Photosynthesis:-

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organism to convert light energy into
chemical energy that, through cellular respiration, can later be released to fuel the organism`s
activities. Some of this chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars and
starches, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water. Most plants, algae and
cyanobacteria perform Photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs.
Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the
Earth`s atmosphere and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth,

Light

Oxygen
Carbon dioxide

Carbohydrates

Water

Schematic of photosynthesis in plants. The carbohydrates produced are stored in or used by the
plant.

Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins
when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centers that contain green
chlorophyll pigments/chloromophores. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called
chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the
plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons
from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the
splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short-term stores
of energy, enabling its transfer to drive other reactions: these compounds are reduced
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the
“energy currency” of cells.

In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, sugars are synthesized by a subsequent sequence of light-
independent reactions called the Calvin cycle. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is
incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP). Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting
compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose. In
other bacteria, different mechanisms such as the reverse Krebs cycle are used to achieve the
same end.

The first photosynthesis organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and
most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as
sources of electrons.

Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the
oxygenation of the earth, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. Today, the
average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which
is about eight times the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic
organisms also convert around 100-150 billion tons, of carbon into biomass per year. That plants
receive some energy from light – in addition to air, soil and water – was first discovered in 1779
by Jan Ingenhousz.

Photosynthesis is vital for climate process, as it captures carbon dioxide from the air and then
binds carbon in plants and further in soils and harvested products. Cereals alone are estimated to
bind 3,825 Tg or 3,825 Pg of carbon dioxide every year, i.e. 3.825 billion metric tons.

The process:-

During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide and water from the air and soil.
Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it gains electrons, while the carbon dioxide
is reduced, meaning it gains electrons. This transforms the water into oxygen and the carbon
dioxide into glucose. The plant then releases the oxygen back into the air, and stores energy
within the glucose molecules.

Chlorophyll:-

Inside the plant cell are small organelles called chloroplasts, which store the energy of
sunlight. Within the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast is a light-absorbing pigment called
chlorophyll, which is responsible for giving the plant its green color. During photosynthesis,
chlorophyll absorbs energy from blue and red-light waves and reflects green-light waves, making
the plant appear green.

Light-dependent reactions vs. light –independent reactions:-

While there are many steps behind the process of photosynthesis, it can be broken down into two
major stages: light-dependent reaction and light-dependent reaction takes place within the
thylakoid membrane and requires a steady stream of sunlight, hence the name light-dependent
reaction. The chlorophyll absorbs energy from the light waves, which is converted into chemical
energy in the from the molecules ATP and NADPH. The light-independent stage, also known as
the Calvin Cycle, takes place in the stroma, the space between the thylakoid membranes and the
chloroplast membranes, and does not require light, hence the name light-independent reaction.
During this stage, energy from the ATP and NADPH molecules is used to assemble carbohydrate
molecules, like glucose, from carbon dioxide.

C3 and C4 photosynthesis:-

Not all forms of photosynthesis are created equal, however. There are different types of
photosynthesis, including C3 photosynthesis and C4 photosynthesis. C3 photosynthesis is used
by the majority of plants. It involves producing a three-carbon compound called 3-
phosphoglyceric acid during the Calvin Cycle, which goes on to become glucose. C4
photosynthesis, on the other hand, produces a four-carbon intermediate compound, which splits
into carbon dioxide and a three-carbon compound, during the Calvin Cycle. A benefit of C4
photosynthesis is that by producing higher levels of carbon, it allows plants to thrive in
environments without much light or water.
General characteristics

Development of the idea:-

The study of photosynthesis began in 1771 with observations made by the English
clergyman and scientist Joseph Priestley. Priestley had burned a candle in a closed container
until the air within the container could no longer support combustion. He then placed a sprig of
mint plant on the container and discovered that after several days the mint had produced some
substance that enabled the confined air to again support combustion. In 1779 the Dutch physician
Jan Ingenhousz expended upon Priestley`s work, showing that the plant had to be exposed to
light lite if the combustible substance was to be restored. He also demonstrated that the
combustion-supporting gas was formed at the expense of another gas, or “fixed air,” which had
been identified the year before as carbon dioxide. Gas exchange experiments in 1804 showed
that the gain in weight of a plant grown in a carefully weighted pot resulted from the uptake of
carbon, which came entirely from absorb carbon dioxide, and water taken up by plant roots; the
balance is oxygen released back to the atmosphere. Almost half a century passed before the
concept of chemical energy had developed sufficiently to permit the discovery that light energy
from the sun is stored as chemical energy in products formed during photosynthesis.

Terms in this set:-

Step 1-Light dependent:-

CO2 and H2O enter the leaf.

Step 2-Light dependent:-

Light hits the pigment in the membrane of a thylakoid, splitting the H2O into O2.

Step 3-Light dependent:-

The electrons move down to enzymes.

Sunlight hits the second pigment molecules allowing the enzymes to convert ADP to
ATP and NADP+ gets converted to NADPH.

Step 5-Light independent:-

The ATP and NADPH are used by the Calvin cycle as a power source for converting
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into simple sugar glucose.

Step 6-Light independent:-

The Calvin Cycle converts 3CO2 molecules from the atmosphere to glucose.

Step 7-Calvin Cycle:-

The second of two major stages in photosynthesis involving atmospheric CO2 fixation
and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate.