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

TeachSource Video HANDliNG THE ENGiNEEriNG AND DESiGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

DiSTriBuTiON OF TOOlS iN kiNDErGArTEN . . . . . . . . 382 SCiENCE AND ArT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
THE GOOD juNk BOx: THiNGS TO SCrOuNGE . . . . 383 ANimAl STuDy ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
COmmErCiAl mATEriAlS FOr SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 ANimAl HOmES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
ADvANTAGES AND DiSADvANTAGES OF kiTS . . . . . 383 FiNDiNG iNSECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
PurCHASED EquiPmENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 A DiFFErENT TyPE OF HOmE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
OrGANiziNG AND STOriNG mATEriAlS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 iNTErviEW A SPiDEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
THE OuTDOOr ClASSrOOm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

BirDS, BirDS, BirDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Brain connecTion PrOmOTiNG BrAiN

my WilD PlANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
DEvElOPmENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

HuGGiNG A TrEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

WHAT’S FOr DiNNEr? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Overview of Materials and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
CHECk THE WEATHEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 BASiC mATH AND SCiENCE mATEriAlS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

SCAvENGEr HuNTS AND OTHEr 10-miNuTE THE mATH lEArNiNG CENTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
ACTiviTiES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
THE SCiENCE lEArNiNG CENTEr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
CirClE GAmE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
SElECTiNG mATH mATEriAlS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
OuTDOOr lEArNiNG AND WriTiNG
SElECTiNG SCiENCE mATEriAlS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
ExPEriENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Standards and Action Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
PlANNiNG FOr OuTDOOr lEArNiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
BlOCkS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
ATTENTiON GrABBErS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
WOODWOrkiNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
ADDiTiONAl mANAGEmENT STrATEGiES . . . . . . . . . . . 402
mATH GAmES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
SCiENCE iN ACTiON: THE OuTDOOrS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
iNSTruCTiONAl TECHNOlOGy iN ACTiON . . . . . . . . . 403
TECHNOlOGy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
ExPlOriNG mATH AND SCiENCE WiTH
TECHNOlOGy AT HOmE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 CulTurAlly rElEvANT mATHEmATiCS
AND SCiENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Culturally Relevant Mathematics and Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Family Involvement in Math
12-3 Family Involvement in Math and Science Begins and Science Begins at Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

at Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 GuiDEliNES FOr FAmiliES AS TEACHErS

AT HOmE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Getting the Family Involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
mATH AND SCiENCE iN THE HOmE, yArD,
Guidelines for Families as Teachers at Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 NEiGHBOrHOOD, AND PArk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Math and Science in the Home, Yard, Neighborhood, mATH AND SCiENCE iN NATurE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
and Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
FEED THE BirDS iN BACkyArD Or PArk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
DAily rOuTiNES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

COOkiNG WiTH CHilDrEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

aPPendiX a Developmental Assessment
mATH AND SCiENCE ACTiviTiES HErE
AND THErE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Math and Science in Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 aPPendiX B Children’s Books, magazines
WHO iNviTED THE ANTS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
and Technology resources with math and
Science Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
SCENT TrAilS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Feed the Birds in the Backyard or Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
A FAmily BirD WAlk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

Math and Science for Young Children, Eighth Edition, is de- careful introduction of information through informal and
signed to be used by students in training and by teachers adult-guided experiences.
in service in early childhood education. To the student, it The test-driven practices that are currently prevalent
introduces the excitement and extensiveness of math and have produced a widespread use of inappropriate instruc-
science experiences in programs for young children. For tional practices with young children. Mathematics for pre-
teachers in the field, it presents an organized, sequential schoolers has been taught as “pre-math,” apparently under
approach to creating a developmentally appropriate math the assumption that math learning begins only with addi-
and science curriculum for preschool and primary school tion and subtraction in the primary grades. It also has been
children. Further, it is designed in line with the guide- taught in both preschool and primary school as rote memory
lines and standards of the major professional organizations: material using abstract paper-and-pencil activities. Science is
National Association for the Education of Young Children often presented as discrete activities if at all. This text empha-
(NAEYC), National Council of Teachers of Mathematics sizes the recognition by the National Council of Teachers of
(NCTM), National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), Mathematics and the National Research Council of the in-
and National Research Council (NRC). clusion of mathematics at the pre-K level in its revised math-
ematics standards (CCSSM, NRC, 2010). A new Science
Development of the Text Framework (NRC, 2012) and Next Generation Common
Core Standards for Science (NGSS, NRC, 2013) cover K–12
The text was developed and directed by the concept that the science standards and emphasize science projects as ongoing
fundamental concepts and skills that form the foundation endeavors integrated with the other curriculum areas. This
for mathematics and science are identical. Each edition has text is designed to bring to the attention of early childhood
focused on these commonalities. As changes have emerged educators the interrelatedness of math and science and the
in each area, the text has been updated. Acquaintance with necessity of providing young children with opportunities to
child development from birth through age 8 would be a explore concretely these domains of early concept learning.
helpful prerequisite. Further integration is stressed with language arts, social
studies, art, and music; the goal is to provide a totally inte-
grated program. With the advent of STEM, efforts are being
Organization of the Text made to emphasize the relationships among science, tech-
The text is set up in a logical progression, and students nology, engineering, and mathematics. Also, the national
should follow the text in sequence. Applying the assessment Common Core state standards for mathematics and the New
tasks and teaching one (or more) of the sample lessons will Generation Science Standards support an integrated, project
provide the student with hands-on experience relevant to approach to instruction. These standards are described in the
each concept and each standard. relevant chapters. Also included are the relevant NAEYC
Guidelines and Professional Development standards.
Activities are presented in a developmental sequence
designed to support young children’s construction of the Part 1 sets the theoretical and conceptual foundation.
concepts and skills essential to a basic understanding of Part 2 provides chapters on fundamental concepts: one-
mathematics and science. A developmentally appropriate to-one correspondence, number sense and counting, logic
approach to assessment is stressed in order to have an indi- and classifying, comparing, shape, spatial sense, parts and
vidualized program in which each child is presented at each wholes, and application of these concepts to science. Each
level with tasks that can be accomplished successfully before chapter is introduced with the relevant Common Core
moving on to the next level. State Standards, followed by assessment; naturalistic, infor-
mal, and adult-guided activities; evaluation; and summary.
A further emphasis is placed on three types of learning: Every chapter includes references and further reading and
naturalistic, informal, and adult guided. Much learning can resources, brain connections, a suggested related video,
take place through the child’s natural exploratory activities and a technology connection. Most of the chapters in Parts
if the environment is designed to promote such activity. The 3, 4, and 5 follow the same format. Chapter 6 (in Part 3)
adult can reinforce and enrich this naturalistic learning by sums up the application of process skills and important

