LESSON 1: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Topic Outline:
● Mechanism of Breathing and Gas Exchange
● Relationship of Respiratory System with other
systems in Maintaining Blood PH Levels

INTRODUCTION

- An average person can hold their breath for

30–90 seconds.

- This time can increase or decrease due to

various factors, such as smoking, underlying
medical conditions, or breath training

- What happens to your body when you hold

your breath? The times are approximate:

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

- We need to breathe in oxygen as it is the final

electron acceptor at the end of the Electron
Transport Chain.

- The RESPIRATORY and CIRCULATORY - We breathe in oxygen as it is needed to

SYSTEM work together to provide the body make ATP.
with oxygen (O2).
- Cellular respiration is a series of chemical
- The respiratory system exchanges CO2 for reactions that produce ATP. (C6H12O6 + O2 →
O2, and the circulatory system delivers the O2 CO2 + H2O + ATP).
to the rest of the body’s cells.
- O2 is a reactant - it is required for aerobic
cellular respiration to occur.

- O2 travels to mitochondria inside cells, the

final electron acceptor at the end of the
electron transport chain.

- Carbon dioxide is expelled during expiration

as it is considered a waste product.
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- We expel CO2 when we breathe out EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RESPIRATION
(C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP).
EXTERNAL INTERNAL
- Carbon dioxide is a waste product of cellular RESPIRATION RESPIRATION
respiration. Our bodies have no use for it.
- is the gas exchange - is the gas
between an exchange between
- It is released from the mitochondria during organism's body the tissue cells and
cellular respiration and diffuses into the and its environment. the bloodstream.
blood.
- It occurs via - It occurs at the
nostrils, nasal individual cellular
cavity, bronchus, level.
bronchioles and
alveoli.

- The pathway of air during pulmonary

ventilation starts with the nose or nasal cavity.

- The two muscles involved in the breathing

process are the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles

- Organs involved in pulmonary ventilation

(pathway of air):

- The physical movement of air into the body is

called breathing or pulmonary ventilation.

RESPIRATION VS. BREATHING

- Respiration pertains not only to cellular

respiration but also to BREATHING and GAS
EXCHANGE.

ALVEOLI
- Breathing or pulmonary ventilation is the
physical movement of air into the body.
- (sing. Alveolus) is a cluster of minute air
sacs at the end of the bronchioles.
- Respiration can be categorized into
EXTERNAL and INTERNAL.

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 FINAL PATHWAY OF AIR

- it is surrounded by a network of blood

vessels (capillaries) where gas exchange
occurs.

RBC AND HEMOGLOBIN

- Hemoglobin in red blood cells is the protein

that binds to O2.

- 1 hemoglobin contains 4 molecules of O2

- 1 RBC contains 270 million of hemoglobin

GAS EXCHANGE IN THE ALVEOLI - Hemoglobin can carry some CO2, but it
does not bind this gas as readily as it binds
- Gas exchange in the alveoli occurs primarily to O2.
by DIFFUSION.

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 - Carbonic anhydrase (an enzyme) in red
blood cells converts most CO2 to bicarbonate
ions (HCO3-).

- Bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) diffuse into the

blood plasma

- Blood/plasma reaches the lungs.

THORAX & LUNGS

- The thoracic cavity (thorax) and the lungs

are two body parts or organs that play a crucial
role in breathing.

How will you describe the size or volume of

these body parts during inspiration?
PLIGHT OF CO2
- Thoracic cavity – increases or expands
- CO2 molecules are transported in the blood - Lungs (size and volume) - increases
from body tissues in 3 ways:
ORGANS INVOLVED IN RESPIRATION
1.) Dissolution directly into the blood - 5 to
7% of CO2 is dissolved into the plasma

2.) Binding to hemoglobin - CO2 binds to

hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin

3.) Carried as a bicarbonate ion via a

bicarbonate buffer system

MECHANISM OF BREATHING

- As breathing occurs in the thorax, the

major body parts and organs involved are the
following:

1.) Lungs (size, volume, pressure):

- major organs of the respiratory system, and
are divided into sections or lobes

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- the right lung has 3 lobes and is slightly 3.) Diaphragm (movement and shape):
larger than the left lung, which has 2 lobes - a thin dome-shaped muscle which
separates the thoracic cavity from the
abdominal cavity

4.) Thoracic cavity:

2.) Rib Cage: - a space in your chest that contains organs,
- lying between the ribs are intercostal blood vessels, nerves and other important
muscles (attaches the ribs to one another) body structures

- 3 types of intercostal muscles - the

external intercostals, the internal
intercostals, and the innermost intercostals.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

- The thoracic cavity, lung size and lung volume

INcreases during INspiration.

