CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Tensile testing is a fundamental type of mechanical testing performed by engineers and material
scientists in manufacturing and research facilities all over the world. It provides insight into the
mechanical properties of a material and enables product designers to make informed decisions
about when, where, and how to use a given material (Baharuddin and Yani, 2018). In order for a
material to be selected for a new product, researchers must ensure that it can withstand the
mechanical forces that it will encounter in its end-use application. For example, tire rubber must
be elastic enough to absorb inconsistencies in road surfaces, while surgical sutures must be
strong enough to hold living tissue together. Furthermore, materials and products might be
exposed to mechanical forces for short or long periods of time, through cyclical or repeated use,
and in a wide variety of different temperature and environmental conditions. Automotive tires
are expected to last for a certain number of miles under a variety of weather conditions, while
surgical sutures, though only used once, must maintain a consistent tensile strength long enough
for the body to heal (https://www.instron.com/en/industry-solutions/automotive).

In the tensile test, a force of tension is applied gradually which leads to the material increasing in
length with a consequent reduction in area depending on its ductility. The behavior of the
material as it undergoes failure is physically observed. Such tests are referred to as tensile test to
destruction and are usually carried out on a type of press known as the Universal Tensile Testing
Machine (Danladi, 2022). Presses are widely used to achieve tensile test on a material. Presses
are pressure exerting machine tools. They can be classified into three principal categories as:
hydraulic presses which operate on the principles of hydrostatic pressure, screw presses which
use power screws to transmit power and mechanical presses which utilize kinematic linkage of
elements to transmit power (Niebel et al., 1989; Degarmo et al., 1997; Sharma, 2005). In
hydraulic press, the force generation, transmission and amplification are achieved using fluid
under pressure. The liquid system exhibits the characteristics of a solid and provides a very
positive and rigid medium of power transmission and amplification. In a simple application, a
smaller piston transfers fluid under high pressure to a cylinder having a larger piston area, thus

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amplifying the force. There is easy transmissibility of large amount of energy with practically
unlimited force amplification. It has also a very low inertia effect (Danladi, 2022).

The main advantages of hydraulic systems over other types of systems are that they provide a
more positive response to changes in input pressure, the force and pressure can accurately be
controlled, and the entire magnitude of the force is available during the entire working stroke of
the ram travel. Hydraulic systems are preferred when very large nominal force is required
(Lange, 1975). The versatility of application of hydraulic systems finds application in many
testing machinery and equipment used in workshops and laboratories especially for press fitting
operations and for the deformation of materials such as in metal forming processes and material
testing for strength.

Tensile test machine manufactured abroad are very expensive. The present study uses locally
sourced materials in the design of tensile test machine in order to make it affordable hence
readily available in Nigerian schools. Moreso, there is an overwhelming need of polymer
composite materials in industries because of their unique properties- less weight and high
stiffness. And so, the purpose of this study is to design and construct a Horizontal tensile test
machine to determine the tensile properties of polymer composite materials.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The tensile test machines procured from manufacturers abroad are very expensive, and this
makes the machine unavailable in some of the universities in Nigeria.

At present, department of Mechanical engineering Madonna University Nigeria has no tensile

test machine. In teaching, it is difficult to explain in practical terms the concept of tensile test as
contained in NUC syllables, to the 300 level students of Mechanical Engineering due to the
unavailability of tensile test machine. By the availability of the tensile test machine, students can
vividly, intuitively and specifically understand and master tensile test.

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to design and construct a Horizontal tensile testing machine for polymer
composites. To achieve this aim, the objectives of this study specifically are:
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 1) To design a horizontal tensile testing machine using design models for the mechanical
component of the machine.
2) To construct a horizontal tensile machine using locally sourced materials.
3) To integrate hydraulic systems for a more positive response to changes in input force.
4) To determine the tensile properties of a composite material.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The study provides information on mechanical properties like tensile strength, young modulus
and poisson ratio, aiding in material selection and design in industries. It is crucial for industries
to ensure the integrity and compliance of materials used in manufacturing processes, reducing
the risk of structural failures. This study supports advancements in material science by providing
valuable insights for developing new materials with improved properties.

Engineers will find this study helpful as it will enable them to predict how materials will behave
under different conditions, guiding design choices for durability and safety.

The tensile test machine of the present study is essential in educational institutions for the
teaching of fundamental principles of material behavior.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This study focuses on design and construction of horizontal tensile testing machine. The material
of the frame of the machine is mild steel. The specimen is held in between two grips and a load
cell is attached to the other side of the grip. The other end of the grip is attached to the movable
frame. The specimen is stretched each time the movable frame moves along the support frame.
The tensile force is read by the load cell while the extension is read by the extensometer attached
to the specimen. The study provides tensile properties of composite materials and cannot be used
to determine the compressive properties of composite materials.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Tensile test
Tensile test is a basic and universal engineering test used to achieve material parameters such as
ultimate strength, yield strength, percentage elongation, percentage area of reduction, Young's
modulus and Poisson ratio. These important parameters obtained from the standard tensile
testing are useful for the selection of engineering materials for any applications required (Osama,
2019).

Tensile tests are used to determine how materials behave under tension load. In a simple tensile
test, a sample is typically pulled to its breaking point to determine the ultimate tensile strength of
the material. The amount of force (F) applied to the sample and the elongation (∆L) of the
sample is measured throughout the test (Deniz, 2021). Material properties are often expressed in
terms of stress (force per unit area, σ) and strain (percent change in length, ε). To obtain stress,
the force measurements are divided by the sample’s cross sectional area (σ = F/A). Strain
measurements are obtained by dividing the change in length by the initial length of the sample (ε
= ∆L/L). These values are then presented on an XY plot called a stress-strain curve. Testing and
measuring procedures vary based on the material being tested and its intended application
(Deniz, 2021).

2.1.2 Stress and Strain

These are basic dimensions of material science. Stress is the amount of force per unit cross
sectional area. Strain is the ratio of the change in length to the original length, sometimes
expressed as a percent. Tensile tests use plots of stress vs strain to display results (see Figure
2.1).

2.1.3 Elastic Deformation

Elastic deformation is the region on the stress-strain curve where deformation can be reversed by
removing stress. It is also the region where stress is mostly proportional to strain. It can be
identified on a stress-strain curve as the initial linear section of the graph.
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Figure 2.1: Stress–strain graph (https://www.admetinc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/q-stress-strain-graph-
tensile-testing-high-1024x791.jpg)

2.1.4 Young’s Modulus

Young’s modulus, also known as the elastic modulus, is the constant which relates the proportion
of stress (σ) to strain (ε) under elastic deformation. On a stress-strain curve, it is the initial slope
of the linear region of the graph. This relation is represented by the equation σ = E x ε. This
relation is referred to as Hooke’s Law, which was developed to represent the behavior of springs.

2.1.5 Proportional Limit

The first instance on the stress-strain curve where the plot begins to deviate from the line is the
Young’s modulus. This deviation is often gradual and is dependent on the material.