vocabulary and provides basic ideas for integrating math ■■ TeachSource Videos feature footage from the
and science through dramatic play and thematic units and classroom to help students relate key chapter con-
projects. Part 5 includes the major mathematics concepts for tent to real-life scenarios. Critical-thinking ques-
grades 1–3. Part 6 focuses on science investigations in the tions following each video provide opportunities
primary grades. Part 7 includes three areas: materials and for in-class or online discussion and reflection.
resources, math and science in action, and math and science ■■ Brain Connection boxes describe recent brain re-
in the home. The appendices contain additional assessment search related to the chapter topics.
tasks and lists of books, periodicals, and technology re-
sources. A glossary and index are also included. ■■ Updated Technology for Young Children boxes
address the increasing role that technology tools

New to This Edition are playing in children’s education. Each box intro-
duces resources for a particular topic or discusses
Major revisions to the eighth edition include the following: related research.
■■ Learning Objectives at the beginning of each ■■ The text is streamlined for easier use, with 12 chap-
chapter now correlate with main headings within ters rather than the 41 units that appeared in pre-
the chapter and the Summary at the end of the chap- vious editions.
ter. The objectives highlight what students need to ■■ Recent insights on instruction for special needs stu-
know to process and understand the information in dents help readers think about and determine how
the chapter. After completing the chapter, students they will adapt their teaching style to include all
should be able to demonstrate how they can use and children.
apply their new knowledge and skills.
■■ Updated coverage of important topics in the field
■■ Improved integration of early childhood and pri- includes STEM/STEAM, with engineering now
mary grade professional standards helps students included in science and math chapters; multicul-
make connections between what they are learning tural and English Language Learner (ELL) class-
in the textbook and the standards. This edition now room learning and strategies and multicultural
contains a list of standards covered at the beginning integration; science performance expectations; and
of each chapter, including NAEYC’s Professional expanded discussion of constructivism.
Preparation Standards (2010); Developmentally
Appropriate Practice (DAP) Guidelines; Common ■■ Science activities and projects are now divided into
Core Standards for Math; and Next Generation Next Generation and conventional approaches, as
Science Standards. Throughout the text, these stan- NGSS is just being introduced and may not be fa-
dards are also highlighted with icons, and a com- miliar to all readers.
plete list of the standards addressed in this book can ■■ References have been updated throughout and are
be found in the standards correlation chart on the included at the end of the chapter, and the Further
inside front and back covers. Readings and Resources list now includes just the
■■ Digital Downloads are downloadable and some- most recent items and some classics.
times customizable practical and professional
resources, which allow students to immediately
implement and apply the textbook’s content in
Major Part-Specific Changes
the field. Students can download these tools and Part 1
keep them forever, enabling preservice teachers to ■■ Explanation and description of Science Framework
begin building a library of practical, professional and NGSS are included.
resources. Look for the Digital Download label
that identifies these items. ■■ CCSSM and new NCTM Principles and Actions
are explained and described.
■■ MindTap for Education is a first-of-its kind dig-
ital solution that prepares teachers by providing ■■ Discussion of STEM and STEAM has been
them with the knowledge, skills, and competencies expanded.
they must demonstrate to earn an education degree ■■ There is increased coverage of analysis of problem-
and state licensure, and to begin a successful ca- solving processes.
reer. Through activities based on real-life teaching ■■ Chapter 1 contains content previously in Units 1,
situations, MindTap elevates students’ thinking
2, 3, and 4.
by giving them experiences in applying concepts,
practicing skills, and evaluating decisions, guiding ■■ Chapter 2 includes the content from Units 5, 6,
them to become reflective educators. and 7.

