Biology, Chemistry, and Physics

Research papers in these disciplines demand objectivity and impartiality. The introduction should
include background information on related experiments, data sets, explanations of technical
terms, and a statement about the significance of your study.

Social Sciences
The social sciences rely heavily on existing literature and are often founded on primary and
secondary research. Most social sciences also require extensive qualitative data analysis, as well
as accuracy and honesty in presenting information. Most social science introductions follow the
same structure outlined in this resource.

How Is the Introduction Section Structured?

A good tip is to write the introduction of your research paper last so that
you have a clear idea of what you are introducing. When thinking about
the overall structure of the introduction section, it is helpful to visualize
the introduction as an upside-down triangle.

Start by broadly introducing the topic, then provide general background information, narrowing
to specific background research, and finally a focused research question, hypothesis, or thesis
statement (general to specific). Perhaps the best way to achieve this is by following the CARS
Model outlined below.

The Create a Research Space (CARS) Model

The CARS Model was established by John Swales to describe the process scholars use to give
context to their research with three progressive steps. Following these steps will result in a strong
introduction that tells the reader why your research is important.

Step 1: Establish a Territory

This step is used to demonstrate the relevance of a chosen topic and briefly review previous work
on your chosen topic. Think of this as stepping into an ongoing academic conversation on your
topic and noting the important ideas. This step is often indicated with phrases like, “In recent
years, researchers have become interested in..,” or “Recent studies have focused on…”

Step 2: Establish a Niche

This step involves identifying a gap, limitation, or shortcoming of previous research on your
topic. This demonstrates your ability to think critically as a scholar and recognize how your
research will contribute to the ongoing academic conversation in your research field. Phrases
used to indicate a niche may include, “However, these studies have failed to address…” or
“While X has been extensively studied, little research has been conducted on Y…”

Introduction Section for Research Papers, Winter 2023. 3 of 8

Step 3: Occupy the Niche
The last step involves stepping in to fill the gap, limitation, or shortcoming you identified in the
previous step. In an introduction, this will likely include your research question(s) or problem(s),
hypotheses or objectives, and a brief overview of your rationale and methodologies. Phrases to
indicate this step could include, “The purpose of this investigation is to...” or “My research
addresses the following questions…” It is usually a good idea to include a roadmap at the end of
your introduction, stating how the paper is organized and how each section connects to your
research question.

Sample of a Quantitative Introduction with Annotations

This first sample involves quantitative data. Quantitative data is measurable (or quantifiable),
numerical data that can be counted. Carefully look over the peer-reviewed article introduction
below, paying close attention to how the information is organized. What tools does the author use
to introduce the reader to their topic? Be sure to notice the author's use of the CARS Model at the
bottom of the introduction.

[Broad Introduction to Topic] There are an estimated 1.2–5.5 million snakebites annually
around the world, with approximately 20,000–94,000 attributed annual deaths [1]. [Broad
Background Context] The annual cost burden of snakebites is significant, and worldwide
morbidity and mortality represent a neglected global public health problem [1,2]. [Narrowing
the Topic] In the United States, there are approximately 7,000–10,000 annual emergency
department visits from snakebites [3], with 32–60% from venomous species, the majority
being pit vipers [3,4], and 5–7 annual fatalities per year [3–5]. [Indicating Importance of
Research] Individual expenses from antivenom and intensive care unit stays can cost upwards
of $153,000 for a single patient [6].

[Specific Background Context] Snakes are poikilothermic animals whose activities, life
cycle, and geographic distribution are closely tied to ambient temperature [7,8], and vary as a
result of climate change [9]. [Review of Recent Studies on Focused Topic] Global climate
change’s effect on flora and fauna has been scientifically documented [10]. There is at
minimum a 99% chance that average global temperatures have significantly increased since
1950 to present times [11], and this global warming or “climate energizing” frequently results
in increased extreme weather patterns [12,13].

[Readying to Apply the CARS Model]

[Step 1: Establishing a Territory] These fluctuations of extreme weather (both drought and
high precipitation) impact human health through an increase of natural disasters such as

Introduction Section for Research Papers, Winter 2023. 4 of 8

 intense heat waves, droughts, and coastal flooding [14]. Likewise, climate change in North
America is associated with changing distribution of venomous species that may lead to
increased human morbidity [12,15,16]. [Step 2: Establishing a Niche] Climate change has
been described as the greatest global threat of the twenty-first century [17], but the effect on
snakebites in North America has not been examined.

[Further Specifying the Niche] There is some evidence for increased incidence of snakebites
with warming temperatures, however interpretation is limited to Central American
meteorological patterns [9], and the current literature on snakebites in the United States
provide limited insight into this relationship [3,18]. [Step 3: Occupying the Niche] With the
recent most severe drought and precipitation seasons ever recorded in California [19], we
sought to correlate the relationship of climate trends with snakebite incidence in California
over 20 years. [Stating Research Hypothesis] The study’s primary hypothesis was that the
severity of drought would correlate with increased incidence of snakebites and could be
predicted by weather patterns.

Source: Phillips C., Lipman G., Gugelmann H, Doering K., & Lung D., “Snakebites and climate
change in California, 1997-2017,” Clinical Toxicology, 2019.

Notice the author’s use of general to specific as they guided the reader to their focused research
hypothesis. This article uses quantitative data and statistics to provide background information
and context, but it also ties in the human experience by mentioning the health impacts and cost of
snakebites. Compare this quantitative approach to the qualitative example below, observing any
similarities and differences.

