Reasoning:

The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and making predictions
from available knowledge, facts, and beliefs. Or we can say, "Reasoning is a way to infer
facts from existing data." It is a general process of thinking rationally, to find valid
conclusions.

In artificial intelligence, the reasoning is essential so that the machine can also think
rationally as a human brain, and can perform like a human.

Types of Reasoning
In artificial intelligence, reasoning can be divided into the following categories:

o Deductive reasoning
o Inductive reasoning
o Abductive reasoning
o Common Sense Reasoning
o Monotonic Reasoning
o Non-monotonic Reasoning

1. Deductive reasoning:
Deductive reasoning is deducing new information from logically related known information.
It is the form of valid reasoning, which means the argument's conclusion must be true when
the premises are true.

Deductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic in AI, and it requires various rules and
facts. It is sometimes referred to as top-down reasoning, and contradictory to inductive
reasoning.

In deductive reasoning, the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.

Deductive reasoning mostly starts from the general premises to the specific conclusion,
which can be explained as below example.

Example:

Premise-1: All the human eats veggies

Premise-2: Suresh is human.

Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

The general process of deductive reasoning is given below:

2. Inductive Reasoning:
Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion using limited sets of facts
by the process of generalization. It starts with the series of specific facts or data and reaches
to a general statement or conclusion.

Inductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic, which is also known as cause-effect

reasoning or bottom-up reasoning.

In inductive reasoning, we use historical data or various premises to generate a generic rule,
for which premises support the conclusion.

In inductive reasoning, premises provide probable supports to the conclusion, so the truth of
premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion.

Example:

Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.

Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.

3. Abductive reasoning:
Abductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning which starts with single or multiple
observations then seeks to find the most likely explanation or conclusion for the observation.

Abductive reasoning is an extension of deductive reasoning, but in abductive reasoning, the

premises do not guarantee the conclusion.

Example:

Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining

Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.

Conclusion It is raining.
4. Common Sense Reasoning
Common sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning, which can be gained through
experiences.

Common Sense reasoning simulates the human ability to make presumptions about events
which occurs on every day.

It relies on good judgment rather than exact logic and operates on heuristic
knowledge and heuristic rules.

Example:

1. One person can be at one place at a time.

2. If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.

The above two statements are the examples of common sense reasoning which a human mind
can easily understand and assume.

5. Monotonic Reasoning:
In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will remain the same even if we
add some other information to existing information in our knowledge base. In monotonic
reasoning, adding knowledge does not decrease the set of prepositions that can be derived.

To solve monotonic problems, we can derive the valid conclusion from the available facts
only, and it will not be affected by new facts.

Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real time, facts get
changed, so we cannot use monotonic reasoning.

Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a logic-based system is

monotonic.

Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.

Example:

o Earth revolves around the Sun.

It is a true fact, and it cannot be changed even if we add another sentence in knowledge base
like, "The moon revolves around the earth" Or "Earth is not round," etc.

Advantages of Monotonic Reasoning:

o In monotonic reasoning, each old proof will always remain valid.
o If we deduce some facts from available facts, then it will remain valid for always.
Disadvantages of Monotonic Reasoning:
o We cannot represent the real world scenarios using Monotonic reasoning.
o Hypothesis knowledge cannot be expressed with monotonic reasoning, which means facts
should be true.
o Since we can only derive conclusions from the old proofs, so new knowledge from the real
world cannot be added.

6. Non-monotonic Reasoning
In Non-monotonic reasoning, some conclusions may be invalidated if we add some more
information to our knowledge base.

Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be invalidated by adding more
knowledge into our knowledge base.

Non-monotonic reasoning deals with incomplete and uncertain models.

"Human perceptions for various things in daily life, "is a general example of non-monotonic
reasoning.

Example: Let suppose the knowledge base contains the following knowledge:

o Birds can fly

o Penguins cannot fly
o Pitty is a bird

So from the above sentences, we can conclude that Pitty can fly.