- External intercostals are inspiratory and

the internal intercostals are expiratory.

- Pressure and Volume have an inverse

relationship.
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 - Gases will move from a region of high
pressure to a region of lower pressure

- When the pressure in the chest is less than

the atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg), air
will move into the lungs (inspiration).

- When the pressure in the chest is greater

than the atmospheric pressure, air will
move out of the lungs (expiration).

BOYLE’S LAW

- The mechanism of breathing occurs

according to the principle of Boyle’s Law.

- When the volume of the thoracic cavity

increases, pressure in the thorax
decreases. In relation to this, why is it harder to breathe at
higher altitudes?
- When the volume of the thoracic cavity
decreases, pressure in the thorax - Oxygen levels and AIR PRESSURE at
increases. higher elevation DROPS.

- The outside air pressure is lower than it is

inside the lungs, making it more difficult to
pull in the thinner air.

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 CONTINUATION ON Why is it not advisable to stay long inside a
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM turned-on, basement-parked car?

When will doctors decide that a patient - Typical internal combustion engines used
needs the assistance of a mechanical in most cars and trucks produce high
ventilator? concentrations of carbon monoxide (a
colorless and odorless gas).
- A mechanical ventilator is a form of life
support that helps you breathe (ventilate) - CO builds up inside the car and when
when you can’t breathe on your own. inhaled, CO gas binds to hemoglobin in red
blood cells, reducing the blood's ability to
- It is often used if there is respiratory trauma, carry oxygen throughout the body.
compromised airways, lung injuries or
conditions, etc.

- The introduction of a different gas in the

system aside from oxygen has cascading
effects on the blood chemistry.

BLOOD pH

- Human blood should be maintained at a pH

How is a mechanical ventilator like natural
of 7.35 to 7.45.
breathing in humans?

- Changes in pH can affect various cells and

- Mechanical ventilators are very similar to
metabolic processes (protein and
breathing in humans as the machine mimics
enzyme-driven).
the natural process of lung pressure and
volume.
- Too low blood pH can lead to ACIDOSIS,
and too high blood pH leads to ALKALOSIS
- It applies artificial pressure to the lungs to
initiate inspiration and expiration.

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 - classified as either RESPIRATORY
ALKALOSIS or METABOLIC ALKALOSIS.

- Respiratory alkalosis develops when there

isn’t enough carbon dioxide in your
bloodstream, often caused by
hyperventilation.

ACIDOSIS

- Occurs when acid builds up in the body

fluid.

- Classified as either RESPIRATORY

ACIDOSIS or METABOLIC ACIDOSIS.

- Respiratory acidosis develops when there is

too much carbon dioxide in the body due to
the inability of the body to remove enough
carbon dioxide through breathing.

BLOOD BUFFER SYSTEM

- Buffer systems work by neutralizing added

acid or base to resist changes to pH.

- A buffer is a set of chemicals that can keep

the pH of a solution stable by alternately
donating and accepting ions (proton or H+) that
contribute to pH.

- The carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffering

system works to maintain pH homeostasis
by adjusting the amount of hydrogen and
bicarbonate ions present.

ALKALOSIS

- Occurs when your body has excessive

alkali or base due to decreased blood levels
of carbon dioxide.
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 CO2 & BLOOD pH - When CO2 concentration or PCO2 in your
blood increases, the amount of H+ produced
- RBC’s convert CO2 to carbonic acid, then also increases.
to bicarbonate with the aid of the carbonic
anhydrase enzyme. - An increase in H+ means that pH decreases
(basic pH).
- For respiratory acidosis/ alkalosis, we
need to focus on the relationship of CO2 CO2 & pH RELATIONSHIP
and the Hydrogen (H+) ion
- As PCO2 increases, pH decreases.
What is the relationship of PCO2 and pH?
- This leads to ACIDOSI S as blood pH
- Respiration involves the build-up of CO2 in drops (<7.35).
the blood and its release through expiration.
- Blood pH should be maintained at 7.35 to
- The measure of carbon dioxide within 7.45.
arterial or venous blood is called partial
pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2).

- Normal value of PCO2 ranges between 35 to

45 mmHg

RESPIRATORY COMPENSATION

CONCEPT OF pH - The bicarbonate buffer system is coupled

to the lungs via RESPIRATORY
- Potential of Hydrogen (pH) is a scale that COMPENSATION, the process by which the
describes how acidic or basic a fluid is. rate of breathing changes to compensate
for changes in the blood concentration of
- Is logarithmic and is INVERSELY CO2.
PROPORTIONAL to the concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+) in the fluid. For respiratory acidosis:

- Adding H+ to a solution causes a decrease

in pH (acidic).