Part 2 teaching and learning. A highly personalized, fully

customizable learning platform, MindTap, helps
■■ Chapter 3 includes the content from Units 8–11.
students to elevate thinking by guiding them to:
■■ Chapter 4 includes the content from Units 12–14 ■■ Know, remember, and understand concepts
and 16, and thus makes a closer connection be-
critical to becoming a great teacher;
tween math and science.
■■ Apply concepts, create tools, and demonstrate
Part 3 performance and competency in key areas in
■■ Chapter 5 includes material from Units 17–21 and the course;
thus makes a closer connection between math and ■■ Prepare artifacts for the portfolio and eventual
science. state licensure, to launch a successful teaching
■■ Chapter 6 includes material from Units 15 and 22, career; and
thus demonstrating how language, play, and proj- ■■ Develop the habits to become a reflective prac-
ects can support learning across the curriculum. titioner.
Part 4 As students move through each chapter’s Learning
Path, they engage in a scaffolded learning experience de-
■■ New engineering examples are provided.
signed to move them up Bloom’s Taxonomy from lower- to
■■ Chapter 7 includes the material from Units 23–26 higher-order thinking skills. The Learning Path enables
and thus provides a closer connection between preservice students to develop these skills and gain confi-
math and science; in addition, it connects the more dence in the following ways:
advanced concepts and skills that some children
■■ Engaging them with chapter topics and activating
will learn by the end of kindergarten.
their prior knowledge by watching and answering
Part 5 questions about TeachSource videos of teachers
teaching and children learning in real classrooms
■■ Chapter 8 includes material from Units 27–29.
■■ Checking their comprehension and understanding
■■ Chapter 9 includes material from Units 30–32.
through Did You Get It? assessments, with var-
■■ Math standards have been updated. ied question types that are autograded for instant
feedback
Part 6
■■ Applying concepts through mini-case scenarios in
■■ Chapter 10 includes material from Units 33–35.
which students analyze typical teaching and learn-
■■ Chapter 11 includes material from Units 36–37 plus ing situations and create a reasoned response to the
new material on engineering, technology, and sci- issue(s) presented in the scenarios
ence application. ■■ Reflecting about and justifying the choices they
■■ New project lesson plans based on NGSS standards made within the teaching scenario problem
are included for the primary grades.
MindTap helps instructors facilitate better outcomes
Part 7 by evaluating how future teachers plan and teach lessons
in ways that make content clear and help diverse students
■■ Resource addresses have been updated.
learn, assessing the effectiveness of their teaching prac-
appendix a tice, and adjusting teaching as needed. The Student Prog-
ress App makes grades visible in real time so students and
■■ Tasks have been connected to new organization. instructors always have access to current standings in the
■■ Resources have been updated. class.
appendix B MindTap for Math and Science for Young Children helps
instructors easily set their course because it integrates into
■■ A new section of technology resource sites has been
the existing Learning Management System and saves in-
included.
structors time by allowing them to fully customize any as-
■■ New books have been added. pect of the learning path. Instructors can change the order
of the student learning activities, hide activities they don’t
Supplement Package want for the course, and—most importantly—add any con-
■■ NEW MindTap™, The Personal Learning Experi- tent they do want (e.g., YouTube videos, Google docs, links
ence, for Charlesworth’s Math and Science for Young to state education standards). Learn more at http://www
Children, 8th Edition, represents a new approach to .cengage.com/mindtap.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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a series of V struts, replaced the double skids, as in Fig. 88. This
type was used on the original Nieuport monoplane, and with minor
modifications on the Avro 80 h.p. Gnome tractor biplane. Its chief
advantage is low head resistance, but unfortunately with this system
a narrow wheel base, with the attendant defects, is inevitable. A
very distinctive system was that favoured by Bleriot, and used with
minor alterations on all the Bleriot monoplanes. This is shown,
diagrammatically, in side elevation, by Fig. 89, and was unusual in
that the wheels were arranged to swivel, this being an attempt to
counteract the side strains set up when landing in a side wind.
Although in the hands of some of our most famous exhibition pilots
this has functioned excellently, it is complicated and somewhat
heavy.

Fig. 89.—Bleriot undercarriage.

Recent Developments.
During the last three years the vital necessity of speed and
climb, and more speed and climb, has resulted in the gradual
elimination of skids, struts, and wires, until to-day the chassis for
machines of average dimensions is almost invariably the V type (Fig.
90). The wheels are placed about a foot in front of the C.G., as,
owing to the absence of any forward skid, no other provision exists
to counteract the tendency to pitch over. In the actual construction
of the Vee undercarriage, some diversity of practice exists with
regard to the material chosen. In some cases the struts forming the
Vees are constructed of a streamline section steel tubing, in others
round tubing, the streamline section being obtained by a wooden
fairing bound on, while a number of constructors use wood for the
struts.

Fig. 90.—Vee type undercarriage.

CHAPTER XI.
UNDERCARRIAGE DETAILS.

The details of construction associated with the undercarriage are

those concerned with the forming of the struts and main members,
and the suspension of the axle. As noted in the previous chapter the
Vee undercarriage is greatly in favour at present, but the fact that
with this type no forward support exists to prevent pitching over
when obstructions are met in rolling, will almost certainly result in
some arrangement of wheels and skids for the touring machines of
the post-war period. Machines are now designed for air performance
pure and simple, so that an undercarriage of the simple Vee type is
all that is permissible; but in the post-war machine general utility will
be the desideratum sought for by designers. At one time the
majority of the undercarriage arrangements incorporated one or
more skids. The material most suited for this purpose is hickory,
although some designers prefer ash, steamed to the desired curve,
and generally channelled out between the points of intersection of
the struts, fittings, etc., in a similar manner to longerons and wing
spars.
Where the bend is sharp, and therefore difficult to obtain by
steaming, it is usual to form the skid from a number of strips, or
laminations, glued together. Quite a good method of stream-lining
the curved toe of the skid is shown by Fig. 91, consisting of a spruce
block attached to the skid by screws, and it has additional value in
ensuring permanency of curve. Where the design is such that the
rear end of the skid performs the functions of a tail skid it is saw-
kerfed, as in Fig. 92, the laminations so formed being stepped back,
and the bottom layer shod with a plate, or claw fitting, acting as a
brake, and also preventing wear produced by contact with the
ground. At one time this constituted popular practice, but it is a
matter of some difficulty to prevent the saw-cuts from developing
into fractures. As a matter of fact, on one type of machine
replacements were so frequent that eventually the skid end was left
solid.