2.1.6 Plastic Deformation

Strain beyond the material’s yield point induces strain hardening, which permanently deforms
the material and causes changes to its mechanical properties.

2.1.7 Yield Point

The yield point marks the end of the elastic deformation region and the beginning of the plastic
deformation region. It is characterized by a sharp bend in the stress-strain curve at the end of the

5
elastic region. Materials that exhibit no definitive end to the elastic region do not have a yield
point. In those cases, yield is approximated by the offset method. However, it can only be
determined experimentally by loading and unloading, gradually increasing stresses to find where
plastic deformation begins.

2.1.8 Offset Method

For materials that do not have a clear end to the initial linear region, the offset method is used to
approximate yield. The offset method uses the stress-strain curve of the material and overlays a
line with a slope equal to the initial slope of the stress-strain curve. The line is offset along the
strain axis, usually by 0.2% (the line crosses the strain axis at ε = 0.002). The offset yield point is
determined as the point of intersection between this line and the stress-strain curve.

Figure 2.2: Offset Method (https://www.admetinc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/h-offset-graph-tensile-testing-

high-1024x791.jpg)

2.1.9 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum amount of stress a material can withstand before
failure. This is the maximum value on the stress-strain curve.

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Figure 2.3: Locating the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) in Stress–strain graph
(https://www.admetinc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/uts-graph-tensile-testing-high-1024x791.jpg)

2.1.10 Tangent Modulus

Tangent modulus is used to approximate the slope at a given point on the stress-strain curve. The
graph shows an exaggerated example. Refer to ASTM standards when selecting points for a
tangent modulus.

Figure 2.4: Tangent Modulus (https://www.admetinc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/q-tanmod-graph-tensile-

testing-high-1024x791.jpg)

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2.1.11 Chord Modulus
Chord modulus is used to approximate the slope between two specific points on the stress-strain
curve. The graph shows an exaggerated example. Refer to ASTM standards when selecting
points for a chord modulus.

Figure 2.5: Chord-modulus (https://www.admetinc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/h-chord-modulus-graph-

tensile-testing-high-1024x791.jpg)

2.1.12 Secant Modulus

Some materials do not have a linear region to their stress-strain curve, therefore Young’s
modulus cannot be determined directly from the curve. The secant modulus is used in its place as
an approximation. Secant modulus takes the slope of a line which intersects the origin of the
stress strain curve, and a point on the curve. One example is described in ASTM D5323, which
calls for the point to be placed at 2% strain (ε = 0.02), but the position of this point can vary by
material and procedure. This method is most useful for material comparison. This graph shows
an exaggerated example. Refer to ASTM standards when selecting points for a secant modulus.

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Figure 2.6: Secant Modulus (https://www.admetinc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/h-secant-mod-graph-tensile-
testing-high-1024x791.jpg)

2.1.12 Performing a Tensile Test

The tensile testing is carried out by applying longitudinal or axial load at a specific extension rate
to a standard tensile specimen with known dimensions (gauge length and cross sectional area
perpendicular to the load direction) till failure. The applied tensile load and extension are
recorded during the test for the calculation of stress and strain.

The tensile test machine is used to perform tensile testing. The machine consists of a frame, load
cell, controller, indicator, grips and fixturing to hold the sample in place.

The frame provides the structure and rigidity needed to pull the sample apart at the desired rate.
Frames are available in both electromechanical and servo-hydraulic configurations with a wide
range of capacities. It is important to select a frame which can withstand the amount of force
needed to test the sample.

Load cells measure the amount of force being applied to the sample. Like frames, these come in
a variety of capacities. Choosing a load cell with a capacity below the required breaking strength
will result in the load cell breaking before the sample does. Conversely, a load cell with too high
a capacity will lead to test results that may lack the precision desired as resolution of load cells

9
typically goes down to 1%. For example, a 1,000 lb load cell would be far too high a capacity for
a sample that breaks under 1 lb of force.

Depending on the system setup, a controller or an indicator is needed. Controllers, as the name
implies, control how the test frame behaves during testing, including test speed and
displacement. In some situations, an indicator may be all that is required. Indicators capture and
display the test data but do not control the machine.

There are many types of grips and fixtures available for tensile testing. Different materials
require different fixturing to properly hold them. For instance, a sample made of metal requires
different grips than a stretchy piece of rubber due to how the materials behave as tensile forces
are applied. Selecting the correct grips for an application is crucial in achieving accurate results
(Deniz, 2021).

In 1882, German engineer Emil Johannsen invented the first universal testing machine, capable
of precisely applying tensile, compressive, and bending forces to materials. This invention
revolutionized material testing, allowing for more accurate and repeatable measurements of
tensile strength. (Rojin, 2019).

In the late 1800s, Thomas Burr’s developed the Universal Testing Machine while working at the
United States Department of Agriculture. His invention revolutionized materials testing by
allowing the mechanical properties of various materials to be tested in a standardized and
systematic manner. Thomas Burr's invention of the Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
encompassed several key components, including: Load Frame which serves as the structure of
the testing machine and supports the components involved in applying and measuring forces, the
actuators which are often hydraulic or mechanical, apply the force to the specimen being tested
for applying tension, compression, bending, or torsion as needed for various tests, the Force
Measurement System which ensures the precision in the testing process and may involve the use
of load cells or other force sensor, Specimen Grips which securely hold the test specimen in
place during testing, Control Mechanisms would have included systems for controlling the rate
of force application, as well as any other testing parameters relevant to the desired test protocol.
Burr's Universal Testing Machine (UTM) was primarily designed to apply controlled forces to
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materials in order to assess their mechanical properties. This includes determining parameters
such as tensile strength, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and other characteristics
related to the material's behavior under stress (Rojin, 2019).

Galdabini entered the market in the early 1900s with a series of dead-weight testing machines
and developed their own universal testing machine in 1934. During this time Galdabini also
developed some of the largest metal straightening machines and hydraulic presses in the world.
The company is the 2nd oldest continuously operating manufacturer of these types of UTM
materials testing systems (Rojin, 2019).

2.1.13 Test Standards

A range of universal standards are provided by professional bodies such as American Society of
Testing and Materials (ASTM), British Standard (BS), Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) and
Deutsches Institut fur Normung (DIN). The standard from these bodies are selected based on
preferential uses. Each standard contains a variety of test methods suitable for different
materials, dimensions and fabrication history. For instance, ASTM D3039 is a standard test
method for tension testing of composite materials, ASTM E8 is a standard test method for
tension testing of metallic materials and ASTM B557 is standard test methods of tension testing
wrought and cast aluminium and magnesium alloy products.

