1

Polymer chemistry
Chemistry and production of hair products and shampoo
1. Shampoos
 Definition:
A viscous cosmetic preparation with synthetic detergent used for washing hair is called shampoo.
Its principle function is to clean the scalp such that it should become free from sebum and foreign
substances. Shampoo also makes the hair lustrous and good looking. In olden days detergent soap
were used for washing hairs, but nowadays it has been replaced by shampoo .Today shampoo has
become an important hair cosmetic for both men and women. However the detergent and other
raw materials selected for shampoo preparation should be non toxic to tile scalp, eyes etc. Apart
from cleaning, shampoo may also be used for medicinal purpose (i.e., medicated shampoo). After
preparation each and every shampoo must be evaluated.

 Properties:

• It should have optimum viscosity such that it facilitates ease during application.

• It should have good spreading properties.

• It should produce sufficient lather after application.

• It should be able to remove waste material such as debris, soil, sebum, dead cells, salts (due to
sweat) etc., from the scalp.

• It should not form any kind of film on scalp.

• It should rinse out completely after washing.

• It should produce lather with both hot and cold water.

• It should facilitate ease of combing after shampooing.

• After drying, the hair should not give rough appearance.

• It should provide luster to the hair.

• It should produce good odor both before and after shampooing.

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• It should not produce any kind of irritation or itching to the scalp.

• It should not support any microbial growth.

• It should be stable and have a half-life of about 2 to 3 years.

• It should be economical.

 Types of shampoo

Various types of shampoos are available and they are classified based on their consistency. They
are as follows:

1. Clear liquid shampoos

2. Liquid cream shampoos

3. Cream shampoos

4. Gel shampoos

5. Powder shampoos

6. Aerosol shampoos (Foam type)

7. Special shampoos

1. Clear Liquid shampoo:

These are clear liquid preparations that are most widely used. They are usually made by using
detergent of low cloud point. Alkanolamides can also be used in these preparations. Some of
these shampoos may be transparent.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Triethanolamine lauryl sulphate 50 g
(surfactant)
Lauricisopropanolamine (foam booster) 2g
Perfume, color, preservative q. s
Water 48 g
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2. Liquid Cream Shampoos:

These are called as lotion shampoos which are modification of clear liquid shampoos. Addition
of opacifier such as glyceryl mono-stearate, glycol stearate etc., to the clear liquid shampoo
yields liquid cream shampoo. Solubilizing agents such as magnesium stearate is also used to
dissolve the added opacifier.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Triethanolamine lauryl sulphate 35 g
(surfactant)
Glycerylmonostearate (opacifier) 2g
Magnesium stearate (stabilizer) 1g
Perfume, color, preservative q. s
Water 62 g

3. Cream Shampoos:

These shampoos have a paste like consistency and are packed in a collapsible tube. They find great
use in hair salons. They are also available in jars with wide mouth. The paste consistency is
developed by addition of alkyl sulphates, also Cetyl alcohol is added, which serves as a builder.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Sodium lauryl sulphate (surfactant) 38 g
Cetyl alcohol (builder) 7g
Perfume, color, preservative q. s
Water 55

4. Gel Shampoo:

These are transparent and thick usually made by incorporating a gelling agent, (e.g.,
cellulose).There is great use in hair salons and beauty parlors. The principle ingredient is detergent
which can be used either alone or in combination with soap. By altering the proportion of detergent,
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gel of required consistency can be obtained. Addition of methyl cellulose to clear liquid shampoo
and its subsequent thickening also gives rise to gel shampoo.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride 15 g
Triethanolamine lauryl sulphate 28 g
(surfactant)
Coconut diethanolamide 7g
Hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose 1g
Perfume, color, preservative q. s
Water 49 g

5. Powder Shampoos:

As name suggests, it is available in the form of dry powder, initially it was prepared from dry
soaps, but now a days dry synthetic detergents are used for their preparation. Powder shampoo is
prepared where addition of water or other solvent reduces the activity of the components,
especially in case of medicated shampoo. Nowadays, these shampoos are not used due to the
difficulty experienced in their application.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Sodium lauryl sulphate (surfactant) 20 g
Sarcoside 5g
Sodium bicarbonate 10 g
Sodium sulphate 65 g
Perfume q. s

Another formulation called dry shampoo is also a type of powder shampoo. Initially they are
applied on to the head and then removed by the brush. It does not involve the use of water. They
are usually preferred, when the hair are greasy. This formulation usually includes adsorbents.
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Formula Quantity for 100 g

Starch (adsorbent) 15 g
Talc (adsorbent) 45 g
Kieselgur (adsorbent) 40 g
Perfume q. s

6. Aerosol Shampoos (Foam Type):

They are called aerosol shampoos because they are packed in aerosol containers .Their
formulation, preparation and packing is complicated as an additional propellant is included. The
propellant added must be compatible and should not reduce the activity of shampooing ingredients.
The container opening is provided with a valve. Shampoo comes out as foam when the valve is
pressed .Hence also called as foam type shampoo.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Triethanolamine lauryl sulphate 60 g
(surfactant)
Coconut diethanolamide 2g
Propellant 10 g
Perfume, color, preservative q. s
Water 28 g

 Formulation of shampoo

Formula of Shampoo contains the following ingredients:

Ingredients Examples
1. Surfactants
(a) Anionic Surfactants Alkyl sulphates, alkyl ether sulphate
(b) Non- ionic Surfactants Alkanolamides Alkyl amines,
(c) Cationic Surfactants alkyl imidazolines
(d) Amphoteric surfactant Acyl amino acids
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2. Foam booster Monoethanolamides, lauramides DEA, cocamide

DEA
3. Germicide and anti-dandruff agent Banzalkoniumchloride, cetrimide, selenium
sulphide, cadmium sulphide
4. Conditioning agent Lanolin, egg, amino acids
5. Pearlescent agent 4-methyl-7-diethylamino coumarin, 4-methyl-5,7-
dihydrocoumarin
6. Sequestrants EDTA, citric acid, tripohyphosphate
7. Thickeners Alginates, polyvinyl alcohol, methyl cellulose
8. Perfuming agent Herbal fruits or floral fragrance
9. Preservatives p-hydroxyl benzoic acid phenyl mercuric nitrate
10. Colour FD and C dye

1. Surfactants:

The main use of surfactant is to cleanse and to produce foam. They are generally categorized into
four types. They are: (a) Anionic Surfactants (b) Non-ionic Surfactants (c) Cationic Surfactants
(d) Amphoteric Surfactants

(a) Anionic Surfactants:

These surfactants have good foaming property, hence they are used as principle surfactant. They
are considered as main ingredient of shampoo formulation. Examples of Anionic Surfactants:

(i) Alkyl Sulphates:

When fatty acids are subjected to catalytic reduction, it results in formation of long chain sulphated
derivatives called as Alkyl sulphates. (Example: Lauryl sulphate, Myristyl sulphate). A
combination of above two compounds is most widely used because they give foam. Sulphates with
lauryl chain are widely used when compared to octyl or decyl chain. Previously, sodium lauryl
sulphate was used but now triethanolarnine lauryl sulphate is widely used.

(ii) Alkyl polyethylene Glycol Sulphates:

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These anionic surfactants exhibit good cleaning as well good foaming property. They are alkyl
ether sulphate which forms water soluble sodium salt. Solubility of this salt is greater than sodium
lauryl sulphate, hence also serves as a solvent for non-polar ingredients. Because of low cost, they
are widely used by small manufacturers.

(b) Non-ionic Surfactant:

These are considered as secondary surfactants. They are not used to produce foam but used as
foam boosters, viscosity inducers, emulsion stabilizers and opacifiers. This is because they have
less foaming power. Even though they have good cleaning property, they are not used as principle
surfactant.

Examples of Non-ionic Surfactants:

(i) Poly Alkoxylated Derivatives:

These are ethoxylated alcohols and phenols, block polymers, sorbitol ester (polyethoxylated) and
polyglyceryl ethers. These derivatives are obtained when hydrogen (labile) containing
hydrophobic compound is subjected to polyaddition reaction with either ethylene or propylene
oxide. They are stable at wide range of pH. They have stabilizing, emulsifying, pearlescent and
foaming properties. They are available at low cost and cause irritation to eye mucosa. However,
they are used as mild detergents and impart a good rinsing property. They can also be used in high
concentration.

(ii) Fatty Acid alkanolamides:

These include monoalkanolamides and diethanolamides etc,. Monoalkanolamides are made from
long chain fatly acids (i.e., C14- C16). They are insoluble in water due to their Waxy nature.
Hence, they are added directly to detergent solution and dissolved by gentle warming. The
detergent solution is made by using principle surfactant to which various ethanolamides are added
to serve as.

• Solubilising Agent: Example: Lauric Monoethanolamide.

• Viscosity Inducing Agent: Example: Lauric Monoethanolamide

• Pearlescent and Thickening Agent: Example: Stearic Ethanolamide

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• Softening and Hair Conditioning Agent: Example: Oleic Ethanolamide.

• Foam Boosters. However, the ratio of detergent solution to the monoethanolamide must be
100:15 and above this ratio may be harmful to scalp and hair.

(c) Cationic Surfactants:

Surfactants that contains positive charge are called as cationic surfactants. They are used as
both principle and secondary surfactants. These surfactants are used in low concentrations
because they are toxic to eye. Hence, they are considered as secondary surfactants. Apart from
the above toxic effect, they also have good foaming and partly cleaning properties. Hence, they
are also used as principle surfactants in conditioner shampoos.

Examples Cationic Surfactants:

(i) Alkylamines:

They constitute a major group off, cationic surfactants. They are used in combination with
hydrophilic surfactants in order to provide conditioning and anti-static property to the
shampoo. However they precipitate when combined with anionic surfactants. Usually they are
used in the form of water soluble salts.

(ii) Ethoxylated amines:

These are nitrogen containing surfactants which are obtained by ethoxylation of long, chain
alkylamine. They are waxy in nature with low melting point. Because of their waxy nature;
they are also used as viscosity inducer. However their main function is emulsification and hair
conditioning. Sometimes, they are also used as foam boosters. Due to their emulsifying
property, complete dispersion of various ingredients is achieved.

(d) Amphoteric Surfactants:

The surfactants which possess both cationic and anionic charges with respect to acidic and
basic media are called as amphoteric solvents. They form zwitterions when the pH of media is
neutral .These agents produces a mild action and show compatibility with surfactants .They
posses excellent hair conditioning property and hence used as secondary surfactants.

Examples Amphoteric Surfactants:

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(i) Dialkyl Ethylene Diamines:

These surfactants are soluble in water and compatible with surfactants. They are used as
detergents and to a lesser extent as emulsifier. They are usually prepared as aqueous solution
or paste into which remaining shampoo ingredients are added. These agents are combined with
anionic surfactants in order to minimize the irritation caused by them .These agents neither
enhances nor inhibits the foaming property of the principle surfactant. They are most widely
used an anti-irritating agent when anionic compounds are used as principle surfactant. (Anionic
surfactants are irritant to eye). These agents also possess conditioner and anti-static property
as a result of which the hair becomes smooth and soft .However the pH of the shampoo
prepared by using these surfactants must be neutral (i.e., in between 6.5 to 7.5).

2. Foam Boosters:

The surfactants used in the preparation also serves as foaming agents. They, form rich lather
i.e., foam which is stabilized or strengthened by using a substance called foam boosters. The
substances like fatty acid alkanolamides, amine oxides are used. They make the foam dense
and it to remain for long duration. Usually they are added in quantity of about 2 to 5%. Fatty
acids and fatty alcohols when added in a range of 0.25 to 0.50% concentrations, they also act
as foam boosters.

3. Germicide and Anti-dandruff Agents:

Germicides are the agents which prevent the growth of micro-organism on the scalp whereas
anti-dandruff agents are used to eliminate dandruff from the scalp. Examples of Germicides
are: • Quaternary ammonium compounds: Example: Benzalkonium Chloride, Cetrimide etc.
Examples of Anti-dandruff Agents are: • Selenium Sulphide • Cadmium Sulphide

4. Conditioning Agents:

These agents improve the condition of hair. These agents have the property of reducing, electric
charges the hair, as a result, hair become lustrous and hence easily manageable. These agents
also exhibit a bactericidal effect. They make the hair silky and shiny. Most commonly used
conditioning agents are lanolin, oils, herbal extracts, egg, amino acids etc. Among the above;
amino acid gives an efficient conditioning effect.
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5. Pearlescent Agent:

These agents are usually added as adjuvants to the conditioning agents. They improve the
conditioning property. Addition of these agents also imparts brightness to hair. They make the
preparation transparent or opaque; hence they are also called as opacifying agents. The
commonly used pearlescent agents are alkanolamides and coumarins like 4-methyl-7-diethyl
amino coumarin, 4-methyl-5, 7-dihydrocoumarin etc. Also alcohols and phosphates improve
transparent solubilization.

6. Sequestrants:

These are complex forming agents. They form complex with metal ions like calcium and
magnesium. Surfactant are liable to form complex with the metals present in water i.e., calcium
and magnesium. Hence addition of Sequestrants prevents complex formation between metal
and surfactant. The Sequestrant itself forms complex with the metal ions. Thus, it prevents the
formation of film on the scalp i.e., the film formed by surfactant and metal ions. The commonly
used Sequestrants are EDTA, citric acid etc,.

7. Thickening Agents:

These agents are usually added to make the preparation thick i.e. viscous. Such viscous
preparation facilitates ease of handling. Also, they prevent wastage during application. Already
the addition of various agents, such as surfactants, foam boosters etc make the preparation
viscous even though thickening agent is added. Substances like methyl cellulose, alginates
polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol etc are commonly used to adjust the viscosity of a
shampoo.

8. Perfumes:

Addition of these agents imparts good fragrance to the shampoo. It also neutralizes the
undesirable odour of other ingredients of formulation especially surfactants. Nowadays it has
become an important factor for consumer satisfaction. The selected perfumes must be such that
they should retain good smell for fixed period of time even after shampooing. The added
perfumes should not affect the solubility and stability of the preparation. They are usually
obtained from natural sources such as flowers, fruits, herbs etc.
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9. Preservatives:

These agents have the ability to prevent the growth of micro-organisms. They are usually added
to maintain the stability of the preparation for a desired period of time. Shampoo is a wet
preparation that provides a media for various micro organisms hence addition of preservative
is essential. Preservative used should not cause any irritation to the scalp. Para-hydroxybenzoic
acid and phenyl mercuric nitrate are commonly used preservatives.

10. Colour:

Addition of colour gives pleasant appearance to the preparation. Various FD & C dyes are used
for colouring the preparation. The added colour must be water soluble and it should not impart
any colour to hair or scalp.

 Preparation of shampoo

Simple procedure is involved in the preparation of shampoo. Initially only one method
available for the preparation of shampoo, but later the basic method was modified in order to
obtain different type of shampoo like cream, gel, aerosol etc.

General Method for preparation of shampoo:

Liquid shampoo is usually prepared by this method which involves the following steps:

Initially the detergent is converted into a solution form or a detergent solution mathod
directly obtained from the manufacturer.
Take about half of the detergent solution into a separate container. To it, add the total
amount of secondary surfactant i.e., alkanolamide.
Dissolve the alkanolamide along with stirring. Sometimes, gentle heat is also applied.
To the remaining half of the detergent solution add suitable amount of perfuming agent
and dissolve it.
The perfume solution is then added to the alkanolamide solution.
Colour and preservatives are dissolved separately in sufficient volume of water and
then added to the main solution.
The whole, solution is mixed well by gentle stirring. Excessive stirring may lead to
bubble formation.
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Final volume of the preparation is usually adjusted by the addition of clear sterile waste.
This gives clear liquid shampoo.
However, When the preparation contains lauryl alcohol ether sulphate. It is required
to adjust the viscosity of the shampoo.
Viscosity adjustment is done by using an electrolyte solution.

Usually, a solution of sodium chloride is added subsequently with constant stirring. Care
must be taken to it event the excess addition of sodium chloride.

 Methods of Preparation:

The methods of preparation of various types of shampoos are modification of the above
mentioned general method of preparation of shampoos.

(a) Preparation of Cream Shampoo:

Certain formulae of cream shampoo may include glycol stearate or waxes. Usually, glycol
stearate is used as an opacifier and preparation method for such formulae is similar as
discussed above. But when wax is included in the formula, the process involves the
following steps.

Initially, a solution of detergent and water are heated to about 80°C.

The wax is heated separately in a container at 80°C which facilitates the melting of
wax.
Both the solutions are kept at 80°C and mixed uniform mixing by constant and gentle
stirring.
The solution is allowed to cool to about 40- 45°C.
After which the remaining ingredients, such as additives, colours, perfume and
preservatives are added.
The stirring is continued. Finally, under warm conditions, the mixture is transferred
into a suitable container and packed.
(b) Preparation of Gel Shampoo:

The method involved in the preparation of gel shampoo is similar to that of clear liquid
shampoo. After preparation, the liquid shampoo is usually treated with a suitable
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thickening or gelling agent such as hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose, this gives a gel like
consistency. Addition of appropriate amount of anionic and amphoteric surfactants also
leads to the formation of gels.

(c) Preparation of Aerosol Shampoo:

This type of shampoo is initially prepared by using (earlier discussed) general method.
The prepared shampoo is then incorporated with a suitable propellant. The whole mixture
is packed in an aerosol container. The propellant creates a pressure within the container
due to which spraying action is achieved and the product (shampoo) is sprayed in the form
of foam. Here packing plays an important role and the propellant used should not react
with the shampoo.

(d) Preparation of Powder Shampoo:

Powder shampoo is prepared by simple blending. Here, all the ingredients are taken in a
state. They are powdered to suitable degree of fineness. The powdered ingredients are
blended by using a suitable blender. Two separate solutions of perfume and colour are
prepared by using alcohol or water as solvents. The prepared solutions are then sprayed
onto the blended mixture. The wet mixture is dried and packed. Otherwise, the ingredients
are internally soaked into the solutions of colour and perfume. Wet mass is dried and then
subjected to blending.
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HAIR DYES
Introduction:
A variety of hair colours are observed between the people living in east and the people living in
west. The agents that are responsible for variety of hair colours are only two which are
Pheomelanins and eumelanins. Pheomelanins impart different shades of red and yellow whereas,
eumelanins impart different shades of dark brown and black. A variety of hair colours are observed
due to the following parameters.
· The combination of Pheomelanins and eumelanins.
· The quantity of the pigment present.
· The size of the granules of the pigments.
· The distribution of granules of the pigments.

Fig. 8–1. Hair Dyes

Definition: Hair colourants are the cosmetic preparations which are used by men and women
either to change the natural hair colour or to mask grey hair. The properties of typical hair
colourants are
The formulation of the hair colourant should be stable.
They should colour the hair evenly.
They should not lead to loss of the natural shine of hair.
The shaft of the hair must not be damaged.
The natural moisture of the hair must not be lost.
Must possess properties like non-irritant and non-sensitizing.
Must be non-toxic in nature. Must impart stable color to the hair.
The colored hair must be unaffected by air, water, sunlight, sweat, friction, shampoos,
lotions, gels, oils etc.
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Classification of hair colourants

The major classification is listed as follows:
1. Temporary hair colourants.
2. Semi-permanent hair colourants/Direct dyes
3. Oxidative dyeing systems: It includes:
(a) Semi-permanent hair colourants.
(b) Permanent hair colourants.
4. Gradual hair colourants.
5. Natural dyes.

Fig. 8–2. Hair Colourants

1. Temporary Hair Colorants: They are leave-in preparations. The hair is not rinsed after the
application of the colorant. The colorant is easily removed with one wash using a shampoo because
they are absorbed in to the cuticle and cannot enter into the cortex of the hair. They are rarely
called as water rinses. Basically temporary hair colorants consist of dye stuffs and acid. The
different dye stuffs are acid dyes, basic dyes, metalized dyes and disperse dyes. Chemically the
dye stuffs are azo dyes, anthraquinone dyes, benzoquinoneimine dyes, triphenyl methane dyes,
phenazanic dyes and xanthenic dyes. The hair colourants are available in different formulations
like powders, crayons, liquids and shampoos.
(a) Powder Formulations: They are mostly used in theoretical make up and masquerades.
The powder consists of dye stuff and acid like citric acid or tartaric acid. They are available in
sachets.
Formula Quantity for 100 g

Certified color 5g
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Tartaric acid (buffer) 95 g

Application Technique: The powder is dissolved in 250 ml of water and this solution is applied
on wet hair after shampooing.
(b) Crayon Formulations: These temporary hair colorants are applied between the applications
of permanent hair colorants. They color the new growing hair. They are available in many shades
of colors. The composition of crayon is soap, waxes, dyes or pigments.
Formula-1 Quantity for 100 g

Stearic acid (anionic surfactant) 15 g

Triethanolamine (surfactant) 7g
Beeswax (wax) 50 g
Carnauba wax(wax) 13 g
Ozokerite (wax) 7g
Glyceryl mono stearate (surfactant ) 6g
Tragacanth (gum) 2g
Color q. s

Method:
Triethanolamine, glyceryl monostearate and tragacanth are heated to 70°C.
Stearic acid is incorporated in the above mixture and the mixture is heated to 75°C.
Beeswax and carnauba wax are melted separately at 70--80°C.
The molten waxes are added to the above mixture and stirred well.
Color is added and the mixture is stirred well.
This mixture is then poured into the moulds.

Formula-2 Quantity for 100 g

Sodium stearate (thickener) 18 g

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Gum Arabica (gum ) 25 g

Glycerin (surfactant ) 15 g
Color 17 g
Water (solvent) 25 g

Method:
A mixture of water and glycerin is prepared and divided into two parts.
Gum Arabica is added to one portion.
Sodium stearate is added to the other portion and ii is dissolved b warming.
Both the portions are mixed and colour is added.
This mixture is milled to form a paste.
The paste is introduced into moulds and allowed to dry with the help of heat.
Application Technique: It may be applied in one of the two ways.
1. The crayons are rubbed over the hair, (or)
2. It is applied using a brush.
(c) Colour Shampoos: They develop a temporary tinge of colour. The base used in the preparation
consists sulphonated oils, anionic or nonionic surfactants. They are available in only few colour
shades.
Formula Quantity for 100 g

Ammonium lauryl alcohol sulphate 30 g

(surfactant)
Coco diethanolamide (pearlescent stabilizer 2 g
)
Water (solvent) To make up to 100 g

Water Rinses:
1. The water rinses are acidic in nature, thus
(a) Prevents the degradation of hair by alkali.
(b) Gives pastel shades to bleached hair.
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(c) Auburn (reddish brown), blue, blonde, pink colours may be obtained.
2. The water used in water rinses must be deionized or distilled water, otherwise. The colours of
the colourants get changed by the metal ions present in water.
3. EDTA, sequestering agent is included in water rinses.
4. A compatibility is observed between dye and acid which is responsible for imparting particular
colour. That is why appropriate acid is used with a particular dye.
5. Solutions of basic dyes like Methylene blue, gentian violet and rhodamine gives pastel shades.
6. Bleaching mixture is added to solution of dye to minimize deep red and yellow colours but to
obtain white or platinum blonde colours.
7. The dye stuff when added to a detergent base shampoo, exerts similar action as that of water
rinses. It is prepared in the following manner.
(a) Dye is mixed with water to form a solution.
(b) The above solution is added to shampoo detergent base like triethanolamine lauryl sulfate.
(c) The pH of the above mixture is adjusted to 5.
Formula for water rinses or rinse solution is given below:
2. Semi-permanent Hair Colourants / Direct Dyes: These colourants have a long lasting. colour
retaining ability when compared to colour shampoos. The colour produced is stronger as well.
Dark colours are obtained with the colourants though they do not contain H2O2. This offers an
advantage that the melanin of the hair doesn't get bleached but is only masked with the colourant.
The colour obtained on the grey hair is different than the black (pigmented) hair because of which
the hairs are highlighted. The colourants are easily applied. This colour is not lost with one wash,
but is gradually lost in 5 - 8 washes with shampoo. Fragrance may be added in the composition of
the colourant.
Formula Quantity for 100 g

Acid dyestuff (color) 6g

Alcohol (antiseptic ) 10 g
30% acetic acid (buffer) 10g
Water (solvent) 74 g
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Ingredient: The semi-permanent hair colourants are composed of the following constituents.
(a) Dye
(b) Water
(c) Organic solvent like alcohol, derivatives of glycol.
(d) Fatty acid, fatty acid amide.
(e) Thickener.
(f) Surfactant
(g) Perfume
(h) Aliphatic primary amines which work as co-solvent and buffer. Example: 2 - amino,
methylpropanol
(a) Dyes: The action of the dye or dyes is observed on hair or white wool before proceeding for
the colour preparation. The following factors are of great concern dining the use of the dyes.
 Aqueous solution of the dye.
 The pH effect on the dye.
 The composition of the base added.
 The effect of solvents added.
The dyes which impart different shades belong to the following categories:
(i) O-nitro anilines. (Gives yellow and orange shades)
(ii) Aminonitrophenols and their ethers (gives yellow and orange shades)
(iii) Azo dyes (Gives yellow and orange shades)
(iv) Nitrodiphenylamines (Gives 'orange to red shades).
(v) Nitrophenyienediamines (Gives colour in the range red to violet).
(vi) Anthraquinone (Gives violet to blue shades).
The semi-permanent hair colourants diffuse into and out of the hair which lead to off-shade fading.
Therefore, colourants are selected which have a wide range of molecular sizes. 'This help in,
 Even colouring of the hair.
 The properties of the dye like permeability and substantivity for porous tips of hair and
undamaged root ends are compensated.
Demerits of Semi-permanent Hair Colourants : The hair ends get damaged which is referred as
warm wearing. Large sized amino-containing molecules like Disperse Blue 1 and Disperse
Violet 1 are used to prevent warm wearing of the ends. These molecules are easily washed off.
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Formula-1 Quantity for 100 g