However, if we add one another sentence into knowledge base "Pitty is a penguin", which
concludes "Pitty cannot fly", so it invalidates the above conclusion.

Advantages of Non-monotonic reasoning:

o For real-world systems such as Robot navigation, we can use non-monotonic reasoning.
o In Non-monotonic reasoning, we can choose probabilistic facts or can make assumptions.

Disadvantages of Non-monotonic Reasoning:

o In non-monotonic reasoning, the old facts may be invalidated by adding new sentences.
o It cannot be used for theorem proving.
Learning

 According to Herbert Simon, learning denotes changes in a system

that enable a system to do the same task more efficiently the next
time.
 Arthur Samuel stated that, "Machine learning is the subfield of
computer science, that gives computers the ability to learn without
being explicitly programmed ".
 In 1997, Mitchell proposed that, " A computer program is said to learn
from experience 'E' with respect to some class of tasks 'T' and
performance measure 'P', if its performance at tasks in 'T', as
measured by 'P', improves with experience E ".
 The main purpose of machine learning is to study and design the
algorithms that can be used to produce the predicates from the given
dataset.

The following tasks must be learned by an agent.

 To predict or decide the result state for an action.
 To know the values for each state(understand which state has high or
low vale).
 To keep record of relevant percepts.

Various forms of learnings are explained below:

1. Rote learning
 Rote learning is possible on the basis of memorization.
 This technique mainly focuses on memorization by avoiding the inner
complexities. So, it becomes possible for the learner to recall the
stored knowledge.
For example: When a learner learns a poem or song by reciting or
repeating it, without knowing the actual meaning of the poem or song.

2. Induction learning (Learning by example).

 Induction learning is carried out on the basis of supervised learning.
 In this learning process, a general rule is induced by the system from a
set of observed instance.
 However, class definitions can be constructed with the help of a
classification method.
3. Learning by taking advice
This type is the easiest and simple way of learning.

 In this type of learning, a programmer writes a program to give some

instructions to perform a task to the computer. Once it is learned (i.e.
programmed), the system will be able to do new things.
 Also, there can be several sources for taking advice such as
humans(experts), internet etc.
 However, this type of learning has a more necessity of inference than
rote learning.
 As the stored knowledge in knowledge base gets transformed into an
operational form, the reliability of the knowledge source is always
taken into consideration.

4. Explanation based learning

 Explanation-based learning (EBL) deals with an idea of single-example
learning.
 This type of learning usually requires a substantial number of training
instances but there are two difficulties in this:
I. it is difficult to have such a number of training instances
ii. Sometimes, it may help us to learn certain things effectively,
specially when we have enough knowledge.
Hence, it is clear that instance-based learning is more data-intensive,
data-driven while EBL is more knowledge-intensive, knowledge-driven.
 Initially, an EBL system accepts a training example.
 On the basis of the given goal concept, an operationality criteria and
domain theory, it "generalizes" the training example to describe the
goal concept and to satisfy the operationality criteria (which are
usually a set of rules that describe relationships between objects and
actions in a domain).
 Thus, several applications are possible for the knowledge acquisition
and engineering aspects.
5. Learning in Problem Solving
 Humans have a tendency to learn by solving various real world
problems.
 The forms or representation, or the exact entity, problem solving
principle is based on reinforcement learning.
 Therefore, repeating certain action results in desirable outcome while
the action is avoided if it results into undesirable outcomes.
 As the outcomes have to be evaluated, this type of learning also
involves the definition of a utility function. This function shows how
much is a particular outcome worth?
 There are several research issues which include the identification of
the learning rate, time and algorithm complexity, convergence,
representation (frame and qualification problems), handling of
uncertainty (ramification problem), adaptivity and "unlearning" etc.
 In reinforcement learning, the system (and thus the developer) know
the desirable outcomes but does not know which actions result into
desirable outcomes.
 In such a problem or domain, the effects of performing the actions are
usually compounded with side-effects. Thus, it becomes impossible to
specify the actions to be performed in accordance to the given
parameters.
 Q-Learning is the most widely used reinforcement learning algorithm.