UNIT-II

Digital Electronics (TBC303)

[1]. Switching function

Switching functions are also known as a Boolean function. It is a mathematical formula that describes
the working of a digital circuits. Boolean function is an expression that has binary variable, OR, AND,
NOT operators, parantheses and an equal sign. For a given value of the variables, the function can be
either 0 or 1. Result can be eother 0 or 1. They can be represented by a switching expression or a table.
For example, some switching functions include:

f(A,B)=0
f(A,B) = AB′ + A′B
𝑓(𝐴,𝐵,C)=𝐴𝐵′C+𝐴′𝐵C + A′B′C′

The result of a switching function can be obtained by Putting the values of all variables. For example,
the result of the f(A,B) = AB′ + A′B can be obtained as

When A=0, B=0

f(A,B) = AB′ + A′B
=0.0′ + 0′.0
= 0.1 + 1.0 = 0

When A=0, B=1

f(A,B) = AB′ + A′B
=0.1′ + 0′.1
= 0.0 + 1.1 = 1

When A=1, B=0

f(A,B) = AB′ + A′B
=1.0′ + 1′.0
= 1.1 + 0.1 = 1

When A=1, B=1

f(A,B) = AB′ + A′B
=1.1′ + 1′.1
= 1.0 + 0.1 = 0

In tabular form, it can be written as

I/P O/P
A B f(A,B) = AB′ + A′B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

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 [2]. Truth table

A TRUTH-TABLE is a tabular representation of a Boolean function, possible combinations of input

variables and output.

[3]. Literal

It is binary variable either in normal form or in complement form. Note that if a equation has x and x'
then there are 2 literals in the equation. For example F= xy'+ x'

This equation has 3 literals: x, x' and y'.

[4]. Minterm and Maxterm

If we perform AND operation between two or more binary variables, we get minterms. For example if A
and B are two binary variables and we perform AND operation then we get

A.B, A′.B, A.B′, A′.B′

These terms are called minterms. We use m (small m) to show minterm.

If we perform OR operation between two or more binary variables, we get maxterms. For example if A
and B are two binary variables and we perform OR operation then we get A+B, A′+B, A+B′, A′+B′.
These terms are called maxterms. We use M (capital M) to show maxterm.

Note: In minterms 0 is represented by complement (′) and in maxterms 1 is represented as complement

(′)

Table: Minterm and Maxterm for two binary variables

Minterms Maxterms
xy Term Symbol Term Symbol
00 x'y' m0 x+y M0
01 x'y m1 x+y′ M1
10 xy' m2 x′+y M2
11 xy m3 x′+y′ M3

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Table: Minterm and Maxterm for three binary variables

Minterms Maxterms
xyz Term Symbol Term Symbol
000 x'y'z' m0 x + y +z M0
001 x'y'z m1 x + y + z' M1
010 x'yz' m2 x + y' + z M2
011 x'yz m3 x + y' + z' M3
100 xy'z' m4 x' + y + z M4
101 xy'z m5 x' + y + z' M5
110 xyz' m6 x' + y' + z M6
111 xyz m7 x' + y' + z' M7
Note: Minterm and Maxterm are complements of each other.

Ex- f(x,y,z) = x'yz' + xy'z + xyz' + xyz can be written as

f(x,y,z) = 010 + 101 +110 + 111
f(x,y,z) = m2 + m5 + m6 + m7
we can also write it as
f(x,y,z) = ∑ (2,5,6,7)

Ex- f(A,B) = A'B' + AB' + AB can be written as

f(A,B) = 00 + 01 + 11
f(A,B) = m0 + m2 + m3
we can also write it as
f(A,B) = ∑ (0,2,3)

Ex- f(x,y,z) = (x'+y+z') (x+y'+z) (x+y+z') (x+y+z) can be written as

f(x,y,z) = (101) (010) (001) (000)
f(x,y,z) = M5 M2 M1 M0
we can also write it as
f(x,y,z) = ∏ (0,1,2,5)

Ex- f(A,B) = A'B' + AB' + AB can be written as

f(A,B) = (11) (01) (00)
f(A,B) = M3 M1 M0
we can also write it as
f(A,B) = ∏ (0,1,3)