Quaternary ammonium compound (color) 10-12 g

Anionic surfactant (surfactant ) 8-10 g
Acid (buffer) 6-8 g
Alkanolamide (surfactant ) 4-6 g
Dye stuff (color) 1-2 g
Water (solvent) To make 100 g

Method:
A mixture of alkanolamide and anionic surfactant is prepared.
The dye is added to the above mixture* and is dissolved.
The acid and quaternary ammonium compounds are dissolved in water.
This aqueous solution is added to the solution of dye with stirring.
This dye is investigated for the effects of quaternary ammonium compound, pH, aldehydes
and alcohols additions.
Now the viscosity of the dye is adjusted by adding hydrophilic colloids like
methylcellulose, natural gum etc.
The viscosity of the colourant is increased by the addition of non-ionic thickener in its
composition .The addition of amphoteric surfactant in the colourant accompanied by basic
dyes.
3. Oxidative Dyeing Systems: These dyes are also called as ‘para dyes’. At the time of application,
these dyes are colourless but turn to a particular colour after undergoing chemical reactions on the
hair. The chemical reactions include the following reactions in alkaline pH, which are oxidation
and coupling and condensation.
Ingredients: The ingredients of these dyes which render the above reactions are bases, couplers
and oxidizing agent.
(a) Bases: They are primary intermediates. Chemically they are aromatic compounds.
(b) Couplers: They are aromatic in nature, and are referred as modifiers. They are the derivatives
of benzene which show - NH2 and - OH substitutions at meta position. Oxidation of couplers with
 21

hydrogen peroxide is difficult to achieve. Example: 2, 4-diaminoanisole, Resorcinol, m-chloro

resorcinol, m-phenylene-diamine.
(c) Oxidizing Agents: Commonly used oxidizing agent is hydrogen peroxide. Formulation of
Oxidative Dyeing Systems: The following factors are of great concern during the preparation of
oxidation dyes.
1. Formulation bases
2. Dye components: It includes oxidation base and coupling agent.
3. Alkali.
4. Oxidizing agents
5. Antioxidant.
1. Formulation Bases: They are used as vehicles for dyes (amino dyes) and modifiers. The vehicle
is one which uniformly distributes the colourant mixture on the hair. Example: In amino dyes, a
mixture of water (48-7945%),ethyl alcohol (20-50%) glycerine (0.5 - 2%) is used because he
amino dye has low aqueous solubility.
If the preparation is an emulsion i.e., cream or lotion (rather than a solution) the distribution of the
preparation on hair is more even. The formulation bases may be of the following kinds such as
emulsion type, bleach-dye combination products, and powder preparations. The emulsion type
preparations are of two types. They are foaming and non-foaming types.
(a) Foaming-type Creams: They are emulsified using surfactants like monoethanolamine
lauryl sulfate and ethylene glycol monostearate.
(b) Non-Foaming-type Creams: They are emulsified by using mineral oil, cetyl alcohol and
non-ionic emulsifier.
2. Dye Components:
(a) Oxidation bases: By using varying concentrations of p-phenylene diamine or p-toluene
diamine, a number of shades can be achieved.
Percent of oxidation base Shade obtained
0.3 Light brown
0.45 Medium brown
0.5 Brown
0.9 black
 22

(b) Coupling Agents: Instead of coupling agents, direct colouring agent can also be used, coupling
agents modify the shade and stabilize it. The time required to develop color with different
modifiers.
3. Alkali: The oxidation dyes work best in alkaline medium. Therefore, alkali is incorporated in
their composition. The best alkali is ammonium hydroxide. It leaves no evidence of its presence
on the hair. It is used in a concentration of 1 - 2% in the final preparation. Because of its odour, it
is completely or partially replaced with ammonium carbonate, monoethanolamine, guanidine or
arginine derivatives, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, alkanolamide etc,.
4. Oxidizing Agent: On exposure to air, dyes such as amino dyes turn black. However oxidizing
agent is added in its composition to achieve the desired colour. Examples are ferric chloride,
potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, hydrogen peroxide etc. Hydrogen peroxide is
popularly used. It is used in a concentration of 5 - 6% solution which generates 20 volumes of
oxygen. H 2O 2 is responsible to develop colour on the hair. It is sold in a package containing two
containers. One container contains dye and the other contains the developer.
5. Antioxidant: During the manufacturing of dyes, especially amino dyes, an atmosphere of
nitrogen is maintained to prevent the darkening of the dye. Since dyes (amino dye) are darkened
on exposure to air. Instead of maintaining nitrogen atmosphere, chemical antioxidant like sodium
sulfite is included in the preparation.
The total amount of base and the coupling agent used gives the amount of sodium sulfite to be
used in the preparation. If darker shades are desired, then the amount of sodium sulfite is increased.
The oxidative dyeing system consists of the semi-permanent hair colourants and the permanent
hair colourants.
(a) Semi-permanent Hair Colourants: The semi-permanent and permanent hair colourants are
the two classes of oxidation dyes or oxidative dyeing systems. They differ in the extent of giving
light colour shades to the hair. The common constituents of both the classes are alkalizing agents,
oxidants, dyes, solvents and surfactants.
(I). Alkalizing Agents: The alkalizing agents are added.
To increase the pH of the formulation to an optimal level.
To generate active oxidizers from hydrogen peroxide.
To swell the hair fibres for absorption of dye.
 23

Examples of alkalizing agents include ammonia, Monoethanolamine. The rate of bleaching of hair
is based on the following factors and the rate of bleaching is directly proportional to the following
factors.
 pH.
 Concentration of hydrogen peroxide.
 Amine added.
The rate of bleaching of different amines and ammonia is shown.
Tertiary amine < secondary amine < primary amine < ammonia.
It means ammonia is a strong alkalizing agent, which is used-widely. Instead of ammonia, high
level of monoethanolamine is used alone or monoethanolamine and ammonia are used in
combination. The semi permanent products employ monoethanolamine alone, where a little
bleaching is required, whereas hindered primary, secondary or tertiary amines are employed, when
no bleaching is required.
(II). Oxidant: Oxidant is added in the composition of the colourants to generate active species
(like p- phenylene diamine, benzoquinone monoamine) for coupling. Oxidants are used to bleach
melanin present in the hair. Light colour shades are obtained when the grey and pigmented hair
are coloured evenly by using semi permanent colourants.
(III). Dye: Dyes are used to impart the desired colour shade to the hair.
(IV). Solvents: The constituents of the colourants which are not soluble in water, are dissolved by
using solvents, so that a homogenous system is obtained.
(V). Surfactant: It reduces the surface tension between the different ingredients, to make a
homogeneous preparation.
(b) Permanent Hair Colourants: The colour produced by these colourants last longer when
compared to semi-permanent colourants. Actually it is the precursor of dye which when applied
undergoes chemical changes to form the colour rather than the dye itself.
They are available in light colour shades to dark colour shades. It is the growth of hair more than
fading of colour, which arises the need to re-dye. This results in stripped appearance of the hair.
The oxidation dyes may cause allergic reactions in some individuals. According to the rules of
drugs and cosmetics, the preparation must contain the caution in English, local and other regional
languages on both the inner and outer labels. Metallic dyes also include silver dyes, they were used
before the organic chemical dyes. A number of shades can be obtained by, varying the
 24

concentration of silver in the preparation. Silver dyes were left behind with the popularity of
synthetic organic dyes. One of the example is pyrogallol. Skin irritations and harmful effects upon
internal administration were reported which led to the discontinuation of pyrogallol.
4. Gradual colourant: it includes heavy metals in its composition. The hair is gradually
coloured with several application of the colourant. The heavy metals used are lead or bismuth in
their salt forms. The salts of the heavy metals are mad into solutions and are used in the
preparations. The preparation is applied many times because the colour develops gradually.
Demerit: since, the preparation includes heavy metals, it offer negative effects on the health.
Therefore the use of these colourants is declined.
5. Natural dyes: Since, antiquity, plant materials are looked upon as beneficial sources for various
ailments and other purposes. The leaves are used as colourants:
(a) Henna: The leaves of henna are powdered and sold. The paste is formed by mixing the henna
powder in hot water. The paste is directly applied on hair and a warm towel is wrapped around the
head to enhance the colouring effect.lt gives reddish colour to the hair. Henna is non-toxic and
non-sensitizing.
The active constituent of henna is lawsone, which is chemically 2-hydroxy-l4 - napthaquinone. It
is responsible for imparting the color. Indigo leaves or synthetic indigo is added to henna to alter
the colour. Apart from this, pyrogallic acid and metallic salts like copper sulphate are added. An
increased level of pyrogallic acid added to henna, gives darker shades.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Powdered henna (color) 89 g

Pyrogallic acid (color) 6g
Copper sulphate (color) 5g

(b) Camomile: The flowers of camomile are used to obtain the colour. The flowers which contain
the active principle are powdered. Its paste is made by mixing the powder with hot water and
applied on the hair. A warm towel is wrapped over the head to enhance the colouring effect. The
colour achieved is due to the navy blue volatile oil obtained in the process. Either 2 parts of kaolin
 25

or 1 l part of fuller’s earth is added to camomile powder to form a cohesive composition. Henna is
mixed with camomole in varying proportions, to modify the colours.
Evaluation of hair colourant:
The following tests are carried out to evaluate hair colourants.
1. The sensitization test
2. The toxic effect test
1. The Sensitization Test: The test is carried out on animal skin. The colourants applied on the
skin and is kept under observation for 24 hrs. If no reaction occurs, then the colourant is said to be
non-sensitizing or non-irritant. Histopathological study is carried out as per requirements.
2. The Toxic Effect Test: Toxic effects are studied in animals to know about the long term effects
of the preparations.
Formula Quantity for 100 g
(1) (2)

Powdered camomile (color) 70 g 30 g

Powdered henna (color) 30 g 70 g
 26

Lipsticks
Definition:

Lipstick may be basically defined as dispersion of the colouring matter in a base consisting of a
suitable blend of oils, fats and waxes with suitable perfumes and flavours moulded in the form of
sticks to impart attractive gloss and colour, when applied on lips. Lipsticks provide moist
appearance to the lips accentuating them and disguising their defects.

Fig. Lipstick

Ideal Characteristics of Good Lipsticks:

The ideal requirements for the formation of a good lipstick may be as follows:

It should efficiently cover lips with colour and impart a gloss which would last long.
It should be able to maintain the intensity of colour without any alteration in the degree of
its shade.
It should be able to adhere firmly to the lips and should not provide any greasy appearance.
It should possess good thixotropic property so as to deposit the colour with minimum
pressure.
It should show a smear proof coloring effect.
It should possess required plasticity and be able to maintain all the properties throughouh
the storage period.
 27

It should not be gritty.

It should be easily dried.
The stick should possess even firmness and should maintain its strength at varying
temperatures up to 55°C.
The stick should not dry or crumble easily.
The lipstick should possess a pleasant fragrance and a good flavour.
Should be safe and non-irritating to the lips.
Result in blooming or sweating of the lips.
 Formulation of lipsticks

The lipstick base is made by mixing the oils and waxes in varying proportions in order to obtain a
desirable viscosity and melting point.

 Composition:

The raw materials involved the formulation of the lipsticks could be as follows:

Ingredients Example
The solid components / waxes :
(a) The hydrocarbon waxes White bees wax
(b) The mineral waxes Ozokerite wax, ceresine wax
(c) Hard waxes Carnauba wax, candelilla wax, hard paraffin
(d) Micro crystalline waxes

The liquid components Mineral oils, vegetable oils, castor oils,

butylstearate,
Glycol, water, silicon-fluids, IPM (isopropyl
maleate)

The softening components Anhydrous lanoline, lanolin cocoa butter,

lecithin,
petrolatum
 28

The coloring agents Carmine, dyestuff stain, pigmented stain, lakes

etc
Pearlescent pigments Guanine crystals, bismuth oxychloride

Opacifying agents Titanium dioxide

Perfumeries Rose oil, cinnamon oil, lavender oil etc.

Miscellaneous agents :
(a) Preservatives Parabens
(b) Antioxidants BHA, BHT, tocopherol etc.
(c) Flavouring agents Cinnamoniol, spearmint oil etc.

Fig. Lipsticks
 29

1. The Solid Components/waxes: the solid components are responsible for the final structure of
the product by solidifying the liquid matrix. The materials required for attaining a reasonable body,
hardness, melting point and shrinkage necessary for the easy release of the mould are together
referred to as natural waxes.

The solid components of the formulation are mostly natural waxes which may be classified as
follows:

(a) The hydrocarbon waxes: Example: White bees wax

(b) The mineral waxes: Example: Ozokerite, ceresine

(c) Hard waxes: Example: Carnauba wax, candelilla wax, hard paraffin etc.

(d) Micro crystalline waxes

(a) Hydrocarbon Waxes :

White Bees wax: It is a so known as the common wax and forms the oily base in the formulation
of lipsticks.

Source: It is naturally obtained from honey combs of the honey bee Apis mellifera.

Melting Point: the ranges between 62 - 65°C.

