Lecture 4: Business Research Methods/Research Methods in project Management

Prof Peter K Njenga: 3rd October 2024:

Research objectives:

Introduction:

Having decided what to study, knowing why she/he wants to study it, the investigator can now
formulate his/her study objectives. Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the
problem. For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of banking facilities in a rural
town, the general objective of the study could be to assess the reasons for this low utilization.
If we break down this general objective into smaller and logically connected parts, then we get
specific objectives

Definitions:

General objectives: Aim of the study in general terms.

Specific objectives: measurable statements on the specific questions to be answered. Unlike the
general objectives, the specific objectives are more specific and are related to the research problem
situation. They indicate the variables to be examined.

Example 1: In the study on low utilization of banking facilities in a rural town, the specific
objectives could be:

1. To find out the magnitude of utilization of banking facilities by employees in the rural town

2. To examine the reasons for non-utilization of banking facilities in the rural town.

Example 2: General Objective: To investigate the effects of power outages on performance of

ICT oriented SMEs in Kaduna state, Nigeria.

Specific objectives:

1. To investigate whether power outage affects economic activities in performance of ICT

oriented SMEs in Kaduna state Nigeria.

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 2. To establish whether power outage affects alternative energy cost in performance of ICT
oriented SMEs in Kaduna state, Nigeria
3. To ascertain whether power outage affects operational cost in performance of ICT oriented
SMEs in Kaduna state, Nigeria.
4. To investigate the effects of power outage on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in
performance of ICT oriented SMEs in Kaduna state, Nigeria.

Formulation of the research objectives:

The formulation of objectives will help us to:

 Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)

 Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the
identified problem

 Organize the study in clearly defined parts

The explicit formulation of study objectives is an essential step in the planning of a study. It is said
that ‘’ a question well stated is a question half answered” but a question that is poorly stated or
unstated is unlikely to be answered at all.

How should we state our objectives?

We have to make sure that our objectives:

 Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way
and in a logical sequence

 Are clearly expressed in measurable terms

 Are realistic considering local conditions

 Meet the purpose of the study

 Use action verbs that are specific enough to be measured

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Examples of action verbs

 To determine

 To compare

 To verify

 To calculate

 To describe

 To find out

 To establish

 To ascertain

 To investigate

Avoid the use of non-action verbs such as

 To appreciate

 To understand

 To study

 To believe

Research objectives can be stated as:

 Questions- The objectives of this study are to answer the following questions….

 Positive sentence-The objectives of this study are to find out, to establish, to determine….

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Based on the type of the study problem, it might be possible to develop explanations for the
problem that can be tested. If so, we can formulate hypotheses in addition to the other study
objectives.

Research Hypothesis:

A hypothesis is defined as an educated guess or a tentative answer to the research question. It is a

statement about an expected relationship between two variables.

The Role of the Hypothesis

In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions:

• It guides the direction of the study.

• It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.

• It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.

• It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result.

Unless the researcher curbs the urge to include additional elements, a study can be diluted by trivial
concerns that do not answer the basic questions posed by the management dilemma. The virtue of
the hypothesis is that, if taken seriously, it limits what shall be studied and what shall not.

Types of hypotheses (main categories)

A null hypothesis is a negative statement which indicates no relationship nor correlation

between two variables.

Example

Given Objective: “To determine whether there is a significant relationship between the extent of
mass media exposure and attitude towards land reform among rural farmers”

The Null Hypothesis (H0): “There is no significant relationship between the extent of mass media
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exposure and attitude towards land reform among rural farmers.”

An alternative hypothesis (H1) is also called the research hypothesis. It is the positive form of

the null hypothesis.

Example

The Alternative Hypothesis: “There is a significant relationship between mass media exposure
and attitude towards land reform among rural farmers.

Other classifications of hypotheses

Directional vs. Non-directional hypotheses

A directional hypothesis states whether the relationship between two variables is direct (positive)
or inverse (negative). A positive or direct relationship is present when the value of one variable
increases with the increase in the value of another. A negative relationship is present when the
value one variable increases as the value of other variable decreases.

Example:

“ The higher the level of exposure of farmers to mass media, the more favourable their attitude

towards land reform”- - - - positive

“ The more time employees spend in meetings, the less productive they are.” - - - - negative

“ The higher the advertisement expenses of food establishments, the higher their monthly gross

sales.”- - - - positive

A non-directional hypothesis does not specify the direction of relationship between variables. It

merely states the presence or absence of a relationship between two variables or that one influences
(or does not influence) the other.