Q1. Write expanded form of following Boolean functions

i. F(a,b) = ∑ (1,3)
ii. F(x,y,z) = ∑(1,3,6)
iii. F(A,B,C,D)= ∑(1,3,6,9,11,15)

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 iv. F(X,Y) = ∏ (1,3)
v. F(p,q,r) = ∏ (1,3,6)
vi. F(a,b,c,d)= ∏ (1,3,6,9,11,15)

Q2. Write short form of following Boolean functions

i. F(a,b)= ab' + a'b' + ab

ii. F(x,y,z)= x 'y 'z ' + xy 'z ' + x 'y 'z + x 'yz + xy 'z
iii. F(A,B,C,D)= ABCD + AB 'C 'D + AB 'CD ' + A 'BCD ' + A 'B 'C 'D + A 'BC 'D ' + A 'B 'C 'D ' + A 'B 'C 'D
iv. F(X,Y)= (X+Y') (X'+Y') (X+Y)
v. F(p,q,r)= (p'+q'+r) (p+q'+r') (p'+q+r') (p'+q'+r') (p+q+r)
vi. F(a,b,c,d)= (a'+b+c+d) (a+b'+c+d) (a+b+c'+d') (a'+b'+c+d) (a+b+c'+d) (a'+b'+c'+d')
(a+b+c+d)

[5]. Standard Forms & Canonical form of Boolean equation

A Boolean function can be expressed as a sum of minterms or product of maxterms. If a Boolean
equation has all variables in each term then it is called as in standard form. Ex-

F (A,B,C) = A′BC + AB′C + ABC′ + ABC

F(A,B) = AB + A’B

If a Boolean function does not have all variable in one or more terms then it is called as in canonical
form. Ex-

F (A,B,C) = A′B + AB′C + ABC′ + ABC

F(A,B) = AB + A’

Example 1. Express the Boolean function F = x + y′z in standard form.

Solution. The function has three variables x, y and z. The first term x is missing two variables; therefore

x = x (y + y′)
= xy + xy

There is still one variable missing:

x = xy (z + z′) + xy′ (z + z′)
= xyz + xyz′ + xy′z + xy′z′

The second term y′z is missing one variable:

y′z = y′z (x + x′)
= xy′z + x′y′z

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Combining all terms, we have
F = xyz + xyz′ + xy′z + xy′z′ + xy′z + x′y′z

But xy′z appears twice, and according to theorem 1 (A + A = A), it is possible to remove one of them.
Rearranging the min terms in ascending order, we have:

F = x′y′z + xy′z′ + xy′z + xyz′ + xyz

= m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7.
F(x, y, z) = Σ(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)

Alternative method: An alternative method for driving product terms (minterms) is to make a T.T.
directly from function. F = x + y′z. From T.T., we can see directly five minterms where the value of
function is equal to 1. Thus,
F(x, y, z) = Σ(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)

x y z F = x + y′z
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1  x'y'z
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1  xy'z'
1 0 1 1  xy'z
1 1 0 1  xyz'
1 1 1 1  xyz

We write the terms which has o/p 1. So

x'y'z + xy'z' + xy'z + xyz' + xyz

Example 1. Obtain the canonical sum of product form of the following function:
F (A, B) = A + B

Solution. The given function contains two variables A and B. The variable B is missing from the first
term of the expression and the variable A is missing from the second term of the expression. Therefore,
the first term is to be multiplied by (B + B′) and the second term is to be multiplied by (A + A′) as
demonstrated below.
F (A, B) = A + B
= A.1 + B.1
= A (B + B′) + B (A + A′)
= AB + AB′ + AB + A′B
= AB + AB′ + A′B (as AB + AB = AB)

Hence the canonical sum of the product expression of the given function is F (A, B) = AB + AB′ + A′B.