Concentration: It is used in concentrations of about 3-10% of the total formulation.

Available Forms: It is available in the form of blocks, pills, slabs and cakes. The commercially
available bleached form is widely used.

Uses:

1. It forms an important base and is extensively used for entrapping castor oil.

2. It has good plastic property and can be readily deformed when it is warmed.

3. It is used as a traditional stiffening agent for lipsticks.

4. It forms a good base in the formulation of moulded products.

Advantages:
 30

1. It is compatible with vegetable minerals and animal waxes.

2. It can be moulded into required form.

Disadvantage: When it is used at a concentration of more than 20%, it forms a dull film on the
surface of the lips. It is usually mixed along with other waxes such as Ozokerite wax, carnauba
wax and candelilla wax.

(b) Mineral Waxes: They are not popular and have been replaced by the microcrystalline waxes
but still used with the same names. They are:

(i) Ozokerite Wax:

Source: It is a type of amorphous hydrocarbon obtained naturally, from bituminous products.

Melting Points: It is available in various grades with melting point ranging between 56°C 82°C.

Concentration: It is used in a concentration range of between 5 to 10%.

Uses:

1. It is used in order to increase the Melting point of the base.

2. It is also efficient in promoting the formulation of a fine crystalline wax gel and thus ensures
the maximum retention of the Oil matrix.

3. It can be easily transformed into required shapes.

Advantage: It is easily available in various grades.

Disadvantage: It may be subjected to adulteration.

(ii) Ceresine Wax:

Source: It is also obtained naturally from the bituminous products like the Ozokerite wax.

Melting Point: The melting point range is between 60-75°C.

Uses:

1. It is used as stiffening agents to provide firmness to the finished product.

2. It is used to increase melting point of the base.

 31

(c) The Hard Waxes: These waxes are mainly responsible for the shape and the hardness of the
lipsticks. They include the following waxes,

(i) Candelilla Wax:

Source: It is obtained from Euphorbiaceae plants such a Euphorbia cerifera and Euphorbia
antisyphilitica. The extraction involves the immersing of the plant in boiling water containing
sulfuric acid and later skimming off the wax that rises to the surface.

Melting Point: Its melting point ranges between 65°C 75°C.

Uses: It is used to increase the hardness and melting point of the product either alone or in

combination with carnauba wax.

(ii) Carnauba Wax:

Source: It is obtained as exudates from the pores of the leaves of the Brazilian wax palm tree

Copernicia prunifera. The extraction involves cutting, drying and heating of the leaves.

Melting Point: Its melting point ranges between 81 to 90°C.

Available Forms: It is available in three colors yellow, gray and brown. It is available in hard
forms and soft forms.

Uses:

1. It is used to provide rigidity to the stick.

2. It is used in modest proportion in order to ensure high melting points.

3. It helps in moulding by shrinking the stick away from the surface of the mould in order to aid
easy removal.

Disadvantage: It is not miscible with the other waxes and remain as a separate solid phase due to
its high melting point.

(iii) Hard Paraffin:

Source: It may be present as a purified blend of several solid Hydrocarbon bases that are obtained
from petroleum.
 32

Melting Point: Its melting point ranges between 55°C - 65°C.

Uses:

1. It is occasionally used in minor quantities to improve the gloss of the finished products.

2. Imparts rigidity to the product.

Disadvantage: It has limited solubility in the castor oil and hence doesn't dissolve and may

provide a greasy look.

(d) Microcrystalline Waxes: They are the hydrocarbons containing a long carbon chain.

Melting Point: They have wide melting points ranging between 60°C to 120°C.

Uses:

They help in maintaining the crystal structure of the lipstick and hence may prevent the sweating.

Disadvantage: They possess low solubility in the castor oil.

2. The Liquid Components: The liquid components are mostly constituted by the oils such as
mineral oil, vegetable oil, castor oil, alcohol etc. The properties of the oils should be as follows:

(i) It should possess good dissolution properties in order to dissolve all the bromo acids.

(ii) It should possess an optimum viscosity range.

(iii) It should be colourless, odourless and tasteless.

(iv) It should be non-toxic and non-irritating.

(v) It should be easily compatible and stable.

The most commonly used liquid components may be as follows:

(a) Mineral Oils:

(i) They consist of a blend of hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum source.

(ii) They may be avail ale as either light mineral oils or heavy mineral oils.

(iii) They are mostly used in order to impart gloss to the product rather than their solvent property.
 33

(iv) They are used in concentrations of less than 5% and are not rancid.

(b) Vegetable Oils: The vegetable oils used may be sesame oil and olive oil. The vegetable oils
provides low solubility towards staining dyes and hence less commonly used.

(c) Castor Oil: It is obtained from the seeds of the castor plant, Ricinus communis. It forms a most
valuable lipstick base. It may be used in concentration of 40 - 50% of the total formulation. It has
high viscosity and good dissolving power. It possesses stability towards oxidation. It is widely
compatible with other ingredients. The high viscosity may avoid smearing off of the lipsticks.

(d) Butyl Stearates: They are useful for the dispersion of colour though they possess less
solubility. They can readily wet the colouring pigments. They are odourless and free from

rancidity.

(e) Propylene Glycol: It is non-toxic and possesses a sweet taste. It has good wetting property
towards high colouring stains. It is always used in combination with other monoesters of propylene
glycol.

(f) Water: It is not used as a solvent but may be used in minor quantities in order to dissolve the
colour.

(g) Silicone Fluid: It is mostly used to aid in mould release and prevent the rub-out of the wax. It
is used in minor quantities.

(h) Isopropyl Maleate (IPM): It is used in concentration of 2.3% to increase lip gloss. It acts as
a co-solvent along with mineral oil and helps in increasing lip gloss.

3. The Softening Agents: They are used to increase the spread ability by softening the lipstick.
The most commonly used softening agents include.

(a) Anhydrous Lanolin: It is also known as wool fat or woolwax. It is used at low concentration
of about 0.25% in order to impart gloss, softness, emolliency and protection to the lips. The melting
point ranges between 36 - 42°C.

(b) Lanolin: It is also referred to as hydrous wool fat. It is used in minor quantities in order to
improve the covering properties of the film. It contains 25-30% of water and may result in sticky
and greasy products. It aids in the dispersion of colored pigments.
 34

(c) Lanolin Derivatives: They include ethers, esters and lanolin oils. They are almost none drying
and thus provide a non-greasy look to the film. They are also used as blending agents or
plasticizers.

(d) Cocoa Butter: It was used in the past due to its good emollient property. The usage has been
stopped due to rancidity and surface crystallization. It provides oily look on the lips and hence
imparts good gloss.

(e) Petrolatum: It is a hydrocarbon obtained from petroleum. It is odourless and tasteless. It is

added mainly to enhance the gloss.

(f) Lecithin: It is used in minor quantities to impart smoothness and emollient effect. It increases
the ease of application.

4. Colouring Agents: Colour may be imparted to the lips either by staining the lip with a dye stuff
colour or by covering the lips with coloring layers. The colours used in the formulation of lipsticks
are of two types:

(a) Soluble Colours: They are dye stuff agents which are easily soluble in oil, water and alcohol.

(b) Insoluble Colours: They are organic or inorganic pigments which are insoluble.

Properties of Colouring Agents:

They should impart good opacity to the lips by imparting good colour. They should he easily and
uniformly miscible with the oils used. The colours must he certified with the F, D and C grade.
They should possess very low content of impurities such as arsenic, lead etc,.

The commonly used colourants for lipsticks:

(i) Carmine: It was extensively used in the past and is obtained as carminic acid from the cochineal
insects by extracting the insects with ammonia. The carminic acid obtained is precipitated with
alum and is dried and used.

(ii) Dye Stuff Stains: They include eosin dyes and provide a long lasting effect on the lips by
retaining the color on the lip cells. They are:

(a) Eosin Dye: It is used to impart orange red colour to the lips.
 35

(b) Acid Eosin Dye: It has orange colour and may change to intense red colour at acidic pH of 4.
But they may to toxic effects such as allergic reactions or cheilitis and hence used alone with
bromo acids.

(iii) Pigmented Stains: They form dispersion in the solvent base. They may be either organic or
inorganic. They are used in combination with metallic lakes in order to improve the intensity of
the colour.

(iv) Lakes: They are potential pigments of many of the D and C colours. They may be adsorbed
on the aluminium hydroxides, barium oxides, calcium oxides etc,.

Example: Aluminium lakes, barium or calcium lakes, strontium lakes. They are used at
concentrations of about 8-10%.

5. Pearlescent Pigments: They are used to impart nacreous or a pearl like appearance to the
product when applied on the lips. The natural pearlescent pigments may be guanine crystals
obtained from fish scales. Bismuth oxychloride in 70 % castor oil may also provide a lustrous look.

6. Opacifying Agent: It is used for opacifying or whitening of lipsticks. It can also alter the basic
shade of the pigment. Various shades can he obtained by, varying the proportions.

Example: Titanium Dioxide.

7. Perfumeries: Light floral fragrances can be used in lipsticks. They include rose oil, cinnamon
oil, lavender oil etc. The fruity flavours that cover fatty odour of the oily waxes may also be used.
They should be tasteless, non-irritating and compatible.

8. Miscellaneous Agents: They include the following:

(a) Preservatives: They are used to increase life period of the product by reducing the microbial
growth. Though they are anhydrous preparations, preservatives such as methyl paraben and propyl
paraben may be commonly used. The concentration of the preservative should not exceed 0.1%.

(b) Antioxidants: The ingredients used in the formulation may be susceptible to oxidation.

This may result in the degradation of the product. Thus, antioxidants are added in order to prevent
oxidation of the ingredients. The commonly used antioxidants are butylated hydroxyl anisole
 36

(BHA), butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT), tocopherol, propyl gallate, butylated hydroxyl quinines
etc.

(c) Flavouring Agents: They are included in order to impart good flavor to the product. They may
include the spearmint oil, cinnamon oil etc. Along with the flavouring agents, sodium saccharin
and the ammonium glycyrrhizate may also be used in order to improve the taste.

The various formulae for the preparation of lipsticks are as follows:

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Castor oil (dissolving liquid) 27 g

bees wax (stiffening agent) 20 g

Ozokerite wax (increase melting point) 10 g

Carnauba wax (provides rigidity) 5.5 g

lanolin (covering agent/Emollient) 5g

Paraffin(stiffening agent) 3g

Isopropyl myristate (blending agent) 3g

Cetyl alcohol (co-solvent) 2g

Propylene glycol (humectant) 11 g

Propylene glycol monoricinoleate 4g

(humectant)

Eosin (dye) 2.5 g

Color 10 g

Rose oil (perfume) q. s

Paraben (preservative) q. s

Tocopherol (antioxidant) q. s
 37

 Preparation of lipsticks:
Successful preparation of lipstick shades depend upon the adequate dispersion of the lake colours
in the lipstick mass. It is advisable to prepare the dispersion of lake colours in castor oil.
Dispersions are generally prepared by milling about 25% concentrations of lakes in castor oil.
 Method of Preparation:
If a solvent is used for the dissolution of bromo acid, the solution is first prepared and set
aside until required.
If commercial colour pastes are not being used, then lake colours are first dispersed by
mixing with suitable quantity of castor oil.
The colour paste obtained is passed through a triple roller mill until it becomes smooth and
free from agglomerates and gritty particles.
The colour mixture is then mixed with the bromo acid mixture.
All the ingredients of the base are identified and arranged in the increasing order of their
melting points.
This mixture is remilled until it is perfectly smooth.
Preservatives and anti-oxidant are dissolved in remaining oil and are added to the mixture.
Finally, the perfume is added and the mass is stirred thoroughly, but gently to avoid
entrapment of air.
Automatic ejection mould is preferred for the large scale production.
The mould is lubricated with liquid paraffin or isopropyl myristate before pouring the mass
into the mould.
It is important to prevent settling down of the coloring mass when the moulds are chilled.
Lubrication facilitates easy removal of sticks.
2.3 Evaluation of Lipsticks
The evaluation studies are important in order to determine the efficiency, stability and the
consistency of the finished product. The evaluation tests for the lipsticks are as follows:
1. Melting Point Determination Test: The determination of melting point is done in order to
determine the storage characteristics of the product. The inciting point of lipstick base should be
between 60 to 65°C in order to avoid the sensation of friction or dryness during application. The
method of determination is known as capillary tube method:
 38