Sample of a Qualitative Introduction with Annotations

This next sample involves qualitative data, which is descriptive data involving language, themes,
and ideas about the human experience. Many social sciences use this form of data, collected
using surveys, interviews, and archival material. Pay close attention to how the order of
information changes in this example, as does the overall structure.

[Broad Introduction to Topic] Indigenous peoples make up over 5% of the world’s

population, their territories comprise at least 20% of the land area of the planet, and these
lands host an estimated 80% of the world’s biodiversity (Stevens 2014). [Narrowing of the
Topic] The relationships between indigenous land tenure and biological diversity is a
challenging area of research, but several studies suggest that indigenous peoples’ place-based
values, institutions, and practices help promote biodiversity. [Indicating Importance of

Introduction Section for Research Papers, Winter 2023. 5 of 8

 Research and Step 1: Establishing a Territory] Indigenous lands often support higher native
and rare species richness (Redford and Stearman 1993, Peres 1994, Arcese et al. 2014) and
lower rates of deforestation (Nolte et al. 2013, Ceddia et al. 2015). [Step 2: Establishing a
Niche] However, beyond a handful of studies looking at biodiversity and land use change, few
researchers have looked at the broader ecological outcomes of indigenous land tenure.

[Specific Background Context] Indigenous peoples in Wisconsin manage forestlands and

wildlife by merging professional standards of forestry and wildlife practice with their own
culturally specific traditional ecological knowledge and land-based values. Although
commercial and ecological forestry best-practices are utilized in tribal forestry programs,
indigenous communities’ own knowledge systems and values have a strong influence. This
has often led to distinct forest and wildlife management goals, institutions, and practices
(Trosper 2007, Dockry 2012, Reo and Whyte 2012). Indigenous forestry in the United States
and Canada has several unique aspects (Bengston 2004). [Introducing Case Study] The
Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, for example, plants a diverse suite of culturally significant tree
species and favors nonchemical methods of land clearing that promote the growth of food and
medicinal plants while protecting harvesters’ health (Carroll 2015).

[Introducing Secondary Case Study] Anishnaabe of Shoal Lake in Northwestern Ontario use
succession management via landscape burning and timber harvest to promote biodiversity and
support local livelihoods (Berkes and Davidson-Hunt 2006). Indigenous forestry outside
North America includes managing sacred forest groves that promote bird diversity in Tibet
(Brandt et al. 2013) and agri-forestry practices by Yoruba in Nigeria that integrate cash crops
and trees, limiting soil erosion and increasing soil fertility (Warren and Pinkston 1998).

Indigenous Nations and nonindigenous forest and wildlife managers generally profess similar
goals typically centered around sustaining resource values and yields, biological diversity, and
ecosystem productivity despite some differences. [Occupying the Niche] Do these shared
goals lead to similar outcomes on the lands managed by these two groups? Here, we explore
that question within the specific context of northern Wisconsin where a mix of private
industrial, private nonindustrial, and county, state, and national public forestlands surround
four major “Indian reservations,” i.e., lands under jurisdiction of Indigenous Nations in the
U.S. (Fig. 1A).

[Stating Research Focus and Objectives] This study thus fits within existing literature
concerning the foundations and outcomes of indigenous forest and wildlife management. Our
focus here, however, is to quantify the ecological outcomes of forest and wildlife management
and links between the two. [Stating Research Question] That is, have the land-based values
and practices of indigenous peoples in Wisconsin led to significantly different ecological

Introduction Section for Research Papers, Winter 2023. 6 of 8

 conditions on their forestlands relative to neighboring lands? [Brief Roadmap] In the
discussion, we return to the question of how differences in values and goals contribute to the
differences in outcomes we document.

Source: Waller, D., and Reo, N., “First stewards: ecological outcomes of forest and wildlife
stewardship by indigenous peoples of Wisconsin, USA,” Ecology and Society, 2018.

How did this example differ from the previous one? What writing tools did the author use, and
were they effective? Rather than an inverted triangle structure, which moves from general to
specific, this author opted for an hourglass structure, moving from broad, to specific, then back
to broad. While this introduction still follows the CARS Model, Step 3 is separated from Steps 1
and 2 with case studies and background information.

Activity: Investigate Introductions in Your Discipline

Navigate to the SJSU Library Homepage (https://library.sjsu.edu/) and sign into your account.
Click “Journals” and enter the name of a major journal in your discipline. For example, if you
study aerospace engineering, you might search for Progress in Aerospace Sciences. Open your
selected journal, and input key terms that interest you to identify three related research articles.

Examine the introductions, noting the similarities and differences. How are the introductions
organized, and what information do they convey? Are the introductions long or short?

Next, find one more reputable journal within your discipline, repeating the same process to find
three more articles. Do they follow the same structure as the previous journal? If not, what is
different? These observations will further guide you in writing strong introductions that adhere to
the standards of your academic discipline.

To take it a step further, find author guidelines for your selected journals to ensure that your
research paper will have what it takes to get published should you choose.

References

Ferguson, Jason. “Writing Across the Disciplines (for Students and Writing Assistants).”
Learning Commons.
https://www.up.edu/learningcommons/files/overview-of-writing-across-the-disciplines.pd
f. Accessed 7 January 2023.

Germanna. “Writing a Formal Research Paper in the Social Sciences.” Academic Center for
Excellence.

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