- Decreasing H+ to a solution causes an

increase in pH (basic).

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For respiratory alkalosis: - ABG test can help diagnose and monitor
conditions that affect your lungs and
kidneys as well as many other conditions.

For Example:

QUICK SUMMARY

1. Respiratory acidosis develops when there

is too much CO2 in the body due to the inability
of the body to remove enough CO2 through Results:
breathing.

2. Respiratory alkalosis develops when there

isn’t enough CO2 in your bloodstream often
caused by hyperventilation.

3. The measure of carbon dioxide within

arterial or venous blood is called partial
pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2).

4. Blood pH normal values are at 7.35 to 7.45.

- Decrease or Increase in HCO3 and pH can
5. In blood pH regulation, the control is the
lead to metabolic acidosis or alkalosis.
medulla oblongata, and the effector is the
lungs.

ABG TEST

- An Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) test measures

the oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in
your blood as well your blood's pH balance.

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LESSON 2: THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM TYPES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Topic Outline:
● Trace of Blood Flow in the body - Circulatory systems range from simple to
● Cardiac Cycle and its relationship with Blood complex
Pressure
● Regulate Factors that influence Blood
Pressure - Some animals, such as flatworms and
cnidarians, do not have a circulatory
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM system at all.

- Their cells conduct gas and nutrient

exchanges via diffusion.

- Most organisms fall under the OPEN or

CLOSED circulatory system.

FUNCTION OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

- Deliver needed materials such as oxygen

and glucose to the cells in the body What’s the difference between an open
circulatory system and a closed circulatory
- Remove waste products such as carbon system?
dioxide from the cells
- An open circulatory system has short,
- Fighting diseases by transporting white open-ended vessels.
blood cells throughout the body.
- While in a closed circulatory system, blood
remains in vessels.

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 CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM mostly water but also contains antibodies
and many other dissolved substances.
- Closed circulatory systems are distinguished
based on the number of heart chambers.

- Some vertebrates (fishes and larval

amphibians) have a two-chambered heart in
which blood is pumped in a single circuit.

- Some vertebrates (birds and mammals) have

a four-chambered heart in which blood is
pumped in a double circuit.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD

FUNCTION EXPLANATION

1.) Gas Exchange - Carries O2 from

lungs to tissues;
COMPONENTS OF carries CO2 to the
lungs to be exhaled
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
2.) Nutrient - Carries nutrients
- The circulatory system consists of 3 main transport absorbed by the
components: digestive system
throughout the body
BLOOD
3.) Waste transport - Carries urea (a
waste product of
- Is made of cells suspended in plasma. protein metabolism)
to the kidneys for
- Blood consists of red blood cells, white excretion in urine
blood cells, and platelets.
4.) Hormone - Carries hormones
transport secreted by
- The cells in the blood produce a liquid endocrine glands
extracellular matrix called plasma. Plasma is

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 5.) Formation of - Blood plasma
interstitial fluid leaking out of
capillaries becomes
interstitial fluid that
surrounds cells

6.) Maintenance of - Absorbs heat and

homeostasis dissipates it at the
(temperature, water, body’s surface;
pH) regulates cells’
water content;
buffers in blood to
help maintain the
pH of interstitial fluid

7.) Protection - Blood clots plug TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS

damaged vessels;
white blood cells - The three main types of blood vessels are the
destroy foreign artery, vein and capillaries.
particles and
participate in - Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
inflammation
- Veins return blood to the heart.
- The main function of plasma is to
exchange water and dissolved substances - Capillaries are the tiniest blood vessels that
with the fluid that surrounds the body’s transport blood, nutrients and oxygen to cells.
cells.

- Cells depend upon this exchange to maintain

homeostasis in their levels of water, salts, and
other nutrients.

BLOOD VESSELS

- The plasma, cells, and platelets that

makeup blood circulate throughout the body
in an elaborate system of blood vessels.

- The blood vessels are comprised of the three

main layers:

a. Tunica externa
b. Tunica media
c. Tunica intima - The arteries have thick walls to
accommodate blood at high pressure.

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 PARTIAL SUMMARY

1. The two main types of circulatory systems in

organisms are the open circulatory system
and the closed circulatory system.

2. The three main components of the

circulatory system are the blood, blood
vessels and the heart.