Composites are innovative engineering materials comprising at least two components with
different properties. By the combination of individual properties of the components, final
composite materials are produced with enhanced quality or new features (Gulcihan and Huseyin,
2022). With the advantages of unique properties, composite materials are commonly used in
automobiles, aircraft, construction, marine, electronics, and sporting goods (Gulcihan and
Huseyin, 2022). Composite materials are separated into three groups: metal matrix composites,
ceramic matrix composites, and polymer matrix composites. Among them, polymer matrix
composites have received great attention owing to their low density, high specific strength, good
wear and corrosion resistance, improved gas barrier effects, and flexibility in production in
recent years (Gulcihan and Huseyin, 2022).

Polymer composites are formed by incorporating reinforcing elements, such as particles or

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fibers, into a polymer matrix. When these materials are combined, they form a new entity with
enhanced properties (mechanical, thermodynamic, or functional) (Ayushi Gupta et al, 2024).
Herein, individual components in the composite remain together by physical or chemical
interactions but retaining their physical or chemical identities and exhibit superiority over the
individual pristine state (Shanthana et al, 2021). Polymer composites are produced in different
shapes and sizes according to the application demand by various methods. To date, polymer
composites can be manufactured in a different structure, such as flat sheet, thin-film,
microsphere/microparticle, hollow fibre, nanofibre, nanoparticle, gel, sponge and foams
(Shanthana et al, 2021).

2.2 Theoretical Framework

In a tensile test, the amount of force per unit cross sectional area of test specimen is referred to as
stress. The ratio of the change in length to the original length of test specimen is called strain,
sometimes expressed as a percent (Deniz, 2021). The stress is expressed mathematically as thus;

where,
σ is the engineering stress
P is the external axial tensile load
A is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
The unit of the engineering stress is Pascal (Pa) or N/m according to the SI metric unit whereas
the unit of psi (pound per square inch) can also be used.

The transverse strain, is given by;

where,
c is the contraction along y-axis (t0-t1)
t0 is the initial thickness
t1 is the final thickness

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The Longitudinal strain, εL is given by;

where,
e is the extension
L0 is the initial length

A graphical description of the amount of deflection under load for a given material is the stress-
strain curve in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: The stress-strain curve of an engineering alloy (www.azo.com/Azo materials)

The difference between Brittle material and Ductile material is shown in the Stress- Strain
graph in Figure 2.8.

Stress

Strain
Figure 2.8: Brittle material vs Ductile material

On a stress-strain curve, Young’s modulus is the initial slope of the linear region of the graph.
Elastic modulus or Young’s modulus is represented by the equation:

13
Equation 2.4 is referred to as Hooke’s Law, which was developed to represent the behavior of
springs.

Proportional Limit is the point on a stress-strain where the linear elastic deformation region
transits into a non-linear plastic deformation region (Deniz, 2021). Plastic Deformation is the
permanent change in an object shape and size which cannot be reversed. Plastic deformation is
seen in many materials which include: plastics, metals, soils, rocks and concrete. Strain beyond
the material’s yield point induces strain hardening, which permanently deforms the material and
causes changes to its mechanical properties. Yield point marks the end of the elastic deformation
region and the beginning of the plastic deformation region. It is characterized by a sharp bend in
the stress-strain curve at the end of the elastic region. Materials that exhibit no definitive end to
the elastic region do not have a yield point. In those cases, yield is approximated by the offset
method. However, it can only be determined experimentally by loading and unloading, gradually
increasing stresses to find where plastic deformation begins (Deniz, 2021).

Yield strength is the stress level at which plastic deformation initiates. The beginning of first
plastic deformation is called yielding. 0.2% off-set method is a commonly used method to
determine the yield strength of a material. The yield strength is found by drawing a parallel line
0.2% of gauge length to the elastic region and the point at which this line intersects with the
stress-strain curve is set as the yielding point (see Figure 2.9). The yield stress, σy can be
obtained by dividing the load at yielding (Py) by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
(Ao) as thus:

Figure 2.9: Determining the yield strength of a tensile test specimen (www.azo.com/ Azo
materials)

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The yield strength, which indicates the onset of plastic deformation, is considered to be vital for
engineering structural or component designs where safety factors are normally used. For
instance, if the allowable working strength σw = 500 MPa to be employed with a safety factor of
1.8, the material with a yield strength of 900 MPa should be selected. It should be noted that the
yield strength value can also be replaced by the ultimate tensile strength, σult, for engineering
designs (Osama, 2019).

If the load is continuously applied, the stress-strain curve will reach the maximum point, which
is the ultimate tensile strength (σult). At this point, the specimen can withstand the highest stress
before necking takes place (Osama, 2019). The ultimate tensile strength is given by;

After necking, plastic deformation is not uniform and the stress decreases accordingly until
fracture. The fracture strength (σf) can be calculated from the load at fracture divided by the
original cross-sectional area, Ao (Osama, 2019).

The fracture strain of the specimen can be obtained by drawing a straight line starting at the
fracture point of the stress-strain curve parallel to the slope in the linear relation. The interception
of the parallel line at the x axis indicates the fracture strain of the specimen being tested (Osama,
2019).

Material behavior beyond the elastic region where stress-strain relationship is no longer linear
(uniform plastic deformation) can be shown as a power law expression as follows (Osama,
2019):

where,
σ is the true stress
ε is the true strain
n is the strain-hardening exponent
K is the strength coefficient

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Tensile ductility of the specimen can be represented as percentage elongation or percentage
reduction in area as expressed in the equations given below:
∆

where, Af is the cross-sectional area of specimen at fracture.

Tensile toughness, UT, can be considered as the area under the entire stress-strain curve which
indicates the ability of the material to absorb energy in the plastic region. In other words, tensile
toughness is the ability of the material to withstand the external applied forces without
experiencing failure. Engineering applications that requires high tensile toughness is for example
gear, chains and crane hooks, etc (Osama, 2019). The tensile toughness can be estimated from an
expression as follows:

By considering the area under the stress-strain curve in the elastic region (triangular area), this
area represents the stored elastic energy or resilience (Osama, 2019). The latter is the ability of
the material to store elastic energy which is measured as a modulus of resilience, UR, as follows:

The significance of this parameter is considered by looking at the application of mechanical

springs which requires high yield stress and low Young's modulus.

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Poisson’s ratio (ν) is a measure of poisson effect, the phenomenon in which a material tends to
expand in directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. The formula for Poisson’s
ratio is stated by Kumpenza, Matz, Halbauer, Grabner, Steiner, Feist and Müller (2018) as:

where,

2.3 Empirical Studies

Borst & Spiegel (1994) designed and developed a tensile tester used to test the tensile strength
and anisotropic properties of simple composites. These simple composites are suspected to be
anisotropic primarily in a single plane. When the composites experience a tensile force, they will
undergo deformation, causing movement either to the left or right. The tensile tester incorporates
a single degree of freedom. 2.5" wide samples were used. The device is simple to learn and
provides reasonable results with the best results obtained when people work in teams of two or
three. This is especially the case when lateral displacement readings are being made. One person
operates the hand wheel, reading off the voltages to a note taker. As each reading is taken, a third
person can make measurements of the lateral displacement by means of a small ruler clipped on
the rail assembly. The tensile tester developed by Borst & Spiegel is limited to tensile test of
anisotropic composites.