(a) In this method, about 50 mg of lipstick is taken and is inserted into a glass capillary tube open
at both ends.
(b) The capillary tube is ice cooled for about hrs and then placed in a beaker containing hot water
and a magnetic stirrer.
(c) The temperature at which material starts moving through the capillary is said to be the melting
point temperature.
(d) Another important parameter is the droop point which determines the temperature at which the
product starts oozing out the oil and becomes flattened out.
(e) The melting point should be higher than the droop point which determines the safe handling
and storage of finished product.
2. Breaking Load Point Test: This test is done in order to determine the strength and hardness of
the lipstick. In this method, the lipstick is placed horizental position I inch from the base and
weights with increasing loads are attached to it. the weight at which the lipstick starts breaking,
known as the breaking load point. The test shall be carried out in specific condition and at about
25 ° C temperatures.
3. Determination of thixotropic character: This is a test for determining the uniformity in
viscosity of base. The instrument used for the determination of thixotropic character is known as
the penetrometer.
4. Microbiological tests: The test is carried out in order to determine the extent of contamination
either from the raw materials or mould. The test involves the plating of known mass of sample on
two different culture media for the growth of microorganism and incubating them for a specific
period of time. The extent of contamination can be estimated by counting the number of colonies.
5. Test for rancidity: the oxidation of oil such as castor oil and many other ingredients may result
in bad odour and taste and also result in a sticky product. The test for rancidity can be done by
using hydrogen peroxide and determining its peroxide number.
6. Test for the Application Force: This is a test to determine the force to be applied during
application. In this method, two lipsticks are cut to obtain flat surfaces which are placed one above
other. A smooth paper is placed between them which is attached to a dynamometer to determine
force required to pull the paper indicates the force application.
7. Storage Stability: This test is done in order to determine the stability of product during storage.
 39

8. Stability to Oxidation: The oxidation characteristics of the finished product are determined in
order to check the stability of the product to oxidation. The extent of oxidation can be determined
by peroxide number of product after exposure or substance to oxygen for a specific period of time.
9. Determination of Surface Characteristics: the study of surface property of the product is
carried out in order to check the formation crystal on the surface or the contamination by
microorganism or formation of wrinkles and the exudation of liquid.
10. Determination of Colour dispersion: the test is done in order to determine the uniform
dispersion of color particle. The size of the particle is determined by the microscopic studies and
it should not be more than 50μ.
 40

CREAMS
Definition:
Creams are semi-solid emulsions which contain mixtures of oil and water. Their consistency varies
between liquids and solids. Salve (medical ointment for soothing purpose) and unguent (soothing
products) preparations in earlier days led to the development of cleansing and cold creams. With
the help of additives such as emulsifying agents and newer techniques, the preparation of creams
has become easy.

Fig. Cream
 Classification
Creams are classified according to their functions. They are:
1. Cleansing and Cold Creams.
2. Foundation and Vanishing Creams.
3. Night and Message Creams.
4. Hand and Body Creams.
5. All-purpose Creams is Cleansing and Cold Creams
1. Cleansing and Cold Creams:
Cleansing Creams: They are used for the purpose of removing makeup, surface grime (layer of
dirt on skin) and secretions of skin from the face and throat respectively.
Properties:
They are easy to apply.
They spread easily on the skin.
 41

They are pleasant in appearance.

They cause less irritation to the skin.
They should melt or liquefy when applied on to the skin.
They should produce flushing action on skin and its pore openings.
They should form an emollient film on the skin after application.
They should not make skin dry which happens in case, when the skin is washed with water
and soap.
They should remove chemicals of facial makeup effectively. They dissolve the greasy
binding materials which hold the pigment and finally remove them.
They should remove solidified oil, sebum, sebum plaques and surface oil layer from the
skin.
They also help in softening, lubricating and protecting skin apart from cleansing purposes.
They are applied on face and throat with the help of finger tips. Then the fingers are rotated
upwards on the skin for spreading purpose. Tissue paper or cotton wool used to remove the residue
of the cream. The layer which is left on the skin should be non-occlusive and emollient in order to
prevent drying. Cleansing creams are of two types. They are:
(i) Bees wax-borax type / Emulsified type. (ii) Liquefying type.
(i) Bees Wax-borax Type / Emulsified Type: It is considered as an important formulation in
cleansing creams. This type of preparation liquefies when 'applied to the skin, which helps in easy
spreading. It is white, lustrous and good consistency.
It is an oil-in water type of emulsion, in which high percentage of mineral oil is present. This
mineral oil helps in imparting cleansing property. Phase inversion takes place due to evaporation
of water after the creams are rubbed on the skin. The phase inversion (i.e., water
in-oil type) helps in imparting the cleansing action.
Formula-1 Quantity for 100 g
Mineral oil (lubricant) 28 g
Isopropyl myristate (lubricant and 14 g
emollient)
Acetoglyceride (luster) 2.5 g
Petroleum jelly (lubricant) 15 g
Beeswax (emollient) 1g
 42

Borax (buffer) 32 g
Water (vehicle)
Preservative q. s
Perfume (odour) q. s

Mineral oil, isopropyl myristate, acetoglyceride, petroleum jelly and bees wax heated to a
temperature of about 75°C in a separate glass container (ingredients having least melting point are
melted first and then high melting point ingredients are melted).
This is mixture A. In other glass container, borax and water are heated to same temperature i.e.,
75°C preservatives are dissolved in water before heating. This is mixture B. Mixture B is added to
the mixture A slowly, along with continuous stirring. Stirring carried out until a thick stable
emulsion is formed. Perfume is added to the preparation when it attains a temperature of 35°C and
stirring is carried out.
Then the preparation is passed through a triple roller mill for milling purpose. Preparation is
transferred and stored in a suitable container.
(ii) Liquefying Type: This type of creams consist of a mixture of oil and water which are
translucent in nature. They are translucent in nature .they are anhydrous creams with thixotropic
character i.e., they liquefy when applied on skin.
Ingredients Uses
1. Paraffin wax Responsible for thixotropic character.
2. Mineral oil and wax (proportion should be proper) Phase separation, sweating and granular
appearance is avoided.
3. Amorphous ozokerite and petrolatum. To avoid formation of crusty surface.
4. Lanolin, cetyl, alcohol, spermaceti and cocoa butter. They impart emollient property
5. Zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, magnesium stearate, zinc stearate or hydrous lanolin (used in 2%
concentration)
To impart opaque appearance:
Formula Quantity for 100 g
Mineral oil (lubricant) 80 g
Petrolatum (protective agent) 15 g
 43

Ozokerite wax (humectants) 5g

Preservative q. s
Perfume (odour) q. s

Method:
Mineral oil, petrolatum and ozokerite wax are heated together to a temperature of about 65°C (First
ozokerite wax is melted followed by petrolatum and mineral oil). The above mixture is cooled
along with continuous stirring. Preservative and perfume are added to the mixture after it attains a
temperature of 40° C. Then the preparation is transferred and stored in a syllabic container.
Cold Creams: These types of creams are water-in-oil type of emulsion. They produce cooling
sensation by the evaporation of water, after application of cream to the skin. Hence, they are known
as cream. They should possess emollient action and the layer left on the skin after application
should be non-occlusive.
Formula Quantity for 100 g

White beeswax (emollient) 20 g

Mineral oil (lubricant) 50 g
Distilled water (vehicle) 28.8 g
Borax (buffer) 0.7 g
Perfume (odour) 0.5 g

Method:
Beeswax is melted in a container by using water bath to a temperature of about 70° C. Then mineral
oil is added to the melted beeswax. This is mixture A. In another container, water is heated to a
temperature of about 70° C and borax is dissolved in it. This is mixture B. Mixture B (aqueous
phase) is added slowly to mixture A (oily phase) along with stirring. Stirring is carried out until a
creamy emulsion is formed. Finally, perfume is added to the preparation when it attains a
temperature of about 40°C.
 44

2. Vanishing and Foundation Creams:

These creams are also referred to as 'Day Creams' as they are applied during day times.
These creams provide emollient as well as protective action to the skin against environmental
conditions by- forming a semiocclusive residual-film. This film is neither greasy nor oily.
(a) Vanishing Creams: They are oil in water type of emulsion. When applied on the surface of
skin, they spread as thin oil less film which is not visible to the naked eye. Hence, they are called
as vanishing creams. They are used to hold powder on the skin as well as to improve adhesion.
Properties:
· It should have high melting point.
· It should be pure white in colour.
· It should possess very little odour.
· It should have less number of iodine.
2. Ingredients Uses
1. Main ingredient
Example: stearic acid
It governs the consistency of the cream and imparts pearlescent property to the cream by forming
crystals.
2. Humectants
Example : glycerin, sorbitol, Propylene glycol
3. Alkalies
Example :
(a) Potassium hydroxide
It imparts fine texture and consistency without providing harshness
(b) Sodium hydroxide It is used in combination with potassium hydroxide because it forms hard
cream, when used alone.
(c) Carbonates i.e., potassium and sodium carbonate. They are widely used, because they liberate
carbon dioxide due to this, creams become spongy.
(d) Ammonia
(e) Borax: It is effective, but difficult to handle because of odour and volatility. it is also make
cream yellow in color with age. It is used in combination with potassium hydroxide to produce a
white emulsion.
 45

4. Emulsifying agent.
Example : triethanolamine soap, Amino glycol soap or Glyceryl monostearate
5. Purified water (i.e., distilled and deionized)
It provides stability to the cream. If hard water is used, it leads to the formation of soaps of lime
and magnesium, which causes inversion of emulsion and hence stability is reduced.
6. Preservatives
Example : methyl paraben and propyl paraben
They prevent deterioration cause by bacteria or fungi.
7. Perfume i.e., perfume solvent or perfume is dissolved in alcohol.
They should be added when the cream attains a temperature of about 40°c.
Example: geranium, sandal wood, lavender oil, terpineol etc.
It provides odour to the cream and also has aesthetic value.
Method:
Stearic acid is melted in a container by using water bath. Potassium hydroxide is dissolved in water
and then glycerin is added. This mixture is heated to a temperature of about 75' C. This is aqueous
phase. Slowly aqueous phase is added to melted stearic acid along with continuous stirring.
Perfume is added to the preparation when it attains a temperature of 40° C.
Note: During cooling, care should to be taken, as the cream passes, through two transformations
i.e., softening and hardening. Then cream attains its desired form. Even formation of crust on the
top surface of cream should be avoided by stirring to prevent lump formation.
(b) Foundation Creams: They provide emollient base or foundation to the skin. They are applied
before applying face powder or other preparations of make-up.
Properties:
Adhesion of powder to the skin is improved by these creams, as they possess good holding
capacity.
They should be easily spread on the skin.
They should be non-greasy in nature.
They should be capable of leaving a non-occlusive film on the skin after application.
Ingredients: Ingredients are similar to that of vanishing creams. Except some of the ingredients
which are as follows:
Ingredients Uses
 46

1. Humectant and lanolin They cause retention of powder on the skin

2. Mineral oil It improves powder adhesion to the skin
3. Isopropyl myristate, butyl stearate and ester. They also improves adhesion power due To their
low surface tension property
4. Pigments like titanium dioxide, talc, calamine. They impart color
They are of two types:
(i) Pigmented Foundation Creams: They are colored creams.
(ii) Unpigmented Foundation creams: These creams do not contain pigments in the
formulation.
Method:
Lanolin, cetyl alcohol, stearic acid and potassium hydroxide are heated to a temperature of about
75°C in one container. This is oily phase. In another container, water and propylene glycol are
heated to same temperature i.e., 75°C. Preservatives should be dissolved in water before heating
is carried out. This is aqueous phase. Then slowly aqueous phase is added to oily phase along with
continuous stirring until the preparation becomes cold. 4. Perfume is added to the preparation when
the above mixture reaches a temperature of 35°C. Finally the preparation is passed through a triple
roller mill for milling purpose, (milling is carried out to obtain a good product).
3. Night and Massage Creams:
(a) Night Creams: The preparations which are applied during night time and removed in the
morning are called night creams.
(b) Massage Creams: The preparations which are gently applied and rubbed on the skin through
massage technique are called massage creams. Skin becomes dry due to the following reason:
· When stratum corneum is exposed to low humidity, excessive loss of water takes place which
attributes to dryness of skin.
· When the lower layer of epidermis does not hydrate properly.
· When the skin is in contact with soap or solutions of detergent for long time.
Reason: The hygroscopic substances present in the stratum corneum of the skin are responsible
for water binding capacity. These hygroscopic substances are protected by fatty materials which
are not easily removed by water alone. But with the use of solvent and water or detergent solutions,
These substances are removed and makes the skin dry. In order to make the dry skin smooth, water
is incorporated into the horny layery. This can be achieved by:
 47

· Increasing the process of diffusion of the living cells of epidermis.