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Example:

“The women’s educational attainment is significantly associated with their extent of participation
in decision-making at home.”

Relational Hypotheses

These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case.
For example, “Foreign (variable) cars are perceived by American consumers (case) to be of better
quality (variable) than domestic cars.

Theoretical framework and Conceptual Frame work in Research:

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework defines key concepts in your research, proposes relations between them
and discusses relevant theories and models based on literature review.

Purpose:

 Provides a scientific justification for the study, showing how the research fits into the
broader context of existing knowledge.

 Helps in choosing research methods by pointing to the most appropriate approaches for
collecting and analyzing data based on the theory.

 Offers a framework for interpreting findings, helping to explain and predict behavior or
phenomena.

Example of a Theoretical Framework:

In a study on human motivation, a researcher might use Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs as a

theoretical framework. The theory posits that individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs
(e.g., physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization), and the researcher would use this
theory to explain patterns of motivation and behavior in the study.

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Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework is a pictorial representation of the relationship that exists between the
independent and dependent variables. It is the researchers understanding of how particular
variables in his/her study connect with each other. It identifies the variables required in the research
investigation. It is the researchers map in pursuing the investigation

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Theory

A theory in research is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural or social

world that is based on a body of evidence and repeatedly tested and confirmed through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It provides a systematic understanding of phenomena, guiding how
researchers think about, predict, and interpret data.

Key Features of a Theory in Research:

1. Explanation of Phenomena:

o A theory explains why or how certain phenomena occur. It goes beyond simply
describing relationships by providing reasons and mechanisms that account for
observed patterns.

o Example: Darwin's Theory of Evolution explains the process of natural selection

and how species evolve over time.

2. Based on Evidence:
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 o A theory is grounded in empirical evidence. It is derived from a wide range of
observations or experiments that support its claims.

o Example: Einstein's Theory of Relativity is based on extensive mathematical

evidence and experimental data from physics.

3. Testable and Falsifiable:

o A theory must be testable, meaning that it can be supported or refuted through

research and experimentation. It should be open to being challenged or modified as
new evidence emerges.

o Falsifiability means that a theory can be proven wrong if evidence contradicts it.
For example, Newton's Laws of Motion are testable and have been challenged by
the theory of relativity in certain contexts.

4. Predictive Power:

o A good theory has predictive power, meaning it can forecast outcomes or behaviors
under certain conditions. This predictive aspect helps researchers test the theory's
accuracy.

o Example: The Big Bang Theory predicts certain characteristics of the universe, such
as its expansion.

5. Generalizable:

o Theories typically apply to a broad range of phenomena, not just specific cases.
They are general in nature, providing explanations that can be applied in different
contexts or settings.

o Example: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs offers a general framework for

understanding human motivation across different environments and cultures.

6. Framework for Research:

o Theories provide a framework for designing research studies. They help researchers
define variables, formulate hypotheses, and design experiments or observational
studies to test their ideas.

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 o Example: Researchers studying social behavior might use Social Learning Theory
to frame how people learn behaviors through observation.

Examples of Theories in Research:

1. In Social Sciences:

o Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Explains how people handle conflicting beliefs or

attitudes, often leading them to change one of the conflicting elements.

o Conflict Theory: A sociological theory that examines the role of power and
inequality in shaping social structures.

2. In Behavioral Sciences:

o Behaviorism: A theory in psychology that explains behavior as a result of learned

responses to stimuli.

o Attachment Theory: Describes how early relationships with caregivers affect an

individual's emotional development.

Role of Theories in Research:

1. Guiding Research Questions and Hypotheses:

o Theories help researchers ask specific questions and make predictions (hypotheses)
about the relationships between variables.

2. Interpreting Data:

o When analyzing results, researchers use theories to interpret and make sense of the
data. Theories help explain why certain outcomes were observed.

3. Advancing Knowledge:

o Theories evolve and develop over time. As new research is conducted, theories may
be refined, extended, or even replaced by new theories, helping to advance the
overall body of knowledge.

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Models in Research

A scientific model is a representation of a particular phenomenon in the world using something

else to represent it, making it easier to understand. A scientific model could be a diagram or picture,
a computer program, or set of complex mathematics that describes a situation. Whatever it is, the
goal is to make the particular thing you're modeling easier to understand.