Ewtumo et al (2012) developed a universal testing machine to determine the stress-strain of

materials of maximum tension of 500 N and extension of 100 mm maximum. The developed
machine consisted of mechanical frame bevel gear drive with wiper DC motor, instrumentation
and motor control. A DC wiper motor was used to drive moving crosshead via bevel gear system
arrangement attached with 230 mm fine thread bolt with pitch 0.02 mm. The instrumentation is
made of 100 mm active region long, 10 kΩ, linear potentiometer with analog-to-digital converter
(ADS1115), load cell of 50 kg, load cell amplifier with 24 bits serial output, keypad, micro SD

17
card shield, liquid crystal display (LCD) and switches. However, the universal testing machine
developed by Ewtumo et al (2012) is limited to the stress-strain determination of materials of
maximum tension of 500 N and extension of 100 mm maximum.

Zhichao et al (2012) designed and developed a Novel Tensile Device for In Situ Scanning
Electron Microscope Mechanical Testing. The device mainly consists of precise driving unit,
precise transmission mechanism, the load sensor, and displacement sensor. The servomotor,
combined with a three-stage reducer with large reduction ratio, was selected as a precise driving
unit to achieve the linear motion with high resolution. The three-stage reducer consists of
internal 30:1 planetary gear reducer of the servo motor and two-stage 20:1 worm gears. The load
sensor and displacement sensor were used to measure the load signal and displacement signal
during the tensile testing, respectively. The tensile device allows not only the evaluation of the
mechanical properties of the studied system but also the in situ examination of the microstructure
and fracture development of the materials. However, the device was specifically designed to test
the tensile properties of metallic materials.

Woong & Ho-Kyung (2013) designed and developed a Miniaturised Tensile Testing Machine to
obtain the tensile properties of heat-treatable aluminium 6061 alloy. The machine consists of
Stepping motor as an actuator, Load cell, Load cell amplifier, Displacement gauge, Data
Acquisition System (DAQ) and a Frame. Design details include: maximum tensile load of 2kN,
gauge length of tensile specimen is 8 mm, thickness of tensile specimen is 1 mm, a ball screw
with a diameter of 10 mm and pitch of 2 mm, a stepping motor with a capacity of 40 N-cm
generates a full rotation in 200 steps and can be driven by the control system in 1/5 steps,
maximum stroke is 20 mm and speed is 0.15 mm/min. Though the UTS and YS of aluminium
6061 alloy were determined, other mechanical properties such as young modulus, poisson ration;
etc were not determined.

Baharuddin & Yani (2018) designed and developed a miniature tensile test kit used to determine
the yield strength, elongation, tensile strength and elastic modulus of Copper (Cu) and
Aluminium 6061 plate specimen with a thickness of 2 mm and gauge length of 50 mm. The
machine was designed with a maximum stroke of 30 mm and maximum tensile force of 5.0 kN.
The tensile test kit incorporated a servo motor with 3 AC input, 105 V, 0.7 A with 100 watt

18
output and 3000 rad/min motor rotation comparable (477.46 rpm), power transfer using fan belt.
The servo motor is controlled by a servo amplifier which sends a signal to control the motor
speed and motor rotation direction. The servo ampifier is connected to a laptop computer to
regulate the amplifier, and describes the test results in the form of stress and strain graphs that
occur in tensile test specimens. However, the size and dimensions of the specimen were
miniaturised, based on a conventional standard tensile specimen.

Gilat et al (2019) designed and constructed a device for Tensile and Compressive Testing at
Intermediate Strain Rates ranging from about 20 s−1 to 250 s−1. The operation of the device is
based on the principles of the Split Hopkinson Bar (SHB) technique, except that the incident bar
is replaced by a fast hydraulic actuator and the transmitter bar is very long. One end of the
specimen, which is short and has a small cross-sectional area relative to the cross-sectional area
of the transmitter bar (like in a SHB test) is attached at one end of the transmitter bar. During a
test the actuator applies a force to the specimen. Upon loading the specimen deforms between the
actuator and the end of the transmitter bar and a tensile, or compressive, wave starts propagating
along the bar. The wave travels to the end of the transmitter bar and reflects back. The force in
the specimen is determined from the amplitude of the wave. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) is
used to measure the deformation directly on the surface of the specimen. The 40 m long
transmitter bar provides 15 ms of time to conduct a test. Stress strain curves from tensile and
compression tests with the new device are clean and smooth without any evidence of oscillations
or ringing. However, standard test method was not used for the tensile test as well as the
compression test.

Hunor and Attila (2020) designed and partially implemented a Tensile Testing Machine to obtain
the tensile properties of polymeric materials. The machine consists of a frame, and two screws
which are driven by two stepper motors. An Arduino is used to control the mechanical part of the
instrument and to connect it to the software. The ultimate tensile stress value of poly(ethylene
terephthalate) (PET) was used as the upper limit of the measurable stress in the design of the
machine. The ultimate tensile strength of PET based on the specimen specified by ISO-527-1, 40
mm2 cross-section area, is 132 MPa. The required force to break the specimen is calculated to be
5280 N. Using a 1.2 security factor the force is 6336 N, and was rounded to 6500 N. The drive
train of the machine consisted of two stepper motors and two screws, thus only half of the final
19
force is applied to one of the motors and the screws. The maximum elongation of the A2
specimen from ISO 527-1 was set to ~ 300 %, thus the length of the screws was determined to be
720 mm each. However, only a presentation of the design and manufacturing process of the
tensile testing machine was given by Fabian and Gergely (2020). No test was conducted to
determine the performance of the machine.

Ravi & Jitendra (2021) designed and developed a Computer Controlled Tensile Strength Testing
Machine for Testing of Strings and Fabrics. They employed viper motor (DC motor) for force
exertion, load cell and instrumentation amplifier for reading force, ultrasonic distance sensor for
measurement of displacement. Simultaneously a tripod mounted webcam is employed to capture
real time video and image processing and employed to compute displacement on the basis of
motor movement. However, the tensile test machine is limited to tensile test of strings and
fabrics. Moreso, there is need to enhance or upgrade the developed system to meet the needs and
challenges of the future with the modernization and advancement of computer and sensor
technologies.

Danladi (2022) designed and fabricated a Prototype Manually Operated Tensile Testing Machine
to obtain the tensile properties of ductile material such as mild steel. The machine consists of 20-
ton hydraulic jack, locally-made axial extensometer, locally-made load cell, a fixed and movable
frame Though the machine provided an understanding of the mechanical behaviour of metals,
data from test are used as dummies to demonstrate how to compute: Ultimate tensile strength,
yield strength, fracture stress, percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area of mild steel

2.4 Summary of Literature

It can be found from literatures reviewed that tensile test machines are classified into two based
on the orientation of the crossheads namely: vertical tensile test machine and horizontal tensile
test machine. However, designs of horizontal tensile test machine incorporating hydraulic jack
for tensile test of composite materials are rare, hence the present project work.

Important drawback of tensile test machines is their cost to own. The present study uses locally
sourced materials in the design of tensile test machine in order to make it affordable hence
readily available in Nigerian schools.

20
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Material Selection
Materials in engineering include: metals, composites, polymers, ceramics, glass and wood. Some
of these materials have been used for Tensile Testing Apparatus produced by foreign companies-
Instron, Shimadzu Corporation, MTS Systems Corporation, ZwickRoell and Lloyd Instruments
(AMETEK).

Design concern in selecting materials for the component parts of the machine is: “Function” –
what the machine does. Horizontal testing machines are specialized equipment used to evaluate
the tensile properties of materials in a horizontal orientation. Horizontal tensile testing machine
apply tensile forces horizontally to test specimens rather than vertically, as with traditional
vertical tensile testers. These machines typically consist of a rigid frame, a horizontal loading
system, grips or fixtures for securing the specimen, and force measurement devices such as load
cells.

Several factors were taken into consideration while making decisions on materials to use for the
component parts of the Tensile testing machine of the present study. These factors or criteria are
presented in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Material Selection

S/N Components Material Criteria for Selection Remarks
1. Control Box Casing: Aluminum Alloy Safety It detects the
Content: Electrical Circuits - Accuracy and reading of the
speed of display. Load Cell and
- Compatibility amplifies it and
with the current, subsequently
voltage and sends it to the
frequency LCD.
requirements of
the electrical
system.
2. Tension Spring Stainless Steel - High fatigue The spring
resistance, stretches in
- High modulus of tension in a

21
 elasticity, linear manner.
- Low hysteresis to
withstand cyclic
loading and
unloading
3. 200 kg Load Cell Aluminum Steel - High strength, This is
- Toughness, affordable. The
- 0.20% of the Load Cells
maximum rated which exceeds
load 100kN the highest
operating load
100kN is very
expensive.
4. 10 ton Hydraulic Alloy Steel - Stability, It provides the
Jack - High strength, tensile force.
- Lifting stroke of
20-148mm,
- Maximum rated load
is 100kN; i.e, 10ton
5. Grippers Mild Steel - High tensile It holds firmly
strength the specimen.
- High toughness
- Weldability
6. Movable Frame Mild Steel - High tensile It provides linear
strength motion to the
- High toughness specimen.
- Weldability
7. Support Frame Mild Steel - High tensile It provides
strength support to other
- High toughness components.
- Weldability
8. LCD Glass - High refractive It displays the
index reading of the
- Transparent tensile force.

3.2 Conceptual Design

A tensile testing device that occupies less space as well as displays the tensile force, extension of
test specimen formed the concept of the tensile test machine of the present study and the design
was drawn using AUTOCAD software version 2010 and presented in Figure 3.1.

22
 Hydraulic Jack
Control Box
LCD Movable Frame
Tension Spring Support Frame

Grippers
Load Cell

Figure 3.1 Conceptual Design of Horizontal Tensile Test Machine

The machine is designed for tensile test of polymer composites. Issues which were dealt with
during the design included: specimen configuration or shape; method of applying consistent,
linear tension force; method of gripping specimen without affecting its overall properties;
method of collecting data; repeatability of data; ease of use; ease of construction and cost.

3.3 Components of the Horizontal Tensile Test Machine

3.3.1 Hydraulic jack
The primary power source of hydraulic jacks comes from hydraulic fluid, and pressure is created
by the movement of this fluid in two cylinders via a plunger. Generally, hydraulic jacks function
based on the movement of oil from the pump chamber to the cylinders. By continually making
these movements, heavy weights can be lifted higher and higher. The pump will continuously
exert small bits of force on the oil until it creates substantial pressure to push up the jack piston
and lift a load. Hydraulic jacks work based on Pascal’s principle which states that pressure
exerted at any point on liquid in a container gets transmitted to all other parts of the liquid
without any loss. This means the pressure at the top of a container and the one at the bottom will
be equal. When using a hydraulic jack, the metal pumping bar is inserted into the equipment
socket and then pump. This moves the Movable Frame that in-turn stretches the specimen
attached to it.

3.3.2 Movable Frame

It is typically used to apply a controlled and uniform axial force to the specimen being tested. As
the hydraulic jack spindle moves, it presses on the movable frame which in-turn stretches the
specimen attached to it.

23
3.3.3 Helical tension spring
The spring is attached to the movable frame by via hooks. The spring stretches in tension in a
linear manner thereby returning the Movable Frame to its initial position.

3.3.4 Load cell

It measures the force applied to the specimen during testing. It converts mechanical force into
electrical signals that can be accurately recorded and analyzed, providing crucial data such as
tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation.

3.3.5 Support Frame

It provides the structural support and stability necessary for conducting tests accurately and
safely. It houses the various components of the machine, such as the load cell, grips, crosshead,
and control system, ensuring they are properly aligned and functioning correctly during testing.
Additionally, the frame helps maintain the integrity of the test setup and prevents any unwanted
movement or deformation that could affect the accuracy of the test results.

3.3.6 Grippers
They are components of a tensile test machine that securely hold the specimen being tested.
Their primary function is to apply the necessary clamping force to prevent the specimen from
slipping or moving during the test. Grippers come in various designs depending on the type and
shape of the specimen, ensuring a secure grip without causing damage or deformation. They play
a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of the test and obtaining accurate results by ensuring
that the specimen remains in place throughout the testing process.

3.3.7 Control Box

The Control Box collects data from load cell to monitor the progress of the test and record the
tensile force.

3.3.8 LCD
The LCD displays the reading of the tensile force. It is inserted on the front of the Control Box.

24
3.4 Detailed Design
The machine is designed to pull one end of natural fiber reinforced composite sample, while the
other end of the sample is attached to the load cell to monitor the applied load. The maximum
tensile load to break the sample with a cross section area of 800 mm 2 and an ultimate tensile
strength of at most 119.375 MPa was determined to be 95.5 kN. Thus, the maximum tensile
force requirement of the machine was set to 100 kN. The load is measured with load cells with
0.20% of the maximum rated load.

3.4.1 Frame design

The frame provides mounting points and maintains proper relative positions of the units and
parts mounted on it over the period of service under all specified working conditions. It also
provides general rigidity of the machine (Acherkan, 1973).

3.4.2 Design for Spring

The design considerations are as follows:
1. Type of Spring & Magnitude of Force
The spring is stretched in torsion. The spring must be attached to a mechanism to allow its
operation. Hooks are a common attachment. The type of spring chosen was extension spring.
Moreso, the spring should have little or no space between coils, and the spring is stretched to
create a linear force. And so a helical extension spring is chosen (see Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2: Design consideration 1- Type of Spring & Magnitude of Force

2. Deflection at Forces
In order to establish the basic spring design, the desired deflection and the desired forces should
be known. The desired deflection will drive the target spring rates, as well as the rest of the
design. In the design, the maximum tensile force is 100kN and the maximum deflection is 5 mm.

