Bioelectrical Circuits - Lecture 3
Bioelectrical Circuits - Lecture 3
2019
Luis Cardoso
CUNY City College
This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY).
Contact: [email protected]
BME
205
L03
• The
third
step
in
nodal
analysis
is
to
solve
for
the
node
voltages.
If
we
apply
KCL
to
n−1
nonreference
nodes,
we
obtain
n−1
simultaneous
equa>ons.
For
the
current
example
circuit
we
could
use
any
standard
method,
such
as
subs>tu>on,
elimina>on,
Cramer’s
rule,
or
matrix
inversion.
• To
use
either
of
the
last
two
methods,
one
must
cast
the
simultaneous
equa>ons
in
matrix
form.
For
example,
our
conductance
equa>ons
can
be
cast
in
matrix
form
as
which
is
as
we
got
before.
• We
can
then
get
the
currents
easily
if
required.
Examples
Obtain
the
node
voltages
1)
2)
3)
Nodal
Analysis
with
Voltage
Sources
• CASE
I.
If
a
voltage
source
is
connected
between
the
reference
node
and
a
nonreference
node,
we
simply
set
the
voltage
at
the
nonreference
node
equal
to
the
voltage
of
the
voltage
source.
In
this
example,
v1
=
10
V.
• CASE
II.
If
the
voltage
source
(dependent
or
independent)
is
connected
between
two
nonreference
nodes,
the
two
nonreference
nodes
form
a
generalized
node
or
supernode;
we
apply
both
KCL
and
KVL
to
determine
the
node
voltages.
A
supernode
is
formed
by
enclosing
a(dependent
or
independent)
voltage
source
connected
between
two
nonreference
nodes
and
any
elements
connected
in
parallel
with
it.
• So
in
this
example,
nodes
2
and
3
form
a
supernode.
(We
could
have
more
than
two).
We
analyze
a
circuit
with
supernodes
using
the
same
three
steps
men>oned
in
the
previous
sec>on
except
that
the
supernodes
are
treated
differently.
• Why?
Because
an
essen>al
component
of
nodal
analysis
is
applying
KCL,
which
requires
knowing
the
current
through
each
element.
There
is
no
way
of
knowing
the
current
through
a
voltage
source
in
advance.
However,
KCL
must
be
sa>sfied
at
a
supernode
like
any
other
node.
Hence,
at
the
supernode
in
this
example,
• To
apply
Kirchhoff’s
voltage
law
to
the
supernode,
we
redraw
the
circuit
as
shown.
Going
around
the
loop
in
the
clockwise
direc>on
gives
• So
now
we
have
3
equa>ons
in
v1,
v2,
v3.
Find v and i
(c)
A
mesh
is
a
loop
which
does
not
contain
any
other
loops
within
it.
• For
example,
paths
abefa
and
bcdeb
are
meshes,
but
path
abcdefa
is
not
a
mesh.
The
current
through
a
mesh
is
known
as
mesh
current.
• In
mesh
analysis,
we
are
interested
in
applying
KVL
to
find
the
mesh
currents
in
a
given
circuit.
In
the
mesh
analysis
of
a
circuit
with
n
meshes
and
no
current
sources,
we
take
the
following
three
steps:
1.
Assign
mesh
currents
i1,
i2,
.
.
.
,
in
to
the
n
meshes.
2.
Apply
KVL
to
each
of
the
n
meshes.
Use
Ohm’s
law
to
express
the
voltages
in
terms
of
the
mesh
currents.
3.
Solve
the
resul>ng
n
simultaneous
equa>ons
to
get
the
mesh
currents.
• For
this
example,
the
first
step
requires
that
mesh
currents
i1
and
i2
are
assigned
to
meshes
1
and
2.
Although
a
mesh
current
may
be
assigned
to
each
mesh
in
an
arbitrary
direc>on,
it
is
conven>onal
to
assume
that
each
mesh
current
flows
clockwise.
As
the
second
step,
we
apply
KVL
to
each
mesh.
Applying
KVL
to
mesh
1,
we
obtain
or
For
mesh
2,
applying
KVL
gives
or
Note
that
in
the
1st
equa>on
the
coefficient
of
i1
is
the
sum
of
the
resistances
in
the
first
mesh,
while
the
coefficient
of
i2
is
the
nega>ve
of
the
resistance
common
to
meshes
1
and
2.
The
same
is
true
for
the
2nd
equa>on.
The
third
step
is
to
solve
for
the
mesh
currents.