Fig. 91.—Streamlining curved toe of skid.

Fig. 92.—Laminated skid end.

Methods of Suspension.
In the preliminaries of design referred to in the last chapter, it
was observed that the action of rolling and alighting called for a
good system of suspension and shock absorption, and this is
accomplished on modern machines by binding the axle to the main
members of the structure with either rubber cord (this being a
number of strands of rubber about 1/16 in. square, compressed and
bound together with a woven twine casing) or plain rubber rings.
The latter are more or less obsolescent, at least in this country, the
reason being found in the better lasting qualities of the cord, which
will also withstand a much higher ultimate stress, the fabric covering
contributing largely to this. In a number of cases, and generally for
heavy machines, steel helical springs are fitted. Various attempts
right from the beginning of successful flight have been made to
utilize steel springs for suspension, but hitherto very few machines
have successfully incorporated them, and but a brief examination
will show that their use on machines of the average modern type is
attended with some unsatisfactory features. Firstly, they are much
heavier than rubber, but this in itself is no great disadvantage, as
ease of attachment probably compensates for this; but what is of
moment is the fact that steel springs are not nearly so efficient
shock-absorbers as the rubber variety, while even the efficiency of
the latter is capable of considerable improvement. If we take the
case of a machine rolling over bumpy ground, all that is required of
the suspension is that the wheel movement over the inequalities
shall not be transmitted to the whole machine. So far both steel
springs and rubber cord satisfy these conditions, but in the operation
of alighting the machine not infrequently strikes the ground with
some force, sometimes the result of gusts or pancaking. With steel
springs, and to a lesser degree those of rubber, the energy of
landing is not absorbed, but is stored up, being given out again in
the form of a rebound. With rubber, elongation and its consequent
depreciation of ultimate tensile strength prevents any energy of
moment being returned to the aeroplane, which is why, for light
machines of modern design, say, up to 2500 lbs. total weight, rubber
is the better material. Steel springs being deficient in the power to
damp out shocks, it becomes necessary to use these in conjunction
with some other medium possessing this quality, and one of the
most suitable arrangements extant is that known as the oleo-
pneumatic gear, consisting of a combination of helical coil spring and
oil plunger. It is usual to arrange the main compression members in
two halves, the upper half forming a piston, and the lower, attached
to the wheels, constituting the cylinder, is filled with oil. The weight
of the machine is taken normally during rolling by the helical spring,
wound round the upper half of the telescopic tube. Excessive shocks
cause the oil to be forced through a spring valve, adjusted to open
at a certain pressure, into the upper half, a back-pressure valve
enabling the oil to gradually return to the cylinder. The Breguet
biplane, a pre-war machine of original design, embodied in the
undercarriage arrangement a system analogous to the foregoing.
Shock Absorbing Effect of Tyres.
The assistance rendered by tyres of large diameter must not be
overlooked. The merits of the large tread are quite well known in the
sphere of the motor-car, and they are no less beneficial to the
aeroplane. It is of interest to record that a pre-war racing machine
had no other suspension and shock-absorbing medium than that
provided by the very large tyres fitted to the wheels, the axle being
fixed rigidly to the undercarriage struts. A similar arrangement
existed on a machine of much more recent date. One does not
advocate this system, as it can be of very little use for rough ground,
the instance being cited to emphasize the assistance so rendered to
the ordinary type of suspension.

Connections.
Various methods exist for connecting the rubber to the main
members, a typical arrangement with the Vee undercarriage

Fig. 93.—Arrangement of suspension on steel tube undercarriage.

of steel being shown by Fig. 93, and a variation of this, when wood
is the material, is indicated by Fig. 94. The web plate in Fig. 93
forms a means for guiding the axle in its upward travel, and is
another version of the one-time popular

Fig. 94.—Arrangement of suspension on wood undercarriage.

radius rod. It is not considered necessary, in many instances, to fit

either web plate or radius rod, the movement of the axle

Fig. 95.—Farman type axle suspension.

being of no great extent. Another system is shown by Fig. 95, this
being the method of suspension adopted for the Farman

Fig. 96.—Rubber cord suspension.

machines. In this case rubber bands are attached to the main skids,
the short axle passing between the two. A similar arrangement in
general outline is shown by Fig. 96, although in this case the rubber
takes the form of cord.

Fig. 97.—Bridge type suspension.

A method greatly in vogue in America is that indicated by Fig.

97, known as the bridge type, and a characteristic Wright detail, the
rings being approximately two inches wide by two inches long. The
fact that very few examples of this system exist in this country may
be ascribed to the inferiority of rubber bands compared with the
rubber cable.

Axle Fairings.

Fig. 98.—Axle fairing.

It is now the practice to streamline the compression tubes

between the vees of the undercarriage with a fairing of aluminium or
three-ply. This is so arranged that in flight the axle lies in a slot
formed in the fairing, which appreciably reduces head resistance. A
typical arrangement is indicated by Fig. 98. The axle is usually
formed of steel or duralumin tube, and in the majority of
undercarriage arrangements is divided and hinged in the centre, a
wire or wires from this point to the fuselage accounting for any
strain. Duralumin tube is especially suited for this item, as a much
stiffer axle is possible for a given weight, although, unfortunately,
this is slightly discounted by the fact that duralumin does not form a
good bearing surface for the wheel hubs, and it therefore becomes
necessary to fit either sleeves or stub-axles of steel.

Undercarriage Brakes.
Additional means for restricting the length of travel after contact
with the ground is sometimes found in the employment of brakes of
various types. A very simple and widely used arrangement is to
terminate the tail skid in a claw fitting, as Fig. 99, so that in alighting
the tail is shoved hard down, bringing the skid into contact with the
ground. The disadvantage is that undesirable strains may be carried
to the fuselage members.