25
 Figure 3.3: Design consideration 2- Deflection at Forces

3. Dimensional Constraints
This refers to the working envelope ensuring the spring fits the rest of the assembly (see
Appendix C).

4. Working Conditions (Temperature)

Working temperature was considered in the design to prevent unexpected failures. This is
because high temperatures usually cause plastic deformation or loss of load also called “set”. The
modulus of material naturally decreases at elevated temperature, even without set. Moreso, very
low (cryogenic temperature) can induce brittleness of the material. In the design, the maximum
temperature is set to 40 .

5. Special Performance Requirement

The spring should possess a high fatigue life (resistance to breakage).

3.4.4 Hydraulic jack

The initial parameter in the design is the force required to provide the maximum force needed to
break the test specimen (100 kN). The pumping action would be actuated by a lever system. The
length of the lever was calculated by assuming a maximum theoretical effort and taking moment
about the fulcrum. A lever of 80mm length was used for actuating the force and was selected
based on ergonomic consideration.

The detailed design of the tensile test machine is shown in Appendix C.

26
3.5 Detail Manufacturing Procedure
The axial extensometer and the load cells are the standard components that have to be ordered
while all other components would be fabricated. After determining the main dimensions of the
critical sections from the designs, mild steel section would be purchased locally from the
structural steel vendors in Enugu City, Nigeria. The components of the machine such as the
frames and base were produced by cutting from the steel sections using power hacksaw and
welded using the arc welding machine and assembled in the workshop. In the fabrication of the
components, there are two major sub-assemblies. These are the fixed frame and the moving
frame. The tensile test specimen is mounted at the lower end on the fixed frame while the upper
end is mounted on the moving frame. The two ends of the tensile test specimen are gripped using
locally fabricated grippers.

3.5.2 Electrical components

3.5.2.1 Load cell
A Load cell is a transducer used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the force being measured. The various types of load cells include hydraulic load
cells, pneumatic load cells and strain gauge load cells.

Figure 3.4: 200 Kg Load cell

This is a strain gauge type load cell for measuring weight upto 200 Kg. the load being sensed
deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as an electrical
signal, the electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few millivolts and requires

27
amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output of the transducer
is plugged into an algorithm to calculate the force applied to the transducer.

Method of connecting wire: I/P – Red(+), Black(-)

O/P – Green(+), White(-)

Table 3.2: Load cell Parameters

Parameter Value
Type Single Point Load Cell
Total Precision C3 CLASS
Material Aluminium Alloy
Surface Anodized Treatment
Environmental Protection IP65
Suggested Platform Size 350 x 350 mm
Applications Weighing Scales, Universal Testing Machines
Rated Load 200 Kg Max
Rated output 2.0 mV/V+/-5%
Zero balance +/-1% Full Scale
Input Resistance 405 +/-6 Ohm
Output Resistance 350 +/-3 Ohm
Excitation voltage S-12V DC
Nonlinearity 0.017% Full Scale
Hysteresis 0.02% Full Scale
Repeatability 0.01% Full Scale
Creep(30mm) 0.015% Full Scale
Operating Temperature -20 to +65
Temperature Effect on Zero 0.017% Full Scale / 10
Temperature Effect on Span 0.014% Full Scale / 10
Insulation Resistance 5000 Mega Ohm(50V DC)
Safe load 150% FS

3.5.2.2 Control Box

The Control Box collects data from the load cell to monitor the progress of the test and displays
the tensile force exerted on the specimen. The determination of the tensile force and subsequent
display is achieved by the circuit in Figure 3.5.

28
 Figure 3.5: The Circuit diagram of the Control Box

3.6 Tensile Test

The Horizontal Tensile Test Machine was tested using a standard specimen in line with ASTM
D3039 test method. Test was carried out to measure the tensile properties of polymer
composites. Two set of values were recorded, the force applied using the hydraulic jack was
measured using the load cell and the elongation of the specimen using the axial extensometer.
The two readings were compared with standard mechanical property values. The result of the test
are not expected to agree with the standard values which is quite obvious due lack of precision of
the gripping chucks and the position of the extensometer.

3.6.1 Materials and Equipment

The materials and equipment for the tensile test include:
 Horizontal Tensile Test Machine
 Ruler
 Extensometer

3.6.2 Test Procedures

The test procedures followed were as follows:
29
1. The specimen was prepared according to ASTM D3039 test method (see Figure 3.6).
2. Thereafter the specimen was held in the upper and lower grips of the Machine.
3. The extensometer was attached to the specimen.
4. The specimen was loaded by applying tensile force on it. This was achieved by engaging the
lever arm of the hydraulic jack in a to and fro movement. The test was carried out with a speed
of 0.15 mm/min.
5. The reading of load on the machine was taking frequently from the Control Box. Similarly,
the reading of strain was obtained from the extensometer.
6. The test was continued till Fracture occurred.
7. By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together, the final length and thickness of
the specimen was measured.
25 mm

250 mm
5 mm

40mm

Figure 3.6: ASTM D3039 test method

Material: Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite (250 μm particle size, 45 vol%, 90s
stirring time)
A) Original dimensions
Length = 250 mm
Gauge length = 160 mm
Width = 25 mm
Gauge Width = 5 mm
Thickness = 5 mm

30
B) Final Dimensions:
Gauge Length = 160.4 mm
Gauge Thickness = 4.976 mm

In summary, Figure 3.7 presents the adopted methodology for the present study.

31
B
Components Survey

Material Selection

Design Considerations

Collection of Materials and Equipment

Outline Performance target of Tensile test machine

Measurement

Estimate

Computer Aided Design

Target met?