· Water is incorporated into the horny layer of the epidermis from outside i.e., by using creams,
lotions etc,.
· Surface of the skin is occluded in order to prevent evaporation of water. Creams i.e., night and
massage creams act in the same way in order to make the dry skin smooth.
Hence, these creams are also known as emollient creams.
Properties:
· These creams are formulated with fatty substances which help in easy spreading on the skin.
· These creams help in providing occlusive layer to the skin, which reduce the rate of water loss
from the transepidermal layer. The occlusive layer is also responsible for providing moisturizing
effect on the skin.
Ingredients: Ingredients are either water soluble or fat soluble.
Ingredients Uses
1. Water soluble ingredients
Example: Propylene glycol, Glycerol, sorbitol.
They reduce evaporation of water in case of oil-in-water type of emulsion. The activity of retaining
water in external. Phase is known as emollient activity, which in turn provides water to stratum
corneum.
Method:
Mineral oil, petroleum jelly, white beeswax, paraffin wax and lanolin are heated to a temperature
of about 75°C in a one container. This is mixture A. Borax, water and antioxidant are heated in
another separate container to same temperature i.e. 75°C. Preservative is dissolved in water before
heating the mixture. This is mixture B. Slowly mixture B is added to mixture A along with
continuous stirring. Perfume is added after the preparation has attained a temperature of about
35°C.
4. Hand and Body Creams: Due to exposure of skin to water, soaps and detergents many times
a day, removal of lipids and other secretions from the skin occurs. Cold and dry winds are
responsible for chapping of the skin. Chapping occurs due to loss of moisture from the skin, which
is also associated with cracking. Water is sufficient enough to treat the dryness of the skin, but
evaporation of water takes place rapidly, which again, makes the skin dry and no emollient effect
is produced. In case, if hands are immersed in water for longer time then abnormal hydration takes
 48

place. This hydration will lead to swelling of cells in stratum corneum, which ultimately results in
rupturing of cells.
Hence, hand and body creams are formulated with suitable emollient, which not only make water
available but also regulates the water take-up by the cells of stratum corneum.
Properties:
Fat soluble ingredients
Example: mineral oil, petroleum jelly, Paraffin, ceresin, dimethyl polysiloxanes, Methyl phenyl
polysiloxanes etc. They help in reducing evaporation of water from the surface of the skin by
forming a thin film.
Formula -1 Quantity for 100 g

Mineral oil (lubricant ) 38 g

Petroleum jelly (lubricant ) 8g
White beeswax (emollient) 15 g
Paraffin wax (base and lubricant ) 1g
Lanolin (emollient ) 2g
Borax ( buffer ) 1g
Water (vehicle) 35 g
Perfume (odour) q. s
Preservatives q. s
Antioxidant (to prevent oxidation ) q. s

· They are easy to apply.

· They help in softening or imparting emollient effect to hands.
· They should not leave behind sticky film after their application.
· They should not interfere with perspiration of the skin as it may re bioavailability.
· Perfume and colour should be added in the cream preparation for pleasant smell and appearance.
Ingredients:
Ingredients Uses
1. Humectants Example: propylene glycol, glycerin and Sorbitol.
 49

2. (a) Natural gums Example: karaya, acacia, tragacanth, Agar-agar.

(b) Synthetic substances Example : carboxy celluloses, polyvinyl alcohol
3. Emollients
Example: mineral oil, waxes and lanolin or its derivatives, sterol, phospholipids, fatty acid, fatty
acid ester, fatty alcohols etc.
4. Healing ingredients Example : allantoin, urea, uric acid
5. Alkyl ester of poly unsaturated (C18) fatty acids, Linoleic acid and linolenic acid
6. Preservatives like methyl paraben, propyl paraben and butyl para hydroxyl benzoate.
7. Perfumes like phenyl ethyl alcohols, pine, geranium, Bourbon, lavender, lilac type, light floral
type etc. To prevent evaporation of water from the skin. They form occlusive film on the skin,
which inturn prevent evaporation of water. They are used to impart emollient property. They help
to increase the porosity of the skin. They help in preventing scaling of the surface of the skin.
They prevent the growth of microorganism. They are used to impart aesthetic value to creams.
Method:
Isopropyl myristate, mineral oil, emulsifying wax and lanolin are heated in a container. This is a
mixture A. Glycerin, triethanolamine and water are heated in a separate container .preservative is
dissolved in water before heating the mixture. this is a mixture B.
Mixture B is added to mixture A along with continuous stirring until cream is formed. Perfume is
added to the preparation when it reaches a temperature of 35°C. Finally, the preparation is passed
through a triple roller mill for milling, which provides good texture.
5. All-purpose creams/sports creams: These creams are used by sport persons and also by people
who do outdoor activities. Hence, they are called as sport creams.
· They are oily in nature but non-greasy type.
· They provide protective film to the skin.
· They make the rough surfaces of the skin smooth.
· When it is applied in more quantity, it act as
(a) Nourishing agent
(b) Protective cream in order to protect the skin from sunburn.
(c) Night cream.
(d) Cleansing cream
· When it is applied in less quantity, it act as
 50

(a) Hand creams

(b) Foundation creams
Ingredients: The various ingredients used in the formulation are as follows:
Ingredients Uses
1. Wool alcohol: It contains 28% of cholesterol which is Obtained by saponification of wool of
the Sheep.
2. Antioxidants: like butylated hydroxyanisole.
3. Macrocrystalline wax
4. Mineral oil, paraffin
5. Magnesium sulphate, The ions of magnesium are present in aqueous phase.
6. Preservatives like methyl paraben and propyl paraben. It helps in absorption of water.
It prevents oxidation. It helps in easy spreading of the cream on the skin. They form a protective
layer on the skin. It helps to increase the stability of the cream. They inhibit the growth of
microorganism.
Formula-1 Quantity for 100 g

Isopropyl myristate (lubricant and 4 g

emollient)
Mineral oil (lubricant) 2g
Stearic acid (lubricant) 3g
Emulsifying wax (emulsifier) 0.275 g
Lanolin (emollient) 2.5 g
Glycerin (humectants ) 3g
Triethanolamine (emulsifying agent) 1g
Water (vehicle) 84.225 g
Perfume (odour) q. s
Preservatives q. s
 51

Method:
Wool alcohol, hard paraffin, soft paraffin, liquid paraffin and antioxidant are melted. Stirring is
carried out until the preparation is cooled. Perfume is added to the preparation, when it reaches a
temperature of 35°C. Hydrous ointment can be prepared by using the same base ingredients but
with the incorporation of equal amount of water.
Evaluation of Creams
Due to the use of number of additives, it is necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of the skin
products. Evaluation is carried out by two methods. They are:
1. In-vitro methods
2. In-vivo methods.
1. In-vitro Methods: Tests are carried out to know the performance of the products. These tests
also help in evaluating, new product concepts. Various instruments have been developed by the
investigators to know the effect of temperature and humidity on the skin. Since, the softness of
skin is directly related to the water content present in it. The effects of temperature and humidity
on skin are studied by observing the changes in the mechanical properties of the stratum corneum.
The instruments help in evaluating moisturizing capacity of the products and screening of raw
materials used in the formulation.
Various techniques or instruments involved in in-vitro method are:
(a) Tensile strength tester
(b) Hargen's Gas Bearing Electro dynamometer (GBE)
(c) Occlusive potential of ingredients.
(d) Gravimetric analytical method.
(e) Thermal analytical methods.
(f) Electrical methods.
Formula-1 Quantity for 100 g

Wool alcohol (emollient) 6g

Hard paraffin( soothing agent) 24 g
White soft paraffin (emollient) 10 g
Liquid paraffin (emollient) 60 g
Perfume (odour) q. s
 52

Antioxidant q. s

(a) Tensile Strength Tester: This method is useful for determining the tensile property of the
excised stratum corneum of the skin. It provides information on the water content present in
stratum corneum and also acts as a screening device for moisturizing ingredients. The stress or
strain characteristics of stratum corneum obtained from various sources can be studied by using
this instrument (i.e., tensile strength tester), and it also helps in knowing the effects on stratum
corneum passed through various treatments.
(b) Hargen's Gas Bearing Electro Dynamometer (CBE): This instrument is helpful in
determining and monitoring the viscoelastic behavior of the skin. It also helps in determining the
effects on the skin by passing it through various treatments. It is used both as in-vitro and in-vivo
test.
Disadvantages: The instrument lacks sensitivity sometimes.
(c) Occlusive Potential of Ingredients: The occlusive potential of raw materials or ingredients
used in the formulation of skin cream, are determined by knowing the water diffusion rate.
Membranes used in this method can be stratum corneum of neonatal rat or artificial membrane.
(d) Gravimetric Analytical Method: This method is helpful in establishing relationship between
water content present in stratum corneum and relative humidity. This is done by suspending hits
of callus (undifferentiated mass of cells) in different dilutions of sulfuric acid. Then the weight of
the sample (i.e., callus) is determined by using sensitive electro balance. This weight of the sample
is taken after it reaches an equilibrium state (i.e., one week). After this the water content is
determined by subtracting dry weight of the tissue and weight of the sample which has attained
equilibrium state, (i.e.. equilibrium value).
Water Content (Stratum Corneum) = Dry Weight of the Tissue- Equilibrium value.
This method is also useful in determining sorption and desorption phenomena which takes place
in test stratum corneum after passing through various treatments.
Advantages:
· It is a simple method.
· It is inexpensive method.
Disadvantages:
 53

· It is a time consuming method.

· It requires lot of labour efforts.
2. In vivo Methods: In-vivo methods are helpful in providing information on hydration or
moisturization process of the skin. Various methods are:
(a) Transpirometry
(b) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
(c) Optical microscopy and macro photography.
(d) Skit friction
(e) Sensitivity tests.
 54

TOOTHPASTES
Introduction
Dentifrices such as toothpastes, tooth powders and tooth gels are meant for the cleaning the surface
of the teeth by removing the food debris and plaque adhered to surface of the teeth which is the
main cause for tooth problems.

Fig. Toothpaste
The general requirements for a dentifrice are as follows:
It should be capable of cleaning the teeth adequately by removing food debris, plaque and
stains efficiently.
It should leave a pleasant, cool and refreshing sensation in the mouth.
It should be harmless, non-toxic and should not cause irritation in the mouth or any ulcers
in the buccal cavity.
It should be able to maintain its flow properties all through its commercial period of
storage.
It should be easy to pack and easy to use.
The abrasive character of the dentifrice should be under the limits of the standards and
should not be harsh on the enamel and the dentine.
 55

It should confirm to the standards of the EC cosmetic directive which states that it is not
liable to cause damage to human health when used under normal conditions.
The assessment of any claims shall be certified based on properly conducted clinical trials.
Most of all it should be economical to purchase in order to encourage regular and frequent
use by common people. The dentifrice with all the above mentioned qualities is said to be
an efficient dentifrice.
Formulation
Toothpastes are the most popular form of dentifrices. They include the following ingredients which
determine the quality and efficiency of toothpastes.
1. Polishing Agents / Abrasive Agents: The abrasives or the polishing agents are used to polish
the teeth and remove food debris adhered to the surface of the teeth. They are used in concentration
of about 20 - 50% of the total formulation.
They should possess the following characteristics:
(a) They should not produce any gritty sensation in the mouth.
(b) They should possess good abrasive properties.
(c) They should not lead to any incompatibilities and should be compatible with the other
ingredients.
(d) They should be harmless to the enamel and the abrasive property should be under limits.
(e) They should provide a good shine to the enamel.

Ingredients Examples
Agents responsible for cleansing Action (a) precipitated calcium carbonate
Polishing agents/abrasive agents (b) phosphates of calcium
(c) dental graded silica / polymers of silica
(SiO2)n
(d) trihydrated alumina
Foaming agents/surfactants (a) sodium lauryl sulphate (ROSO3Na)
(b) sodium lauryl sarcosinate

Agents responsible for the formation

 56

Of toothpastes (a) Sorbitol 70

Humectants (b) Glycerin
(c) Propylene glycol
Gelling agents/binding agents (a) Sodium carboxy methyl cellulose (SCMC)
(b) Cellulose ethers

Agents responsible for improving (a) Sodium saccharin

Palatability (b) Chloroform
Sweetening agents (c) Cinnamon bark
Flavouring agents (d) Spearmint oil etc.

Miscellaneous agents
Coloring agents
Whitening agents
Preservatives
Therapeutic agents

The most commonly used Abrasive agents are as follow:

(a) Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3): It is also known as precipitated chalk and is
available in a number of grades. The crystalline form of the precipitated chalk may be available
as:
(i) Calcite: Contains rhombohedral crystals.
(ii) Aragonite: Contains orthorhombic crystals.
Advantages:
It is of very low cost.
It is available in different grades in white or off-white colours.
The lighter grades are very stable and do not get hardened on storage.
Disadvantages:
The abrasivity is not consistent within the lots of same grade of powder due to the presence
of impurities.
 57

It is incompatible with sodium fluoride which is used as anticaries agent.