Fig. 99.—Tail skid with claw fitting.

Another version recently patented is to construct small planes to

conform to the wing curve, and hinged so that by a system of wires
and pulleys, actuated from the pilot’s seat, they could be adjusted to
offer a normal surface to the direction of flight. The efficiency of this
arrangement at low speeds is not very great, moreover a landing
with the wind renders them quite useless. The best form of brake is
undoubtedly one acting direct on the main wheels, either of the rim
or band type, a good example of the latter being the system used on
the 70 h.p. Bristol biplane. Closely allied to the question of brakes is
that of steering, and the requirements of this latter item are fairly
well satisfied by pivoting the tail skid and working it in conjunction
with the rudder from the foot-bar or wheel.

Housing of Undercarriage during Flight.

Numerous suggestions, ideas, and patents exist, having as their
object the housing of the undercarriage in the fuselage during flight,
with a resultant reduction in resistance; and excellent as the
principle is, its practical application is difficult of achievement—at
least, for machines of the present. In flight the undercarriage is a
useless encumbrance, adding weight and head resistance, so that an
arrangement whereby this component could be folded into the main
structure would apparently effect a saving in resistance. This would
mean that the fuselage would be of larger cross-sectional area, the
natural sequence being extra weight and resistance. It does not
appear that the saving effected in resistance, when the
undercarriage is folded during flight, would account for the
additional weight of the operating mechanism and the increased
head resistance of the fuselage, so that altogether the advantages of
any so-called disappearing landing gear are very much more
apparent than real. There is also the very great possibility of the
undercarriage folding up or disappearing when it would be least
required to do so. In the construction of the problematic air-liners of
the future it may be possible to economically effect the housing of
the undercarriage.
CHAPTER XII.
CONTROL SYSTEMS.

The mechanism by which the aeroplane is controlled in flight forms

the connecting link between the pilot and machine, and constitutes a
vitally important and somewhat vulnerable item of the complete
structure.

Main Principles.
The control of all modern aeroplanes is effected in a lateral
direction by small planes hinged to the rear spar of the outer ends of
the wings, and known as “ailerons”; in a longitudinal or “fore-and-
aft” direction by the elevator planes; and for steering by the rudder.
Although these functions are alluded to separately, they are more
often than not combined in their actions. The correct proportion of
the controlling surfaces is an important factor in determining the
ease or otherwise with which a machine can be handled in flight,
and faults in this direction are responsible for the terms “heavy” or
“stiff” on the controls being applied to a machine. The use of
subsidiary flaps or ailerons for lateral control is a comparatively
modern innovation. At one time it was usual to warp the entire
plane, or in some cases the outer section only, and although the
principle is the same—that of forming a negative or positive surface
to the line of flight—structural considerations are wholly in favour of
ailerons. With warping, the whole plane is subjected to continuous
torsional movement, and to obtain this some of the trussing wires
have necessarily to be arranged as control wires, the result being
that the plane curvature loses its uniformity, and the whole girder
system of the planes is less efficient under load than if the wires
were permanently fixed; and the latter item is only possible with
aileron control. Although it is usual to attach ailerons to both top and
bottom planes of a biplane, there are occasions when sufficient
control can be obtained with ailerons to the upper plane only, usually
when the span of this plane is greater than that of the bottom.

Control by Inherent Stability.

With machines of the inherent stability class the lateral control is
effected by additional means, the planes being designed to
automatically right the effects of gusts. This element of inherent
stability is obtained by suitably grading the camber and incidence of
the wings, until at the wing tips the chord of the plane section forms
a negative angle to the line of flight. Although this arrangement is
undoubtedly of value, especially for the touring machine of moderate
power, its chief fault lies in the relatively slow righting movements,
which, although of no great consequence at a reasonable altitude,
becomes a source of danger when alighting, and certainly entail the
use of ailerons, or warp, to counteract it. The type was well
exemplified in this country by the Handley-Page monoplane and
biplane, while in Germany it achieved great popularity, surviving in
some makes until the latter part of 1916. In the matter of control-
surface design it is interesting to note the contrast between the
preferences of English and German designers. In almost all German
machines the ailerons, elevators, and rudder are balanced, i.e.
surface is disposed each side of the hinge-axis, this applying to the
small Albatross scouts and to the large machines of the Gotha class;
while in this country few examples of this practice occur. The reason
for the balancing of controls lies in the desire to reduce the manual
strain on the pilot to a minimum; and it appears that with large
machines balanced surfaces will be imperative. Several automatic
controls have been produced, the most notable perhaps being the
Sperry gyroscopic, this being a combination of servo-motor and
gyroscope. This apparatus has been well tried.
So far as the arrangement of the control surfaces is concerned,
little variation occurs, which condition has obtained from the early
days of aviation, but the mechanism governing or directing these
movements varied at one time considerably, and although in this
country one type of control is used, there are still instances of the
use of widely different systems. In former days the practice of
individual makers fitting different controls resulted in some
arrangements being in exact contradistinction to others, which not
infrequently meant, to a pilot taking on a new type, the unlearning
of a great deal which practice had rendered instinctive.

The Instinctive Principle.

All modern controls are based on the instinctive principle, i.e. the
movements of the control lever coincide in direction with the
promptings of natural instinct. Thus, to change the course of a
machine flying level into an upward one, the column is pulled
towards the pilot, and for descent, the reverse, while to correct a
bank, the column is moved in a direction opposed to that of the
bank. For steering, a foot-bar is employed, so arranged that for a
turn to the left the left foot is pushed forward, and the reverse for a
right turn. On one well known machine of former days, the foot-bar
actuated the lateral control, which is sufficient indication of the great
diversity of opinion then existing.