Examples:

In Economics:

 Supply and Demand Model: A graphical representation of the relationship between the
price of a good and the quantity supplied or demanded.
 Keynesian Model: A macroeconomic model that explains the effects of government
spending and taxation on economic activity.

In Psychology:

 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A conceptual model that depicts the stages of human
needs, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

Research designs:

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data. A
research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data

Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which include:

1. The nature of the study

2. The purpose of the study

3. The location where the study would be conducted

4. The nature of data required

5. From where the required data can be collected

6. What time period the study would cover

7. The type of sample design that would be used

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 8. The techniques of data collection that would be used

9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and

10. The manner in which the report would be prepared

The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:

i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required for the
research problem;

ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis which
would be adopted; and

iii. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in conducting
the study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any research

Concepts Relating to Research Design:

Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:

1. Variable: In research, a variable is any characteristic, factor, or attribute that can be changed
or controlled to measure its impact on another variable. Variables are key components in
research design because they allow for the investigation of relationships, effects, and outcomes.

In research, variables are critical elements used to measure, observe, and analyze different
factors that can influence an outcome. The types of variables can be broadly categorized based
on their roles in the research process. Below are the main types of variables in research:

1. Independent Variables (IV)

 Definition: The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to investigate its
effect on another variable.

 Role: It is the "cause" in a cause-and-effect relationship.

 Example: In a study examining the effect of marketing strategies on sales performance, the
marketing strategies (e.g., social media ads, email campaigns) are the independent
variables.

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2. Dependent Variables (DV)

 Definition: The variable that is measured or observed to see how it is affected by changes
in the independent variable.

 Role: It is the "effect" or outcome being studied.

 Example: In the marketing study mentioned above, the sales performance (e.g., total
revenue or number of products sold) is the dependent variable.

3. Controlled Variables (CV)

 Definition: Variables that are kept constant throughout the research to ensure that the
results are solely due to the independent variable and not other factors.

 Role: Control variables help maintain the integrity of the experiment by reducing external
influences.

 Example: In a study on employee productivity, factors like office environment, work hours,
and company policies may be controlled so they do not affect the results.

4. Confounding Variables

 Definition: Variables that are not controlled but may influence both the independent and
dependent variables, potentially leading to a false conclusion about the relationship
between them.

 Role: Confounding variables introduce bias and must be accounted for or controlled to
maintain validity.

 Example: In a study investigating the effect of exercise (IV) on weight loss (DV), dietary
habits might be a confounding variable if not controlled.

5. Extraneous Variables

 Definition: Any variables other than the independent variable that might affect the
dependent variable. They can be either controlled or left uncontrolled but may introduce
noise into the data.

 Role: They are not the focus of the study but can influence the results if not managed.

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 Example: In a project evaluating the effect of different teaching methods on student
performance, factors like student motivation and parental involvement are extraneous
variables.

6. Moderator Variables

 Definition: A variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.

 Role: It moderates or changes the interaction between variables.

 Example: In a study on the effect of stress on employee productivity, the level of experience
might be a moderator variable, as experienced employees might handle stress differently
than less experienced ones.

7. Mediator Variables

 Definition: A variable that explains the mechanism through which the independent variable
affects the dependent variable.

 Role: It provides insight into the process or pathway between the cause and effect.

 Example: In a study exploring the relationship between training (IV) and employee
performance (DV), increased job satisfaction could be the mediator that explains why
training improves performance.

8. Categorical Variables (Qualitative)

 Definition: Variables that represent distinct categories or groups.

 Types:

o Nominal Variables: Categories without a specific order (e.g., gender, ethnicity).

o Ordinal Variables: Categories with a specific order but no consistent difference

between levels (e.g., satisfaction levels: low, medium, high).

 Example: In a consumer survey, the brand of a product (e.g., Brand A, Brand B) is a

nominal variable, while customer satisfaction rating (e.g., dissatisfied, neutral, satisfied) is
an ordinal variable.

9. Continuous Variables (Quantitative)

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  Definition: Variables that can take on a range of numerical values, and the difference
between them can be measured.

 Types:

o Interval Variables: Variables with a consistent difference between values but no

true zero point (e.g., temperature in Celsius).

o Ratio Variables: Variables with a consistent difference and a meaningful zero point
(e.g., weight, income).