(b) Phosphates of Calcium: A large variety of insoluble calcium phosphates are used as abrasive
agents. They may he as follows:
Dicalcium Phosphate (DCP) Dihydrate [CaHPO4.2H2O ]: It is a commonly used abrasive
agent among the phosphate of calcium. Its properties and the advantages and disadvantages are
follows.
Advantages:
It provides good flavour stability.
Toothpastes made with Dicalcium phosphate are better than toothpastes made with chalk.
They do not make use of additional whitening agents.
The hardening of the paste during preparation is accelerated in the presence-of fluoride
ions.
It has less abrasive effect on dentine.
Disadvantages:
It is incompatible with sodium fluoride.
The only source of fluoride is sodium monoiluoro phosphate since it consists of free calcium
ions that react with other fluoride sources leading to incompatibility.
The DCP Dihydrate is unstable in its natural for and may convert into anhydrous form which
may result in hardening of the paste.
The other commonly used phosphates of calcium are tricalcium phosphate, calcium pyrophosphate
etc.,The insoluble sodium metaphosphate, dibasic ammonium phosphate are also used as abrasive
agents.
(c) Dental grade silica / Polymers of Silica (SiO2)n : They are polymer of silica that are
commonly used as abrasive agents in the formulation of toothpaste `gels in large quantities.
They are available in two forms as:
Abrasive Form of Silica.
Thickening Form of Silica.
Abrasive Silica: They are also referred to as xerolgels. They possess good abrasive property and
are used in low concentration. They have least effect on the consistency of the finished product.
Thickening silica: They are referred to as aerogels. The particles are small in size and posses a
greater surface area. They have the ability to swell and provide a thickening effect to the pastes.
 58

Advantages:
The silicas are mostly used as abrasives in gels.
They are inert and easily compatible with other ingredients.
They provide good gloss to the dentine due to their high refractive index.
They can be used in low concentration.
Disadvantage: The abrasive property is not consistent within the different grades.
(d) Trihydrated Alumina (Al2O3.3H2O): It may be available in two forms: As suspension or as
crystalline powder.
Advantages:
It is less costly.
It possesses stability with fluorides.
It is easily available and is stable during storage.
It is compatible with other ingredients.
It possesses a good abrasive property.
Disadvantage: It has poor thickening property.
2. Foaming Agents / Surfactants: They are also known as wetting agents. The mechanism of
cleansing action is by reducing the surface tension at the interface of the adhered material and
enamel of the teeth.
They aid in abrasive action by wetting the surface of the teeth. They help in the diffusion of into
narrow spaces, thus enhancing the cleansing action. The properties of the surfactants are as
follows:
It should be compatible with other ingredients of the formulation.
It should possess good surface active property.
It should be non-toxic and non-irritant to the oral mucosa of the buccal cavity.
It should be tasteless.
The most commonly used surfactants are:
(a) Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (ROSO3 Na): It is used in concentrations of 0.5 to 2% in order to
provide necessary foaming action.
Advantages:
It is available in a large variety of graded forms.
The recrystallized grades have good surfactant property.
 59

They are more compatible with other ingredients of the formulation.

They have a neutral pH range.
Disadvantages:
The nature of the foaming agent may be altered by the presence of any free alcoholcontent.
The different grades are very expensive.
(b) Sodium Lauryl Sarcosinate: It is one of the most preferred detergents for oral products.
Advantages:
It shows anti-enzymatic activity besides acting as a surface active agent.
It is easily soluble in aqueous solvents and hence most preferred for the formulation of oral
products.
It is consistently stable with a neutral pH range.
Disadvantage: It may alter the taste of the final formulation when used in high concentrations.
3. Humectants: Humectants are used in order to prevent the rapid drying of dentifrices. They
prevent excessive moisture loss from the product. They may additionally impart plasticity to the
final product. The concentration of the humectant used in the formulation may vary from
20% to 40%.
The most commonly used humectants in the formulation of dentifrices are as follows:
(a) Sorbitol 70: It consists of 70% w/v concentration of the sorbitol solution. It comprises the
largest pan the humectant phase.
Advantages:
It has high viscosity and can produce firm toothpastes with good plasticity.
It imparts cool sensation in the mouth and may also enhance the sweetening property.
It possesses good compatibility with other ingredients; it is less expensive than glycerin.
(b) Glycerine: It can be used at concentrations ranging between 5 to 10%.
Advantages:
It provides a good gloss and good shine to the product.
It is safe, stable and compatible with other ingredients.
It is easily available both from natural and synthetic sources.
Disadvantages:
It is very expensive.
It provides a warm sensation in the mouth.
 60

(c) Propylene Glycol: it is less commonly used and has been replaced by sorbitol.
Advantage: It has good solvent properly and can also be used as a co-solvent.
Disadvantage: It has very low viscosity and may also impart a bitter taste to the product.
4. Ceiling/ Binding Agents: The binding agents are used in order to hold the solid and the liquid
components together to form a smooth paste and maintain its property, particularly during storage.
They prevent bleeding from the paste and also add up to the body and viscosity of the final
formulation.
The commonly used binding agents are cellulose derivatives such as Carboxy Methyl
Cellulose (CMC), Sodium Carboxy Methyl Cellulose (SCMC), HydroxyethyJ cellulose,
Cellulose ethers etc.
(a) Sodium CMC: It is a commonly used cellulose derivative and used in concentrations between
0.9 to 2.0%. It is sensitive to pH value outside 5.5 to 9.5. The properties with its advantages and
disadvantages are as follows:
Advantages:
It provides stability to the gels.
It resists change in the efficiency of the formulation even in the presence of divalent calcium
ions and other electrolytes.
Disadvantage: It may react with cationic substitutes of antibacterial agents due to its anionic
nature. Hence it cannot be used in such formulations.
(b) Ethers of Cellulose: Methyl cellulose and hydroxyethylcellulose are the most commonly used
cellulose ethers.
Advantages:
They are stable over a wide range of pH changes.
They are not affected by the metallic ions.
They can be used in the toothpastes containing cationic antibacterials.
The properties can be adjusted as required by varying the degree of substitution of the
components.
Disadvantages:
 The toothpastes made with cellulose ethers are more viscous at and stiff and disperse
slower than those made with SCMC.
 They cannot be used with glycerine as they are incompatible with it.
 61

 The other naturally available gelling agents may be Gum karaya, Gum tragacanth, Iris moss
(Chondrus), Gum Arabica etc,
(c) Water: Water is used in the deionized form in the formulation of toothpastes. It can be used
either as a solvent for the soluble ingredient of the formulation or as a supporting media for the
binding agents. Binding agents swell after imbibing water. It is used in concentrations of more
than 10% in the formulation of clear gels.
5. Sweetening Agents: These are added in. order to improve the sweetening properties and cover
the bitter taste of the other ingredients like surfactants, binders etc. They help in promoting the
acceptance of the product when administered orally.
The most commonly used sweetening agents are Saccharin sodium, Chloroform, Aspartame,
Cyclamates and Potassium acesulfame.
(a) Saccharin Sodium: It is the most widely used sweetening agent. It is used at concentrations
of about 0.05 0.3 1 %. The concentration may vary depending upon the amount of humectant
(glycerine) used.
Advantages:
It is of low cost.
It is widely distributed and easily available.
It is compatible with all other ingredients.
It provides good sweetening property.
(b) Chloroform:
Advantages:
It masks the taste of precipitated chalk and prevents dry feeling in the mouth.
It provides a fresh and sharp sweetness.
It also has antibacterial property besides the sweetening property.
Disadvantages:
It is expensive.
It is incompatible with certain ingredients.
6. Flavouring Agents: Flavouring agents may comprise the most proprietary and most crucial part
of the formulation essential to meet the consumer preferences. They are generally a mixture of
edible volatile oils consisting of spearmint and peppermint oil as major components. The other
components included may be thymol, anethol, eucalyptol, aniseed oil, oil of winter green etc.
 62

Flavouring agents are used in the concentration range of about 0.5 to 1.5% and constitute the most
costly part of the formula; they may interact with other components of the formulation which may
result in incompatible.
7. Colouring Agents: They are used in concentration of less than 0.01% as permitted by the
EEC Cosmetics Directive. They can be used generally in combination with a portion of a white
creamy base. They are mainly in order to influence consumer preferences and increase the
purchase intent.
8. Whitening Agents: Whitening agents such as Titanium dioxide (TiO2) shall be preferentially
added in order to provide additional whiteness and brilliance to the paste.
9. Preservatives: Preservatives are used in the formulation in order to maintain the properties of
the product throughout the storage period and to improve the shelf-life of the product.
Generally, a mixture of 5% methyl paraben and 0.02% propyl paraben is the most effective and
commonly used combination preservatives. Sodium benzoate is not preferred due to its
incompatibility with some of the therapeutic agents.
10. Therapeutic Agents: Therapeutic agents are included in toothpastes in order to provide
additional beneficial effects besides normal cleansing properties.
Examples:
(a) Anticaries Agents:
Example: Fluoride derivatives like NaF, Na2FPO3, etc,
(b) Antiplaque Agents:
Example: Chlorohexidine, Triclosan etc,.
(c) Antitartar Agents that prevent the Colouring of Teeth :
Example: Zn salts, Pyrophosphate ions, Tetra sodium pyrophosphate, Disodium
dihydrophosphate.
(d) Sensitive Dentine Agents:
Example: Strontium chloride, Strontium acetate,
Formaldehyde etc,.
(e) Optical Brightness:
Example: Substituted coumarins in long chain
alkylamines.
(f) Bleaching Agents:
 63

Example: H 2 O 2 , Sodium peroxide.

(g) PH Regulators:
Example: Zirconium silicate.

Toothpaste formula:
Formula-1 Quantity for 100 g

Calcium carbonate (adhesive agent) 28 g

sodium lauryl sulphate (surfactant) 0.5 g
Glycerin (humectants) 11 g
Gum tragacanth (binding agent) 0.75 g
Water (liquid phase) 9.7 g
Saccharin sodium (sweetening agent) 0.05 g
Flavor (flavoring agent) q. s
Preservative (for storage) q. s

Preparation of toothpaste:
The preparation of toothpastes may be carried out by using two methods which are as follows:
1. Dry gum method.
2. Wet gum method.
1. Dry Gum Method:
In this method, all the solid components of the formulation like abrasive agent, binding agent etc.,
except the surfactants are mixed together in a dry mixer. The mixer may be an agitation mixer
which consists of slow rotating blades. The liquid components such as the humectants and water
are gradually added to the dry mix. The mixing process is carried out till a smooth paste is formed.
The remaining ingredients like the surfactants and the flavouring agents are added to the
homogenous paste under vacuum.
2. Wet Cum Method:
In this method, all the liquid components are mixed together to form a liquid phase.
 64

The binding agent is then mixed with the liquid phase with uniform stirring in order form mucilage.
The solid ingredients excluding the surfactants are then gradually added to the mucilage with
uniform mixing in an agitation mixer, in order to form a homogenous paste.
The remaining ingredients i.e., the surfactants, the flavoring agents, coloring agents are added
under vacuum t the homogenous paste. Based on the principle involved in the above methods,
some acceptable techniques have been proposed for the manufacture of toothpaste which is as
follow:

1. Cold compression technique:

The preparation of toothpaste using this technique can be carried out as follows.
Initially, the humectants such as sorbitol (70% w/v) or glycerine are taken in the bowl of
the mixer. The binding agent is then sprinkled over the humectant under agitation for
uniform dispersion.
The liquid components such as water, sweetener and the preservatives are mixed to form a
separate liquid phase and any therapeutic additives if necessary are also added to the liquid
phase.
This liquid phase is then added to the humectant-binder mixture in the bowl and mixing is
carried out for 5 minutes in order to remove the air from the thick gelatinous liquid phase.
The vacuum is stopped and the abrasive agents are added with constant mixing until they
are completely dissolved.
The vacuum is reapplied and mixing is continued for at least 30 minutes.
The surfactants and the flavouring agents are dispersed separately in 5% humectant.
This mixture is added to the vacuum at the end and 5 minutes of additional mixing is carried
out. Finally, it leads to the formation of an air free smooth paste.
2. Multiple Liquid Phase technique:
This method is suitable for formulations that make use of carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) and
magnesium aluminium silicate hinder combination. The preparation can be carried out as follows:
Initially, hot water is taken in a mixer bowl and magnesium aluminium silicate is added to
it.
The humectants, the flavouring agent, the binding agent and the preservatives are mixed
separately to form a separate liquid phase.
 65