Report design

Produce machine

Testing and results

Figure 3.7: Flow process of the adopted research methodology

32
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results
The tensile properties of Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite (250 μm particle size,
45 vol%, 90s stirring time) are presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: The tensile properties of Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite (250
μm particle size, 45 vol%, 90s stirring time)
Gauge length of sample is 160mm width is 5mm and thickness is 5mm
Force(N) Extension Transverse Longitudinal Stress, Young Poisson's
along Contraction strain, strain, Modulus, ratio, ν
x-axis, e along ) ) ) E )
(mm) y-axis, c 2 )
(N/mm )
(mm)
(N/mm2)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.47 0.02 0.001 0.0002 0.000125 0.1788 1430.4 1.6
10.78 0.04 0.002 0.0004 0.00025 0.4312 1724.8 1.6
13.22 0.09 0.005 0.001 0.0005625 0.5288 940.0889 1.78
20.61 0.14 0.008 0.0016 0.000875 0.8244 942.1714 1.83
27.17 0.18 0.011 0.0022 0.001125 1.0868 966.0444 1.96
30.41 0.23 0.014 0.0028 0.0014375 1.2164 846.1913 1.95
34.07 0.29 0.017 0.0034 0.0018125 1.3628 751.8897 1.87
38.18 0.33 0.02 0.004 0.0020625 1.5272 740.4606 1.94
41.13 0.41 0.023 0.0046 0.0025625 1.6452 642.0293 1.79
49.02 0.44 0.026 0.0052 0.00275 1.9608 713.0182 1.89
51.19 0.47 0.029 0.0058 0.0029375 2.0476 697.0553 1.97
58.05 0.58 0.035 0.007 0.003625 2.322 640.5517 1.94
62.15 0.69 0.042 0.0084 0.0043125 2.486 576.4638 1.95
75.09 0.78 0.048 0.0096 0.004875 3.0036 616.1231 1.97
79.11 0.89 0.054 0.0108 0.0055625 3.1644 568.8809 1.94
88 0.99 0.06 0.012 0.0061875 3.52 568.8889 1.94
94.01 1.12 0.068 0.0136 0.007 3.7604 537.2 1.94
102.13 1.25 0.077 0.0154 0.0078125 4.0852 522.9056 1.97
119.21 1.42 0.086 0.0172 0.008875 4.7684 537.2845 1.94
128.16 1.58 0.095 0.019 0.009875 5.1264 519.1291 1.92
154.02 1.71 0.104 0.0208 0.0106875 6.1608 576.4491 1.95

33
4.2 Graph
The graph of stress-strain of Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite (250μm particle
size, 45 vol%, 90s stirring time) is shown in Figure 4.1.
7
Stress-Strain of Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composit
6

Fracture Point
5
STRESS (N/mm2)

2
Hooke's Limit

Elastic Limit
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
STRAIN

Figure 4.1: Stress-strain of Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite (250μm particle

size, 45 vol%, 90s stirring time)

It can be seen from the graph of stress-strain of Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite
(250μm particle size, 45 vol%, 90s stirring time), that it is a brittle material (see Figure 2.8).
From the graph, Hooke’s limit is the point where if the applied force is removed, the material
will return to its original length. Here, the stress varies directly with the strain. Elastic limit is the
point where the material cannot return to its original length when the applied force is removed.
Point of failure or fracture is the point where the material breaks. The young modulus of the
reinforced polymer composite is 764.67 N/mm2. The Poisson's ratio of the material is 1.89. The
value of the stress that led to the fracture of the composite material is 6.1608 N/mm2; i.e the
Ultimate Tensile Strength. The composite material is recommended for a light weight application
with stress below 6.1608 N/mm2.

4.3 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation

The Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME) or cost estimate for the tensile
testing machine comprises of material, labour, transportation and contingencies. The breakdown
is as presented in Table 4.2.

34
Table 4.2: Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation for the Manual Tensile Testing
Machine
S/N Description Quantity Unit cost (₦) Total cost (₦)
1. 15mm mild steel bar 1 5,000 25,000
2. M15 mild steel bolt Lot - 1,100
3. M15 mild steel nut Lot - 1,100
4. 20 tons hydraulic jack 1 35,000 35,000
5. Load cell 1 50,000 50,000
6. G12 electrode 3 1,000 3,000
7. Grinding disc 3 3,000 9,000
8. 18tpi hacksaw blade 6 500 3,000
9. Rough emery cloth Lot - 4,000
10. Labour charges (CAD & Fabrication) - - 70,000
11. Oil Paint maroon 3 2,000 6,000
12. Bolts and nuts, M13 Lot - 2,000
13. Miscellaneous - - 10,000
TOTAL ₦219,200

4.4 Comparing Madonna university tensile testing machine with Ametek LD - Digital
Tensile Tester
The Horizontal tensile testing machine of the present study is compared with LD - Digital
Tensile Tester from Ametek Inc to check the efficiency. LD - Digital Tensile Tester is shown in
Figure 4.2. The machine is designed with a maximum tensile force of 100 kN (10 tons).

Figure 4.2: Ametek LD - Digital Tensile Tester

35
 Test was carried out on LD - Digital Tensile Tester to determine the tensile properties of Banana-
Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite (250 sample size, 45 vol%, 90s stirring time) and the test
results are presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: The tensile properties of Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite (250
μm particle size, 45 vol%, 90s stirring time)
Gauge length of sample is 160mm width is 5mm and thickness is 5mm
Force(N) Extension Transverse Longitudinal Stress, Young Poisson's
along Contraction strain, strain, Modulus, ratio, ν
x-axis, e along ) ) ) E )
(mm) y-axis, c 2 )
(N/mm )
(mm)
(N/mm2)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6.89 0.02 0.001 0.0002 0.000125 0.2756 2204.8 1.6
12.63 0.05 0.002 0.0004 0.0003125 0.5052 1616.64 1.28
18.37 0.1 0.005 0.001 0.000625 0.7348 1175.68 1.6
25.26 0.15 0.008 0.0016 0.0009375 1.0104 1077.76 1.71
30.99 0.2 0.011 0.0022 0.00125 1.2396 991.68 1.76
34.44 0.25 0.014 0.0028 0.0015625 1.3776 881.664 1.79
39.03 0.3 0.017 0.0034 0.001875 1.5612 832.64 1.81
42.48 0.35 0.02 0.004 0.0021875 1.6992 776.7771 1.83
47.07 0.4 0.023 0.0046 0.0025 1.8828 753.12 1.84
51.66 0.45 0.026 0.0052 0.0028125 2.0664 734.72 1.85
55.11 0.5 0.029 0.0058 0.003125 2.2044 705.408 1.86
63.14 0.6 0.035 0.007 0.00375 2.5256 673.4933 1.87
73.48 0.71 0.042 0.0084 0.0044375 2.9392 662.3549 1.89
83.81 0.81 0.048 0.0096 0.0050625 3.3524 662.2025 1.89
91.85 0.91 0.054 0.0108 0.0056875 3.674 645.9780 1.89
103.32 1.01 0.06 0.012 0.0063125 4.1328 654.701 1.90
115.95 1.14 0.068 0.0136 0.007125 4.638 650.9474 1.91
133.18 1.29 0.077 0.0154 0.0080625 5.3272 660.738 1.91
150.39 1.44 0.086 0.0172 0.009 6.0156 668.4 1.91
169.91 1.6 0.095 0.019 0.01 6.7964 679.64 1.90
191.72 1.75 0.104 0.0208 0.0109375 7.6688 701.1474 1.90

Comparing the stress values of Horizontal tensile testing machine of the present study with that
of LD - Digital Tensile Tester from Ametek Inc we have the following deviations as presented in
Table 4.4