Vertical Column Control.

Fig. 100.—Arrangement of vertical column control.

A typical control of the immensely popular “joy-stick” type is

shown by Fig. 100. This consists of a vertical column pivoted
through the medium of a fork-joint to a rocking shaft. The elevator
wires are taken round pulleys mounted under the seat, and the
aileron wires from a form of bell-crank, flanged and welded to the
steel tube. A disadvantage with this system, in addition to the
complication of the wires, is that lateral movement also affects the
elevator, although the extent of this is of no great moment. It is
obvious, although somewhat paradoxical, that if the elevator is to be
depressed by a forward movement of the column, the control wires
will required to be crossed, i.e. the wire running from the base of
the tube to the pulleys will be attached to the arm on the top side of
the elevator, and vice versâ. On single-seater machines it is
sometimes necessary for the pilot to have both hands free of the
controls, so that it becomes necessary to install some form of locking
device for the elevator control, there being many simple ways of
accomplishing this. The locking of the control lever fixes the flight
path of the machine, but, of course, lateral equilibrium can be
maintained by movements of the lever sideways, and steering by the
rudder bar. The German machines of the Fokker and Albatross types
are both fitted with the single lever control with a locking
arrangement. Another method which achieves the same purpose
consists of bracing the lever in a normal flying position, with rubber
cable or coil springs anchored to various parts of the fuselage, and
although this permits of movement, the control column always tends
to return to the normal position.

Wheel Controls.

Fig. 101.—Arrangement of wheel control.

While the “joy-stick” type of control is greatly in favour, there are
various forms of wheel control in use. American machines are almost
entirely fitted with wheel controls, and all things considered, it
appears that modern practice is evenly divided between the two
types. The sequence of movements of the wheel type may be varied
in a number of ways, the general arrangement shown by Fig. 101
being typical of an average system. In this case the hand-wheel is
mounted on a central column, which in turn is rigidly fixed by some
form of Tee joint to a transverse rocking shaft. A sprocket attached
to the wheel centre engages with a short length of chain, which
connects to the aileron control, while the elevator wires are
connected to short tillers, arranged to work on the outer side of the
fuselage. With this system the hand-wheel is rotated for the aileron
movements, a fore-and-aft rocking motion for the elevation, and the
rudder is actuated by an outward movement, with either foot on the
rudder bar. A development designated “three in one” embodies all
these movements in the wheel column, which in this case is pivoted
at its base: a to-and-fro motion in the column for the elevators,
sideways for the ailerons, while the rudder control is effected by the
rotation of the wheel. This system is fitted to a number of American
machines, but it is a moot point whether the rotation of the wheel
for warping or steering is quite such an instinctive action, as the
sideways movement of the lever combined with the movements of
the foot on the rudder-bar; in any case, there is just a suspicion of
complication in its working which is undesirable, that is, for
machines intended for popular use.

The “Dep” Control.

Fig. 102.—“Dep” type control.

The type of control used on the Deperdussin monoplanes of

1910 and onwards has survived until the present day, and forms a
distinctive arrangement. Its chief attribute is that, compared with
other systems, much greater room and freedom is afforded the pilot,
which is evident by a consideration of the diagrammatic sketch, Fig.
102. The inverted U-shaped lever is composed of either ash, bent to
shape, or steel, or duralumin tube, the general system of its working
being the same as the wheel control shown by Fig. 101. Incidentally,
passing reference may be made to the fact that the usual close
proximity of the compass to the controls precludes the use of steel in
any great quantity for the construction of the lever, as the various
movements adversely affect the compass readings.

The Wright System.

Another variant of the wheel control is instanced by the Wright
system, this consisting of a general lay out similar to that shown by
Fig. 101, but no rudder-bar is fitted. The rudder control is provided
by a small lever, mounted concentric with the wheel, the latter
carrying a rigidly attached sprocket. The hand-lever is also
connected to a sprocket, this running free on the wheel shaft, so
that by gripping both hand-lever and wheel it is possible to operate
the ailerons and rudder simultaneously, this action being a
characteristic feature of all the Wright productions. Although there
are many types of control in use, those described in the foregoing
chapter are illustrative of general practice.
CHAPTER XIII.
WIRES AND CONNECTIONS.

In all aeroplanes the question of wires and the terminal connections

associated therewith is a matter of some importance, and while this
may vary in degree, there is little doubt that the efficiency of modern
wiring systems is largely responsible for the structural efficiency of
the aeroplane as a whole.
Aeroplane construction consists almost exclusively of a
framework of wood braced by wires, a condition of things which has
obtained since the inception of flight; as may be judged by the
various engravings of Henson’s projected monoplane of 1842. This
machine incorporated an arrangement of king-posts and wires
approximating very closely to modern practice, and the natural
sequence of improvements have tended towards the gradual
elimination of exposed wiring.

Various Wires used.