This solution is then added to the mixer and the final volume is made using the humectants.
Vacuum is introduced into bowl in order to remove the air from the liquid mixture.
The vacuum is removed and the abrasive agents are added and the vacuum is again
introduced in the mixed for 30 minutes.
Finally, the surfactants are added with constant inking for 5 minutes.
The method is also suitable for the preparation of clear-gel dentifrices.
3. Hot Liquid Phase Technique:
The method preparation using this technique is as follows:
In this method, the abrasive agent, binding agent and preservatives are mixed separately in
a dry mixer.
The humectant, sweeteners and water are mixed separately and this liquid phase is heated.
The hot solution is then slowly added to dry powder with constant mixing.
The resultant mass is then mixed under vacuum for 30 minutes.
Finally, the solutions of the flavouring agent and the surfactant are added and vacuum,
mixing is carried out for 5 more minutes.
A clear and homogeneous paste is formed by this method.
Evaluation of toothpaste
The quality control studies and evaluation tests are necessary in order to check the purity,
consistency and efficiency of the product. The specific evaluation tests for dentifrices are as
follows:
1. Tests for Abrasive Character: The cleansing action of dentifrices mainly depends on their
abrasive property. The abrasion should not lead to any damage to the enamel and hence the test
for checking the abrasive property has been done on the extracted teeth. The teeth are brushed by
mechanical means with paste or powder and the effect of dentifrices on the teeth is studied by
comparing the results before and after brushing.
2. Determination of Particle Size: Particle size determination is important as the cleansing nature
and abrasive property of the dentifrice mainly depends on the particle size. The particle size can
be determined by using microscopical techniques or by involving the method of sieving.
3. Test for Cleansing Property: This test is done in order to determine the cleaning ability of the
dentifrice. The tooth cleansers such as powders and pastes are brushed onto a polyester film and
the change in reflectance character of the lacquer coating is measured. The in-vivo method
 66

involves brushing of the teeth-with dentifrices for 2 weeks and determination of the condition of
the teeth before and after brushing and comparing them by means of photographs.
4. Determination of Consistency of the Product: This test is done in order to determine the
consistency of the product for the maintenance of its flow property all throughout its storage
period. The consistency of the product mainly depends on the 'theological properties such as
particle size, viscosity etc.
5. Determination of pH of the Product: A 10% solution of the paste in water is made and the pH
of the dispersion is measured using a pH meter. The pH should be in the range of 6.8 to 7.4 in
order to maintain the consistency of the product.
6. Determination of Foaming Character: This test for the foaming character is applicable only
to foaming tooth powders and pastes. In this test, specific amount of the product is mixed with a
known amount of water. The solution is then shaken sometimes in order to produce foam. The
foam produced is then collected and studies on its nature, washability and stability are carried out.
7. Determination of the Volatile Matter and the Moisture Content: This test is done in order
to determine the amount of volatile matter and moisture content in the product. In this method, a
specified amount of the product is taken and is kept for drying till a constant weight is obtained.
The weight of the product before and after drying is measured and the loss in weight is calculated
which determines the percentage of moisture content and volatile matter.
8. Determination of the Test for the Special ingredient: The use of therapeutic ingredients may
lead to certain incompatibilities and hence specific tests are done in order to determine the effect
of the specific ingredients such as antiseptics, enzymes etc.
9. Limit Test for Heavy Metals: The test is done in order to check the presence of any heavy
metals such as arsenic and lead which may lead to toxicity. The occurrence of these metals can be
avoided by carrying out the limit tests for heavy metal, for raw materials, which may reduce usage
of these materials.
 67

Face powder
Powders
Definition
Powders are considered as one of the important products of skin care preparations. They are used
widely by both men and women for face and body care. Various types of powders are body powder,
face powders, compacts medicated powders (which are used for prickly heat purposes and
preventing microbial growth on the surface of the skin), deodorant powders and foot powders for
treatment purposes). Powders have different physical properties when compared to the liquid
preparations. They have very fine particle size, which helps in producing large surface area per
unit weight. This helps in proper dispersion of powder, which covers the large surface area of the
body.
Characteristics:
It should possess good covering Power in order to hide blemishes present on the skin.
Adhesion property should be good, so that it should not blow-off easily from the skin.
It should remain on the skin for longer period of time to avoid re-powdering.
It should be able to impart matt or peach like appearance to the skin.
It should remove the shine present on the skin as well as around the nose.
It should possess good absorbent property.
It should be able to produce, slip property to the skin for easy spreading by puff without
producing any blotches (irregular marks).
It should be able to produce transparency effect.
 Formulation of powders
Ingredients used in the formulation of powders are properly studied before selection. Their
character, role and quality are taken into consideration, as they have effect on the finished product.
The ingredients used should be of good quality.
Properties:
They should not be hard in nature. If the materials are present in crystal form then they
should not contain any sharp edges as it may damage the skin.
They should have less solubility in water and mixtures of fat.
They should be non-toxic in nature.
They should be chemically stable, in order to prevent interaction with each other.
 68

They should not cause irritation to the skin.

Ingredient:
Ingredients Examples

1. Covering Materials Titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, zinc stearate,

kaolin, magnesium stearate and rice starch

2. Adhesive Materials Talc, magnesium and calcium salt of myristic

acid, zinc stearate

3. Slip Materials Talc, magnesium stearate, aluminium

hydrosilicate
4. Absorbent Materials Colloidal kaolin, starch, bentonite

5. Peach Like Finish Materials Rice starch, maize starch, powdered silk

6. Materials Imparting Frosted-Look Gualine, bismuth, oxychloride

7. Coloring Materials Iron oxide, ultramarine, organic lakes and

pigments
8. Perfumes Flowery fragrance or synthetic
odour

Face Powders: These powders have the ability to complement the skin colour by providing
velvety finish to it.
Properties:
It should impart smooth finish to the skin.
It should mask minor imperfections (which are visible) on the skin.
It should eliminate shine present on the skin due to moisture or grease.
It should have long lasting property to avoid frequent application.
It should be resistant to the secretions of the skin i.e., sebaceous and perspiration.
It should serve as a vehicle to perfumes so that the particles of perfumes may spread easily.
 69

A single substance is unable to impart all the characters i.e., covering power. Slip character
absorbent capacity, adhesive property. Hence, mixture of substances is used in the formulation of
powders to impart desired properties to the skin.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Talc (slip character) 63 g

Kaolin (covering materials) 20 g
Calcium carbonate (absorbent) 5g
zinc oxide (covering materials) 5g
zinc stearate (slip character) 5g
Magnesium carbonate (absorbent) 1g
Color 0.5 g
Perfume (odour) 0.5 g

Types of powders
Depending on the type of skin to be powdered, the face powders are classified into 3 types.
They are light type, medium type and heavy type.
I. Light Type: These types of powders are applied on dry skin. They have low covering
power since the dry skin does not secrete any oils. Large amount of talc will be present in
the formulation of powders.
Method:
It is a dry mixing method.
Perfume is added to some part of calcium carbonate, which is absorbent and mixed
thoroughly. This preparation is kept aside for some time. This is mixture A.
Color is add added to some part-of talc and mixed thoroughly. This is mixture B.
Then kaolin, zinc oxide, zinc stearate, magnesium carbonate and remaining part of calcium
carbonate and talc are added to mixture B and mixed properly.
Mixture A is added to the above mixture and mixing is carried out.
Finally, the preparation is sieved by using either a silk mesh or nylon cloth.
II. Medium type: Type of powders is applied on the normal or moderate oily skins. These
skins are shiny in nature due to the sebaceous secretions or perspiration (sweat). They have
good covering power compared to light type. They contain less quantity of talc along with
slightly more quantity of zinc oxide (The less quantity of talc is balanced by zinc oxide).
 70

Formula Quantity for 100 g

Talc (slip character) 39.7 g

Kaolin (covering materials) 39.5 g
Calcium carbonate (absorbent) 5g
zinc oxide (covering materials) 7g
zinc stearate (slip character) 7g
Magnesium carbonate (absorbent) 1g
Color 0.2 g
Perfume (odour) 0.6 g

Method The method is same as that of light type of face powders.

III. Heavy type: These types of powders are applied on extremely oily skins, which have more
shine due to secretions. They have high covering power, in order to cover the shine of the
skin. They, contain less quantity of talc and more quantity of zinc oxide.

Formula Quantity for 100 g

magnesium stearate (covering materials) 5 g

Kaolin (covering materials) 20 g
zinc oxide (covering materials) 15 g
Calcium carbonate (absorbent) 39 g
Talc (slip character) 20 g
 71

NAIL LACQUERS
Definition:
Nail lacquers or nail paints may be defined as viscous or semi-liquid preparations that are intended
for the decoration of the nails of the fingers and toes. Nail lacquers form the most commonly used
the most popular type of manicure preparations. Nail polishes are quite distinct from those of nail
lacquers and are regarded as a type of manicure preparations that produce a gloss by means of
huffing action. The action is mainly by causing abrasion on the surface of the nail and secondly by
drawing more blood into the capillaries of the nail
Ideal Properties of Nail Lacquer:
The ideal properties of a nail lacquer should be as follows:
It should be safe for the skin and nails and should not lead to any harmful effects.
It should be easy to apply and easy to remove.
It shall maintain its properties even during long storage. Hence, an efficient nail lacquer
should possess consistent stability.
The most important property is that it should form a uniform and satisfactory film on the
nails.
It should have good wetting and flow properties and should be viscous in nature in order
to form an appropriate film.
The distribution of the colour should be uniform which can be achieved by using finely
divided pigments that are uniformly ground and evenly wetted by the solvent.
It should provide a good shine on the nail on application.
It should possess sufficient adhesive property so that it may uniformly adhere to the nail
without slipping.
It should possess the required flexibility so that it may not become brittle and crack upon
application.
The surface should be sufficiently hard in order to prevent th6 effect of impact and scratch.
The drying time of the film should not be too rapid or too slow; say about – minutes without
forming any bloom.
It should be able to preserve all these properties at least for a week after its application.
Formulation of nail lacquers
 72

The formation of an efficient nail polish may be based on the selection of a proper and an essential
ingredient. The ingredients involved in the formation of a good variety of nail polish could be as
follows:
S.N. Ingredients Example

1 Film forming agents Nitro cellulose, ethyl cellulose, vinyl polymers

Aryl sulphonamide-formaldehyde
2 Resinous substances
Ether, ethyl acetate, amyl acetate, butyl acetate
3 Dissolving solvent Ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol

4 Dissolving solvent/co-solvent d-butyl phthalate, n-butyl stearate

5 Plasticizing agents 5% titanium dioxide (TiQ2)

Guanine crystal
6 Coloring agent
7 Nacreous/pearly pigments

8 Miscellaneous substances

(1) suspending agent

(2) perfumeries

The preparation of nail lacquers

The preparation of nail polishes can be carried out as follows:
The film forming substance i.e., nitrocellulose is dissolved in a suitable solvent.
Resins plasticizers can be added directly or after dissolving them in small amouts of
solvent.
 73

The finely divided pigments are added by forming dispersion of the pigment as they form
aggregates. The dispersion can be formed by milling the pigments in a ball null or a or
triple roller mill.
The dispersion of the pigments, nitrocellulose and plasticizer are ground together in a
solvent in order to form a plastic mass.
The final mixing of the ingredients for the manufacture of nail polishes is carried out in
stainless steel tanks with a stirrer.
Initially, the tank is charged with the diluent and nitrocellulose (suitably wetted the diluent)
is added to it.
The plasticizer and the resin are added next and the mixing process continues.
The mixing process is carried out till sufficiently uniform solution is formed. The clear
lacquer is then subjected to filtration and centrifugation in order to remove any particles.
Evaluation of Nail Lacquers
The various methods required for the evaluation of nail polishes are as follows.
1. Test for Non-volatile Content: The test is done in order to check the quantity of the nonvolatile
content in the preparation. The method is known as dish method and involves a simple process
described below: The sample is spread on a flat plate as a circle 8 cms in diameter. The quantity
is weighed and kept in an oven at a temperature o 105 for l hr.
The quantity of substance remaining on the plate is weighed arid this constitutes the non-volatile
content.
2. Rate of Drying: The test is done in order to check the rate of evaporation of the preparation. It
involves a simple process in which the film is applied with an applicator on to
a completely non-porous surface. It is kept at 25°C and 50% RH and the time required to dry is
noted by touching it with finger. When no matter is adhered to the finger tip, then the product is
said to be completely dried.
3. Colour of the Product: The colour of the product is tested by comparing it with, a standard
colour. This can be done by applying the standard colour on one nail and the prepared product on
the adjacent nail. From this comparison, the contrast in the colours can then be easily noted.
4. Test for Smoothness of the Film: The smoothness is the most important characteristic of the
film. The surface property can be studied by the microscopic analysis. The film should not contain
 74

any foreign matter or particles of the coating material. It should also be free from the orange peel
effect when seen under microscope.
5. Estimation of Gloss: The gloss of the product can be determined by the use of an instrument
that works on the principle of reflection of light.
6. Test for Hardness of the Film: The test is done in order to measure the extent of hardness
of the substance.
It is done by spreading the film on a glass plate and then drying it for 48 hrs at 25°C.
It is then further dried at 70°C for 2hrs.
It is then cooled at 25°C for 48 hrs.
The hardness is then checked by applying mechanical force externally.
7. Test for Adhesive property: This is done in order to measure the extent of adhesion of the film
with adhering material. This is done by the following method. The film is spread on metal surface
and allowed to settle for some time. The adhesion character is then determined by measuring the
mechanical force applied externally to remove the film.
8. Test for Resistance to Abrasion: This is done by applying mechanical abrasive forces
externally on the film surface. The surface characteristic of the film before and after the application
of abrasive force are then studied.
9. Test for Resistance to Water Permeability: This is a measure of resistance of the film towards
absorption of water. This is done as follows. A continuous film is spread on the surface of a metal
plate. The plate is then immersed in water. The weight of the film before and after the immersion
into water is noted. An increase in the weight is calculated. The lesser the increase in weight, the
greater is the water resistance.
10. Test Application Property: it is a measure of ease of application of the product. It is carried
out more reliably by applying on nails. The degree of evenness and smoothness of brushing and
the presence of any air bubbles are checked out.
11. Test for Viscosity: it is the most important parameter that determines the evenness of
application.
The viscosity can be measured by using Brookfield‘s viscometer.
It can be easily carried out by checking the flow of product from the applicator and
comparing it with standard product.
 75

12. Test for Stability: it is it measure of long lasting ability of the product. It can be done by using
the acceleration stability test.