In
matrix
form:
• If
a
circuit
has
n
nodes,
b
branches,
and
l
independent
loops
or
meshes,
then
l
=
b−n+1.
Hence,
l
independent
simultaneous
equa>ons
are
required
to
solve
the
circuit
using
mesh
analysis.
• No>ce
that
the
branch
currents
are
different
from
the
mesh
currents
unless
the
mesh
is
isolated.
To
dis>nguish
between
the
two
types
of
currents,
we
use
i
for
a
mesh
current
and
I
for
a
branch
current.
The
current
elements
I1,
I2,
and
I3
are
algebraic
sums
of
the
mesh
currents.
• In
the
last
example
it
is
evident
that
Example
−i1 + 2i2 = 1
1)
Find io
2)
3)
Mesh
Analysis
with
Current
Sources
• CASE
I.
When
a
current
source
exists
only
in
one
mesh.
Consider
top
circuit
for
example.
We
set
i2
=
−5
A
and
write
a
mesh
equa>on
for
the
other
mesh
in
the
usual
way,
that
is,
(b)
• We
create
a
supermesh
as
the
periphery
of
the
two
meshes
and
treat
it
differently.
(If
a
circuit
has
two
or
more
supermeshes
that
intersect,
they
should
be
combined
to
form
a
larger
supermesh.)
• Why
do
we
need
supermeshes
that
“go
over
the
head”
of
a
current
source?
Because
mesh
analysis
applies
KVL—which
requires
that
we
know
the
voltage
across
each
branch—and
we
do
not
know
the
voltage
across
a
current
source
in
advance.
• However,
a
supermesh
must
sa>sfy
KVL
like
any
other
mesh
or
loop.
Therefore,
applying
KVL
to
the
supermesh
in
(b)
gives
or
• We
apply
KCL
to
a
node
in
the
branch
where
the
two
meshes
intersect.
Applying
KCL
to
node
0
gives
• Solving the two equa>ons in i1 and i2 we get
or
simply
where
Gkk
=
sum
of
the
conductances
connected
to
node
k
Gkj
=
Gjk
=
Nega>ve
of
the
sum
of
the
conductances
directly
connec>ng
nodes
k
and
j,
k
≠
j
vk
=
Unknown
voltage
at
node
k;
ik
=
Sum
of
all
independent
current
sources
directly
connected
to
node
k,
with
currents
entering
the
node
treated
as
posi>ve.
G
is
called
the
conductance
matrix,
v
is
the
output
vector;
and
i
is
the
input
vector.
• This
equa>on
can
be
solved
to
obtain
the
unknown
node
voltages.
Keep
in
mind
that
this
is
valid
for
circuits
with
only
independent
current
sources
and
linear
resistors.
• Similarly,
we
can
obtain
mesh-‐current
equa>ons
by
inspec>on
when
a
linear
resis>ve
circuit
has
only
independent
voltage
sources.
• Consider
again
the
circuit
shown.
The
circuit
has
two
nonreference
nodes
and
the
node
equa>ons
were
derived
before
as
• We
no>ce
that
each
of
the
diagonal
terms
is
the
sum
of
the
resistances
in
the
related
mesh,
while
each
of
the
off-‐diagonal
terms
is
the
nega>ve
of
the
resistance
common
to
meshes
1
and
2.
Each
term
on
the
right-‐hand
side
is
the
algebraic
sum
taken
clockwise
of
all
independent
voltage
sources
in
the
related
mesh.
• In
general,
if
the
circuit
has
N
meshes,
the
mesh-‐current
equa>ons
can
be
expressed
in
terms
of
the
resistances
as
or
simply
where
Rkk
=
Sum
of
the
resistances
in
mesh
k
Rkj
=
Rjk
=
Nega>ve
of
the
sum
of
the
resistances
in
common
with
meshes
k
and
j,
k
≠
j
ik
=
Unknown
mesh
current
for
mesh
k
in
the
clockwise
direc>on
vk
=
Sum
taken
clockwise
of
all
independent
voltage
sources
in
mesh
k,
with
voltage
rise
treated
as
posi>ve
R
is
called
the
resistance
matrix,
i
is
the
output
vector;
and
v
is
the
input
vector.
We
can
solve
this
matrix
equa>on
to
obtain
the
unknown
mesh
currents.
Examples
Write
the
node-‐voltage
matrix
equa>ons
by
inspec>on.
2)
1)
Example
write
the
mesh-‐current
equa>ons
by
inspec>on
3) 4)