The various wires used in construction may be classified into
four distinct types: the solid wire stay, the straining cord or cable
used for stay wires, the extra flexible cable used for controls, and
the swaged tie rods in plain or streamline form. The earliest form of
bracing was of the solid piano wire variety, this having been used on
most aeroplanes from the days of the Wrights onward. From the
view-point of the early pioneers, this wire was eminently satisfactory,
being cheap (a vital consideration) and simple to attach and replace.
Although the tensile strength of this wire cannot probably be
excelled, its hardness renders somewhat difficult the forming of the
end loop without fracture of the wire. For this reason piano wire
gradually gave place to a softer grade of wire which, while being
strong, was tough and ductile, enabling bends to be made with a
lesser danger of fracture. The original connection used for the piano
wire stay is shown by Fig. 103, this consisting of a loop or eye, the
free end being turned round a ferrule of soft copper tube, this being
sometimes varied by the use of a flat strip of tinned iron, wrapped
round and soldered. While this was fairly satisfactory for short stays,
it was hardly suitable for the main lift wires of the interplane bracing,
owing to the comparative ease with which, under load, the free end
pulled or cut through the ferrule, so that after a while the oval
spring-wire ferrule, Fig. 104, came into use. This is made of the
same gauge wire as the stay, and is from seven to nine convolutions
in length. The eye should be formed as an easy bend, and not
kinked, the ferrule being pushed tight against the shoulders, and the
free end turned back.

Result of Tests.
Tests undertaken at the instance of the American Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics showed that 80 per cent. of the wires
tested failed by the free end pulling through the ferrule, the
remaining 20 per cent. failing by fracture, the stays possessing an
average efficiency of 68 per cent. of the maximum strength of the
wire. Although various modifications, such as tying the free end to
the ferrule with fine wire, as in Fig. 105, resulted in an increase in
total efficiency, average European practice consists of that shown by
Fig. 104. At the present time the solid wire stay of the form dealt
with is used mainly for the bracing of the fuselage frame, and the
internal wiring of the tail planes.

Stranded Cable.
The gradual increase in engine power and total weight of
aeroplanes led to the adoption of stranded cable for all important
loaded wires, this being made in two distinct ways.
The cable employed for interplane bracing is composed of a
number of fine wires, varying from nineteen to thirty-seven
according to the different diameters, the end section being indicated
by Fig. 106.

Figs. 103–112.—Methods of forming wire connections.

Where extra flexibility is required, such as for control wires

running round pulleys, the cable is composed of a number of
strands, generally seven, which in turn consists of a number of fine
wires, usually nineteen, the end section being shown by Fig. 107.
English practice designates this form of cable as extra flexible, and
the single rope of nineteen wires as straining cord. American
classification is practically the reverse, in that the single rope is
known as stranded cable, and the multi-strand as cord. Although the
factor of strength is an important one it does not entirely govern the
selection of a wire, as other considerations, such as flexibility and
fatigue strain, influence greatly the efficiency of a stay under active
service conditions. Under test the solid wire possesses the greatest
ultimate breaking weight, the next best being the single rope. It
must be understood that in flight a wire is subjected to constant and
intensive vibration, which must have a deleterious effect on the
material, and for this reason a flaw or slight fracture in a solid wire
may escape notice until complete failure in the air; whereas the
cable, by the unstranding of the damaged wires, would give warning
of wear. Chiefly owing to the difficulty of forming a satisfactory splice
in the single-strand cable, modern practice inclines toward the use of
the multi-strand cable for all purposes, as the construction of this
wire lends itself to the forming of a successful splice.

Cable Connections.
The earliest form of terminal connection for stranded cable
consisted of a loop, the free end being bound to the main part of the
wire and soldered. With the addition of a binding or serving of wire
round the loop to prevent injury, due to contact with the wiring lug,
or strainer eye, this wire, in a recent test, gave an efficiency of 100
per cent. for all diameters up to ¼ in.
This result, considering the elementary nature of the joint, is
surprising. Unfortunately the effect of corrosion due to acid and
solder is a somewhat doubtful quantity; moreover, the appearance of
the joint is far from neat. An attachment which at one time achieved
some popularity is shown by Fig. 108, and is especially suitable for
the single-strand wire. This consists of a cone-shaped forked end
with a taper hole, into which the cable is inserted, the free end
being unstranded, spread out and soldered. The attachment has
been used on what was at one time one of our best products. The
efficiency obtained with this fitting is in the neighbourhood of 100
per cent.
In the method indicated by Fig. 109 a piece of flat copper tube is
passed over the wire, the free end of the latter being bent round a
brass thimble, and then passed through the copper tube, in a similar
manner to the connection for the solid wire in Fig. 102. The tube is
then given several turns, and the complete joint well soldered. This
system is reliable, and has given good results.
A distinctive terminal is indicated by Fig. 110, consisting of a
brass ferrule just sufficiently wide to accommodate the two
thicknesses of wire. The bolts are of the counter-sunk head variety,
so that the operation of screwing a bolt home also forces the wires
into the protuberances in the sides of the ferrule. Although the
foregoing methods have all been extensively used, they have now
given place to the thimble splice, Fig. 111, which, as a general
proposition, is undoubtedly the better terminal connection. The brass
thimble protects the strands from the wearing effect produced by
contact with the turnbuckle or wiring lug. It is the usual practice to
wrap the splice with a binding or serving of fine copper wire, or
waxed twine. The efficiency of this joint with a properly made splice
may be safely taken as 85 per cent. of the total strength of the wire.
With this joint the point of failure, as evidenced by numerous tests,
always occurs at, or near, the last tuck in the splice, at which point
the extra thickness of the splice is just merging into the normal
thickness of the wire. The disadvantage with all terminal connections
which necessitate the use of solder is the impossibility of
determining just how much the heating operation affects the
strength of the wire, and also the effects of corrosion, set up by the
various species of flux used in the process of soldering.