Example 2. Obtain the canonical sum of product form of the following function.
F (A, B, C) = A + BC
Solution. Here neither the first term nor the second term is minterm. The given function contains three
variables A, B, and C. The variables B and C are missing from the first term of the expression and the

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variable A is missing from the second term of the expression. Therefore, the first term is to be
multiplied by (B + B′) and (C + C′).
The second term is to be multiplied by (A + A′). This is demonstrated below.
F (A, B, C) = A + BC
= A (B + B′) (C + C′) + BC (A + A′)
= (AB + AB′) (C + C′) + ABC + A′BC
= ABC + AB′C + ABC′ + AB′C′ + ABC + A′BC
= ABC + AB′C + ABC′ + AB′C′ + A′BC (as ABC + ABC = ABC)

Hence the canonical sum of the product expression of the given function is F (A, B,C) = ABC + AB′C +
ABC′ + AB′C′ + A′BC.

Example 3. Obtain the canonical product of the sum form of the following function.
F (A, B, C) = (A + B′) (B + C) (A + C′)
Solution. In the above three-variable expression, C is missing from the first term, A is missing from the
second term, and B is missing from the third term. Therefore, CC′ is to be added with first term, AA′ is
to be added with the second, and BB′ is to be added with the third term. This is shown below.
F (A, B, C) = (A + B′) (B + C) (A + C′)
= (A + B′ + 0) (B + C + 0) (A + C′ + 0)
= (A + B′ + CC′) (B + C + AA′) (A + C′ + BB′)
= (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) (A′ + B + C) (A + B + C′) (A + B′ + C′) [using
the distributive property, as X + YZ = (X + Y)(X + Z)]
= (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) (A′ + B + C) (A + B + C′) [as (A + B′ + C′) (A
+ B′ + C′) = A + B′ + C′]
Hence the canonical product of the sum expression for the given function is
F (A, B, C) = (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) (A′ + B + C) (A + B + C′)

Example 4. Obtain the canonical product of the sum form of the following function.
F (A, B, C) = A + B′C
Solution. In the above three-variable expression, the function is given at sum of the product form. First,
the function needs to be changed to product of the sum form by applying the distributive law as shown
below. F (A, B, C) = A + B′C = (A + B′) (A + C) Now, in the above expression, C is missing from the
first term and B is missing from the second term. Hence CC′ is to be added with the first term and BB′ is
to be added with the second term as shown below.

F (A, B, C) = (A + B′) (A + C)
= (A + B′ + CC′) (A + C + BB′)
= (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) (A + B′ + C) [using the distributive property, as
X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z)]
= (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) [as (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C) = A + B′ + C]

Hence the canonical product of the sum expression for the given function is
F (A, B, C) = (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C).

2.4.3 Conversion between Standard Forms

The terms which are not present in minterms will be maxterms.
The terms which are not present in maxterms will be minterms.

For example:
Given, F(A, B, C) = Π(0, 1, 4, 6)

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 We know immediately that
F(A, B, C) = Σ(2, 3, 5, 7)

[6]. TYPES OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

A boolean logic function can be expressed in the following forms:

(i) Sum of Products (SOP)

(ii) Product of Sums (POS)

A. Sum of Product:
If we add two or more minterms then we get sum of products (SOP) It is denoted by ∑.
Ex- F = xy'z' + xy'z + xyz
We can write it as = m4+m5+m7
We can write it as = ∑ (m4+m5+m7)
We can write it as = ∑ (4,5,7)
B. Product of Sum:

If we add multiply two or more maxterms then we get product of Sum(POS). It is denoted by Π.

Ex- (x' + y + z') . ( x + y' + z ) . ( x + y' + z') = M2+M5+M4

We can write it as = M2+M5+M4

We can write it as = 𝜋 (M2+M5+M4)
We can write it as = 𝜋 (2,5,4)

Q. Make Boolean function for a TV. TV is connected with three switches. TV becomes ‘ON’ only
when atleast two of the three switches are ‘ON’ (or high) and in all other conditions TV is ‘OFF’
(or low).

Answer: Let the three switches are represented by three variable A, B and C. The output of TV is
represented by F. Since there are three switches (three variables), there are 8 distinct combinations
possible that is shown in TT.