 Example: In a financial study, company profits (in dollars) would be a ratio variable, while
employee satisfaction scores on a scale of 1 to 10 might be an interval variable.

10. Binary Variables

 Definition: A special type of categorical variable that has only two possible outcomes or
categories.

 Role: These variables help in simplifying data analysis.

 Example: A binary variable could represent whether a customer made a purchase (yes/no).

Understanding these different types of variables helps researchers design more effective
studies and interpret their findings with greater clarity.

2. Concept: In research, a concept refers to an abstract idea or general notion that represents some
aspect of the world that researchers aim to explore or investigate. Concepts are fundamental
building blocks of theory and research. They are often used to define, categorize, and
communicate complex ideas that may not have a direct, observable form. In many cases,
concepts are translated into measurable forms called variables in order to be tested or analyzed
in a study.

Examples of Concepts in Research:

a. In Business:
o Customer Loyalty: This is an abstract concept that reflects a customer’s
commitment to continue buying from a brand. To study customer loyalty,
researchers might measure repeat purchases, customer satisfaction surveys, or
brand advocacy.
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 b. In Social Sciences:
o Social Capital: This concept refers to the networks, relationships, and norms that
facilitate collective action in a society. To operationalize social capital,
researchers might examine community engagement, trust levels, or participation
in civic activities.

3. Construct: In research, a construct is a specific type of concept that is theoretical and abstract
but designed to represent phenomena that are not directly observable. Constructs are often used
to explain or describe complex attributes, traits, or characteristics in fields like psychology,
sociology, education, and business. Researchers operationalize these constructs, breaking them
down into measurable variables for empirical study. A construct is an image or abstract idea
specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-building purpose. We build constructs
by combining the simpler, more concrete concepts, especially when the idea or image we
intend to convey is not subject to direct observation. Abstract concepts are the ones basically
referred to as constructs in research.

Examples of Constructs in Research:

a. In Psychology:
o Self-Efficacy: This construct refers to an individual's belief in their ability to
perform specific tasks successfully. To operationalize this, researchers might use
questionnaires asking individuals to rate their confidence in performing particular
actions.
b. In Business:
o Organizational Commitment: This construct refers to the psychological
attachment an employee feels toward their organization. Researchers might
measure this construct through employee surveys that assess feelings of loyalty,
intention to stay with the company, and job satisfaction.
c. In Education:
o Academic Achievement: This construct refers to a student’s overall academic
performance and success. It might be operationalized through standardized test
scores, grades, or other assessments of academic skills.
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Types of Research Designs:

Research design is a crucial aspect of any research study, guiding the process of data collection
and analysis. It can be classified into various types based on different criteria. Here are some
common classifications of research design:

1. Based on Purpose:
Exploratory Research Design: Used to explore a new or unfamiliar problem or phenomenon. It
helps in gaining insights and generating hypotheses.

Descriptive Research Design: Involves the detailed description of the characteristics of a

population or phenomenon. It aims to provide a clear picture of the situation.

Explanatory (or Causal) Research Design: Seeks to determine causal relationships between
variables. It investigates the cause-and-effect relationships between independent and dependent
variables.

2. Based on Timing of Data Collection:

Cross-Sectional Design: Data is collected at a single point in time, providing a snapshot of a
population or phenomenon.

Longitudinal Design: Involves the collection of data over an extended period, allowing
researchers to observe changes and trends over time.

3. Based on Control:
Experimental Research Design: Involves manipulation of variables to observe the effect on the
dependent variable. It includes experimental and control groups.

Non-Experimental (or Observational) Research Design: Researchers observe and analyze

phenomena without intervening or manipulating variables.

4. Based on Implementation:
Field Research Design: Conducted in a real-world setting outside the laboratory.

Laboratory Research Design: Conducted in a controlled environment to manipulate variables

more precisely.

5. Based on Nature of Data:

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Quantitative Research Design: Involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to test
hypotheses and answer research questions.

Qualitative Research Design: Focuses on gathering non-numerical data, such as observations,

interviews, or content analysis, to explore and understand phenomena.

6. Based on Structure:
Structured Research Design: A predetermined set of questions and response options is used for
data collection.

Unstructured Research Design: Allows for flexibility in data collection, with open-ended
questions and a more flexible approach.

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