Relative Strengths.
For a given diameter the solid-wire stay possesses the greatest
strength, the next best being the single-stranded cable, as the
following comparison of stay strength, taken from the Report of the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1915, of America, will
show:—
Strength of Strength
Material. Diameter.
material. of stay.
inch. lbs. lbs.
Wire, solid 3/16 5500 5100
Strand, single 3/16 4600 4100
7 × 19 multi-strand 3/16 4200 3500

Streamline Wires.
Although in the quest for increased speed the number of
exposed wires were reduced to a minimum, the aggregate resistance
still remained considerable, this leading to the development of the
swaged streamline wire, the introduction of which is generally
ascribed to the Royal Aircraft Factory; and these wires are now
generally used for all exposed wiring. The points in favour of them
are that, properly fitted, a considerable reduction in resistance is
obtained, there is a lessened liability to slacken after some use, this
rendering rigging a more certain operation, and the nature of its
connection obviates the use of turnbuckles.
Figs. 113–116.—Methods of forming wire connections.

They have been variously criticized as being expensive to

produce, that the resistance may be increased if improperly aligned
in the machine, and also that any fracture or flaw is less liable to be
detected before complete failure during flight. In manufacture the
solid rod is rolled to the section shown by Fig. 112, a certain length
each end being left for the right- and left-hand thread. Two of the
connections mostly used are shown by Figs. 113 and 114, the latter
being preferable, as the universal joint permits of movement in two
directions, which reduces the tendency of the wire to crystallize as a
result of excessive vibration. To prevent wear at the points of
intersection it is usual to fit acorns of fibre or aluminium, a popular
form being shown by Fig. 115. Some designers still prefer to use the
wire cable for interplane bracing, a fairing of wood being bound to
the cables by tape at intervals, this also preventing excessive
vibration.
Some years ago various attempts were made, mostly on French
monoplanes, to utilize flat steel ribbon for exposed wiring, but,
owing to the difficulty of successfully forming a terminal, its use
never became extensive, although it may possibly be regarded as
the precursor of the modern streamline wire.
It is notable that, so far, the wiring of all German aeroplanes is
effected by cable, so that apparently the merits of the streamline
wire are not recognized. It is also surprising that no attempt has
been made to streamline the cable. A device for tying the wires and
preventing friction at the point of intersection, found on nearly all
enemy aeroplanes, is indicated by Fig. 116, and there are also
instances of quick release devices, these being popular in this
country about 1912, and now obsolete.
Although determined attempts have been made of late to
entirely eliminate exposed wiring, examples of this occurring in the
recent German Fokker triplane, it appears that the various
alterations engendered by this procedure in the structure of the
machine more than counteract the saving in head resistance.
Moreover, with modern methods of construction the ultimate
strength of a wireless wing structure leaves considerable room for
improvement, and the price paid for the saving is too great.
The arrival of the all-steel aeroplane would entirely alter the
condition of things, as with this construction much better chances
exist for the production of a reasonably strong wing structure
without exposed wing bracing.
CHAPTER XIV.
ENGINE MOUNTINGS.

The mounting of the engine and the general arrangement constitute

one of the most important and interesting sections of aeroplane
construction, and perhaps a brief outline of the various engines in
use will suitably preface a consideration of the mountings of the
different types. Although there are signs that certain revolutionary
engines may eventually come into use, the types in use on modern
aircraft are the stationary air and water-cooled, the radial air and
water-cooled, and the air-cooled rotary. The greater variety occurs
with the stationary type of engine, which may be sub-divided into
those in which the cylinders are arranged vertically in line, and those
where the cylinders viewed from the front form a V. Engines typical
of the former class are the Beardmore, Green, Mercedes, and Benz,
all of which are water-cooled; and of the latter class, Rolls-Royce,
Sunbeam, Hispano-Suiza water-cooled, and the Renault and R.A.F.
air-cooled. The types of radial engines which have been extensively
used are confined to two, these being the air-cooled Anzani and the
water-cooled Salmson. There is another radial engine of
comparatively recent production; but mention of this while present
conditions obtain is not permissible. Rotary engines of note are the
Gnome, Le Rhone, and Clerget, all of which are necessarily air-
cooled.

Essential Requirements of an Engine

Mounting.
The essential features of any mounting are absolute rigidity,
accessibility to permit ease of erection and dismounting; and it
should also be of a moderately low weight. Moreover, the general
arrangement must offer a minimum of head resistance, although in
this direction the type of engine used is a determining factor. Rigidity
is a paramount consideration, for the slightest tendency to slackness
or “play,” under the effect of engine vibration, speedily develops,
until either serious stresses are induced in the fore part of the
fuselage or the engine loses its correct alignment, with a consequent
detrimental effect on the flying qualities of the aeroplane. This, of
course, should be provided against in the general design; but it is
also a contingency which should be kept in mind during the actual
construction of the various components of the complete mounting.
A detail which does not always receive sufficient attention is the
provision of adequate bracing against the thrust of the engine.
Where the construction is such that the engine-bearers form an
integral part of the fuselage structure, there is generally little fault to
find, but with some sheet steel mountings, particularly those
employed for the rotary type of engine, the only bracing in a fore-
and-aft direction is that provided by the flanged edges of the plate,
which are usually much too narrow to be of real use. Further, the
construction of both the engine mounting and the fore part of the
fuselage should be of the necessary strength to ensure that the
bearers supporting the engine are always correctly in alignment and
dead level. With some methods of construction the weight of the
engine and various landing shocks, result after a time in the lowering
of the bearers at the front, which means that the angle of thrust is
not in its correct position relative to the centre of gravity and the
incidence of the wings, this being extremely detrimental to the flying
properties of the machine.

Materials.
Wood, on account of its property of absorbing vibration, is
particularly well suited for the construction of the engine mounting,
and one finds examples of its use in a variety of ways. Perhaps the
most common form is that in which a bearer of ash or spruce,

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