Table:

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The TV becomes ‘ON’ at four combinations. These are 011, 101, 110 and 111. We can say that F is
determined by expressing the combinations A′BC, AB′C, ABC′ and ABC. Since each of these minterms
result in F = 1, we should have

F = A′BC + AB′C + ABC′ + ABC or

F(A,B,C) = m3 + m5 + m6 + m7. or
F(A,B,C) = Σ(m3, m5, m6, m7) or
F(A,B,C) = Σ(3, 5, 6, 7)

[7]. Boolean Algebra

In 1854 George Boole (1) introduced a systematic treatment of logic, called Boolean Algebra. In 1938
C. E. Shannon (2) introduced a two-valued Boolean algebra called switching algebra.

Table: Postulates and theorems of Boolean algebra

Postulate 2 (a) x + 0 = x (b) x • 1 = x

Postulate 3, commutative (a) x + y = y + x (b) xy = yx

Postulate 4, distributive (a) x (y + z) = xy + xz (b) x + yz = (x + y) (x + z)

Postulate 5 (a) x + x′ = 1 (b) x • x′ = 0

Theorem 1 (a) x + x = x (b) x • x = x

Theorem 2 (a) x + 1 = 1 (b) x • 0 = 0

Theorem 3, involution (x′)′ = x

Theorem 4, associative (a) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (b) x(yz) = (xy) z

Theorem 5, DeMorgan (a) (x + y)′ = x′ y′ (b) (xy)′ = x′ + y′

Theorem 6, absorption (a) x + xy = x (b) x(x + y) = x

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Ex1- Prove (x + y)(x + z) = x + yz

Soln: (x + y) (x + z)

=x⋅x+x⋅z+y⋅x+y⋅z since x.x = x

= x + xz + yx + yz

= x (1 + z) + yx + yz since (1 + z) = 1

= x + yx + yz

= x (1 + y) + yz since (1 + y) = 1

= x + yz (Proved)

Ex-2: Prove xy + xz + yz′ = xz + yz′

9Soln: xy + xz + yz′

= xy(z + z′) + xz(y + y′) + yz′(x + x′) since x + x′ = 1

= xyz + xyz′ + xyz + xy′z + xyz′ + x′yz′

= xyz + xyz′ +xy′z + x′yz′ since xyz + xyz = xyz

= xyz + xy′z + xyz′ + x′yz′ rearranging

= xz(y + y′) + yz′(x + x′) since y + y′ = 1 and x + x′ = 1

= xz + yz′ (Proved)

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(a) F = ABCD + ABCD′

= ABC(D + D′)

= ABC

(b) G = AB′C + ABC + A′BC

=AB′C + ABC + A′BC + ABC

= AC(B′ + B) + BC(A′ + A)

= AC + BC

Ex-4: Prove that A+A′B= A+B

A+A′B

=A.(1+B) + A′B

=A+AB + A′B

=(A+A′).(A+B)

=1.(A+B)

=A+B

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[8]. K-MAP Simplification

In 1953 Maurice Karnaugh developed K-map for reducing Boolean equations so that we have a small
logic circuit. The K-map is a diagram made up of squares. Each square represents one minterm/
maxterm.

2 variable K-Map

A 2 variable K-Map is used for the Boolean equation that has only two binary variables. For-ex xy+xy’.
With 2 i/ps, there are 4 possible combinations, so we has 4 sqaures in a 2 variable K-Map. Each square
shows one minterm or maxterm.

3 variable K-Map

A 3 variable K-Map is used for the Boolean equation that has only three binary variables. For-ex
xyz+xy’z. With 3 i/ps, there are 8 possible combinations, so we has 8 sqaures in a 3 variable K-Map.
Each square shows one minterm or maxterm.

4 variable K-Map

A 4 variable K-Map is used for the Boolean equation that has only four binary variables. For-ex
wxy’z+wxy’z. With 4 i/ps, there are 16 possible combinations, so we has 16 sqaures in a 4 variable K-
Map. Each square shows one minterm or maxterm.

5 variable K-Map

A 5 variable K-Map is used for the Boolean equation that has only two binary variable. For-ex
v’w’xyz+vwxy’z. With 5 i/ps, there are 32 possible combinations, so we has 32 sqaures in a 5 variable
K-Map. Each square shows one minterm or maxterm.

K MAP questions will be solved in class.

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