36
 Table 4.4: Comparing the stress values of Horizontal tensile testing machine of the present
study with stress values of LD - Digital Tensile Testers from Ametek Inc
S/N Stress values of LD - Stress values of Horizontal Deviation
Digital Tensile Testers Tensile Test Machine
from Ametek Inc (MPa) (MPa)
1 0 0 0
2 0.2756 0.1788 0.0968
3 0.5052 0.4312 0.074
4 0.7348 0.5288 0.206
5 1.0104 0.8244 0.186
6 1.2396 1.0868 0.1528
7 1.3776 1.2164 0.1612
8 1.5612 1.3628 0.1984
9 1.6992 1.5272 0.172
10 1.8828 1.6452 0.2376
11 2.0664 1.9608 0.1056
12 2.2044 2.0476 0.1568
13 2.5256 2.322 0.2036
14 2.9392 2.486 0.4532
15 3.3524 3.0036 0.3488
16 3.674 3.1644 0.5096
17 4.1328 3.52 0.6128
18 4.638 3.7604 0.8776
19 5.3272 4.0852 1.242
20 6.0156 4.7684 1.2472
21 6.7964 5.1264 1.67
22 7.6688 6.1608 1.508
Average 2.8012 2.3276 0.4736

It can be observed from Table 4.4 that the deviation is minimal with an average value of 0.4736.
This deviation is depicted in Figure 4.3.

37
 8
Stress-Strain from Madonna Horizontal Tensile Test Machine
Stress-Strain from Ametek LD - Digital Tensile Tester
7

6
STRESS (N/mm2)

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
STRAIN

Figure 4.3: Comparing the Horizontal Tensile Test Machine with LD - Digital Tensile
Tester from Ametek Inc.

We can calculate efficiency using the average values of the stress- 2.3276MPa and 2.8012MPa,
i.e;

%
It can be seen that the efficiency of the Horizontal tensile testing machine is reasonable and as
such the Horizontal tensile testing machine is recommended for use to determine the tensile
properties of reinforced polymer composites.

38
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
The 10-ton manually operated horizontal tensile testing machine gives excellent understanding
of tensile properties of polymer composites. The machine consists of a frame, load cell,
controller, indicator, grips and fixturing to hold the sample in place. The frame provides the
structure and rigidity needed to pull the sample apart at the desired rate. Load cells measure the
amount of force being applied to the sample. The maximum tensile load to break a sample with
cross section area of 800 mm2 and an ultimate tensile strength of at most 119.375 MPa was
determined to be 95.5 kN. Thus, the maximum tensile force requirement of the machine was set
to 100 kN. The load is measured with load cells with 0.5% of the maximum rated load.
Horizontal tensile testing machine of the present study was tested for performance using standard
tensile test specimens. The horizontal tensile testing machine was used to demonstrate
determination of tensile strength, young modulus and poisson ratio of polymer composites. The
test results was compared to the test results obtained from Ametek LD - Digital Tensile Testers
from Ametek Inc and the value of deviation was found to be 0.4736 on average. The Horizontal
tensile testing machine gave an efficiency of %.

The machine is inexpensive compared to the imported one, hence can be afforded by many
institutions to facilitate demonstration of tensile tests for understanding of material behavior
under different loading conditions.

5.2 Recommendations
The machine was tested for performance using standard tensile test specimens and is found to be
reliable and is recommended for use to determine:
1. the tensile strength of reinforced polymer composites,
2. the young modulus of reinforced polymer composites,
3. the poisson ratio of reinforced polymer composites.

39
5.3 Contributions to knowledge
The test results provide valuable information on tensile strength, young modulus and poisson
ratio of a polymer composite: Banana-Coir Particulate Reinforced Composite (250 μm particle
size, 45 vol%, 90s stirring time).

40
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 APPENDIX A
REINFORCED COMPOSITE TENSILE TEST MACHINE

43
 APPENDIX B
COMPONENT PARTS OF REINFORCED COMPOSITE TENSILE TESTING
MACHINE

1
2
7 APPARATUS FRAME MILD STEEL
3 BOUGHT OUT
6 HYDRAULIC JACK
5 GRIPPER MILD STEEL
4 200kg LOAD CELL BOUGHT OUT
4 3 TENSION SPRING BOUGHT OUT
2 LCD BOUGHT OUT
1 CONTROL BOX BOUGHT OUT
S/N ITEM DESCRIPTION
6
7
PARTS LIST

5 REINFORCED COMPOSITE
PROJ. TITLE
TENSILE TESTING MACHINE
DATE AUGUST, 2024
SCALE 1:10 ALL DIMENSIONS IN mm

44
 APPENDIX C
DESIGN OF REINFORCED COMPOSITE TENSILE TEST MACHINE

25

212

900

375

200
50
105 60°

100
400 270

DRG. TITLE ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF THE REINFORCED COMPOSITE TENSILE TEST MACHINE
SCALE 1:10 PROJECTION ALL DIMENSIONS IN mm

45
 APPENDIX D
SPRING DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Given: Load is 200 kg, Spring index (C) is 6, Modulus of rigidity (G) for steel wires is 81370
N/mm2, Allowable Shear Stress ( ) is 621.6 N/mm2, Deflection (y) is 5 mm

We have that;

Curvature factor, K =

And so; Wire diameter, d is:

We have that;

46
47
 APPENDIX E
REINFORCED COMPOSITE TENSILE TESTING MACHINE CONTROL CODE

#include <Wire.h>
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
#include "HX711.h"

// HX711 circuit wiring

const int LOADCELL1_DOUT_PIN = 3;
const int LOADCELL1_SCK_PIN = 2;
const int LOADCELL2_DOUT_PIN = 5;
const int LOADCELL2_SCK_PIN = 4;

HX711 scale1;
HX711 scale2;

// Calibration factors
float calibration_factor1 = 2280.0;
float calibration_factor2 = 2300.0;

// initialize the library by associating any needed LCD interface pin

const int rs = 7, en = 8, d4 = 9, d5 = 10, d6 = 11, d7 = 12;
LiquidCrystal lcd(rs, en, d4, d5, d6, d7);

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
lcd.begin(16, 2);
lcd.print("Initializing...");

scale1.begin(LOADCELL1_DOUT_PIN, LOADCELL1_SCK_PIN);
scale2.begin(LOADCELL2_DOUT_PIN, LOADCELL2_SCK_PIN);

// Tare the scales to set them to zero

scale1.tare();
scale2.tare();

// Set the calibration factors

scale1.set_scale(calibration_factor1);
scale2.set_scale(calibration_factor2);

lcd.clear();
lcd.print("Load Cells Ready");
delay(2000);
lcd.clear();

void loop()

48
// Read load cells and calculate total weight
float weight1 = scale1.get_units(10);
float weight2 = scale2.get_units(10);
float totalWeight = weight1 + weight2;

// Print the total weight to the Serial Monitor

Serial.print("Load: ");
Serial.print(totalWeight);
Serial.println(" kg");

// Display the total weight on the LCD

lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("Load:");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print(totalWeight);
lcd.print(" kg");

delay(500); // Update every 500ms}

49