HEART 3. Blood is made of cells suspended in

plasma. It consists of red blood cells, white
- The heart is a muscular pump consisting of blood cells, and platelets.
four main chambers.
4. The three main types of blood vessels are
- Atria (right and left) receive blood from the artery, vein and capillaries.
veins.
5. The heart is a muscular pump consisting of
- Ventricles (right and left) pump blood into four main chambers. The atria receive blood
arteries. from veins while the ventricles pump blood
into arteries.

HEART AND THE

BLOOD CIRCULATION

What is the difference between pulmonary

circulation and systemic circulation?

- Pulmonary circulation is the movement of

blood from the heart to the lungs for
oxygenation, then back to the heart again.

- Systemic circulation is the movement of

blood from the heart through the body to
provide oxygen and nutrients to the tissues of
the body while bringing deoxygenated blood
- The right half of the heart receives blood back to the heart.
from the body and pumps it to the lungs
(pulmonary).

- The left half of the heart receives blood from

the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the
body (systemic).
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- Arteriole: a small-diameter blood vessel
which forms part of the microcirculation that
extends from an artery and leads to capillaries

- Capillary Bed: a network of small blood

vessels that allow the exchange of gas,
water, and nutrients

- Venule: a small blood vessel in the

microcirculation that allows deoxygenated
blood to return from capillary beds to larger
blood vessels called veins.

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 PATHWAY OF BLOOD

1.) DEOXYGENATED blood enters the right

atrium via the vena cava.

2.) Tricuspid valve opens and deoxygenated

blood enters the right ventricle. The right
ventricle pumps blood to the lungs via
pulmonary arteries.

3.) Blood flows through the lung capillaries

loads O2 and unloads CO2.

4.) OXYGENATED blood returns to the heart

the via pulmonary vein and passes through
the mitral valve, then to the left atrium of the
heart.

5.) Oxygen-rich blood flows into the heart’s left BLOOD PRESSURE AND
ventricle which then pumps the oxygen-rich THE CARDIAC CYCLE
blood out to body tissues.
- Cardiac (heart) muscle is self-excitable.
6.) Blood leaves the left ventricle via the aorta,
which conveys blood to arteries leading - Cardiac muscle cells contract in unison
throughout the body. without input from the central nervous system.

7.) Blood vessel branches lead to capillary - A cardiac cycle, or a single beat of the heart,
beds in the head and arms (forelimbs). The consists of the events that occur with each
aorta then descends into the abdomen contraction (systole) and relaxation
leading to capillary beds in the abdominal (diastole) of the heart muscle.
organs and legs (hind limbs).

8.) Oxygen-poor blood from the head, neck,

and forelimbs is channelled into the vena
cava.

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 NODES OF THE HEART

Step 2:
- The signal is passed on to the
Atrioventricular (AV) node.

- After the ventricles fill, a relay station called

the atrioventricular (AV) node conducts the
electrical stimulation throughout the
ventricle walls. The cardiac cells of the
ventricles then contract together.

THE CARDIAC CYCLE

Step 1:
- The signal to contract begins at the
Sinoatrial (SA) node.
- The heartbeat sound comes from valves,
specifically the sound of the mitral and
- The SA node (pacemaker) is a region of
tricuspid valves closing
specialized cardiac muscle cells in the upper
wall of the right atrium.
- In each heartbeat, two sets of heart valves
close, producing a “lub-dub” sound.
- Each time the cells of the SA node fire, they
stimulate the cardiac cells of the atria to
- Closing the valves prevents blood from
contract.
flowing backwards during each contraction.
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 BLOOD VESSEL’S ADAPTATION
TO ITS FUNCTION

- One-way VALVES in the veins are placed

about one inch apart that keep blood flowing in
the right direction.

- When muscles relax, the valves in the veins

close, preventing the backward flow of blood.

BLOOD VESSELS
AND BLOOD PRESSURE

- Blood pressure is the force exerted against

arterial walls as the heart pumps blood.

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
AFFECTING BLOOD PRESSURE
Why is blood pressure higher in arteries
than in veins?

- Because they are connected directly to the

ventricle of the heart (main arteries)

- Because of its structure (narrow lumen)

VASODILATION
AND VASOCONSTRICTION

- Vasodilation (widening of blood vessels)

- If ranked from highest BP to lowest, the occurs when the same muscles relax,
artery will be first then followed by the decreasing pressure.
arterioles, capillaries, venule and vein.

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- Vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood In Summary:
vessels) occurs when smooth muscle in
arteriole walls contracts. When arteriole
diameter decreases, blood pressure rises.

BLOOD PRESSURE AND HOMEOSTASIS

- Negative feedback regulates short-term

blood pressure.

Increase in BP Feedback Loop:

QUICK REVIEW

Decrease in BP Feedback Loop:

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