Swedish language

Swedish (endonym: svenska [ˈsvɛ̂ nːska] ) is a

North Germanic language from the Indo-European Swedish
language family, spoken predominantly in Sweden Svenska
and parts of Finland.[2] It has at least 10 million Pronunciation [ˈsvɛ̂ nːska]
native speakers, making it the fourth most spoken Native to Sweden, Finland, formerly
Germanic language, and the first among its type in Estonia
the Nordic countries overall.[3] Ethnicity Swedes

Swedish, like the other Nordic languages, is a Speakers Native: 10 million (2012–
2021)[1]
descendant of Old Norse, the common language of
L2 speakers: 3 million[1]
the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during
Language family Indo-European
the Viking Age. It is largely mutually intelligible
with Norwegian and Danish, although the degree Germanic
of mutual intelligibility is dependent on the dialect North Germanic
and accent of the speaker. East Scandinavian

Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the Swedish

national language that evolved from the Central Early forms Old Norse
Swedish dialects in the 19th century, and was well
Old East Norse
established by the beginning of the 20th century.
While distinct regional varieties and rural dialects Old Swedish
still exist, the written language is uniform and Modern Swedish
standardized. Swedish is the most widely spoken Writing system Latin (Swedish alphabet)
second language in Finland where its status is co- Swedish Braille
official language. Signed forms Tecknad svenska (obsolete)
Official status
Swedish was long spoken in parts of Estonia,
although the current status of the Estonian Swedish Official language in Finland
speakers is almost extinct. It is also used in the Sweden
Åland
Swedish diaspora, most notably in Oslo, Norway,
European Union
with more than 50,000 Swedish residents.[4] Nordic Council
Regulated by Swedish Language Council
(in Sweden)
Classification Swedish Academy (in
Sweden)
Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging Institute for the Languages
to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic of Finland (in Finland)
languages. In the established classification, it Language codes
belongs to the East Scandinavian languages, ISO 639-1 sv (https://www.loc.
together with Danish, separating it from the West gov/standards/iso639
Scandinavian languages, consisting of Faroese,
Icelandic, and Norwegian. However, more recent -2/php/langcodes_nam
analyses divide the North Germanic languages into e.php?iso_639_1=sv)
two groups: Insular Scandinavian (Faroese and ISO 639-2 swe (https://www.lo
Icelandic), and Continental Scandinavian (Danish, c.gov/standards/iso6
39-2/php/langcodes_n
Norwegian, and Swedish), based on mutual
ame.php?code_ID=433)
intelligibility due to heavy influence of East
ISO 639-3 swe
Scandinavian (particularly Danish) on Norwegian
during the last millennium and divergence from Glottolog swed1254 (https://gl
ottolog.org/resourc
both Faroese and Icelandic.[5]
e/languoid/id/swed12
54)
By many general criteria of mutual intelligibility,
Linguasphere to -cw 52-AAA-ck to
the Continental Scandinavian languages could very
-cw (http://www.hort
well be considered dialects of a common
ensj-garden.org/inde
Scandinavian language. However, because of x.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&n
several hundred years of sometimes quite intense id=52-AAA-ck)
rivalry between Denmark and Sweden, including a
long series of wars from the 16th to 18th centuries,
and the nationalist ideas that emerged during the
late 19th and early 20th centuries, the languages
have separate orthographies, dictionaries,
grammars, and regulatory bodies. Danish,
Norwegian, and Swedish are thus from a linguistic
perspective more accurately described as a dialect
continuum of Scandinavian (North Germanic), and
some of the dialects, such as those on the border
between Norway and Sweden, especially parts of
Bohuslän, Dalsland, western Värmland, western
Regions where Swedish is an official language
Dalarna, Härjedalen, Jämtland, and Scania, could
spoken by the majority of the population (Sweden,
be described as intermediate dialects of the
Åland, Western Finland)
national standard languages.[5] Regions where Swedish is an official language
spoken by a minority of the population (Finland)
Swedish pronunciations also vary greatly from one
region to another, a legacy of the vast geographic
distances and historical isolation. Even so, the vocabulary is standardized to a level that make dialects
within Sweden virtually fully mutually intelligible.

⁠ East Germanic languages

⁠
⁠ West Germanic languages
⁠
⁠Icelandic
⁠
⁠Old West Norse ⁠Faroese
⁠Proto-Germanic ⁠
⁠
⁠
⁠Norwegian
Proto-Norse → ⁠Old Norse
⁠
⁠ ⁠
⁠Old East Norse ⁠Danish
⁠
 ⁠ ⁠Swedish
⁠

History

Old Norse
In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of
Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, evolved into Old Norse. This
language underwent more changes that did not spread to all of
Scandinavia, which resulted in the appearance of two similar
dialects: Old West Norse (Norway, the Faroe Islands and
Iceland) and Old East Norse (Denmark and Sweden). The
dialects of Old East Norse spoken in Sweden are called Runic
Swedish, while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as The approximate extent of Old Norse and
Runic Danish. The dialects are described as "runic" because related languages in the early 10th
the main body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike century:
Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark Old West Norse dialect
alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark Old East Norse dialect
alphabet, which had only 16 letters. Because the number of Old Gutnish dialect
runes was limited, some runes were used for a range of Old English
phonemes, such as the rune for the vowel u, which was also Crimean Gothic
used for the vowels o, ø and y, and the rune for i, also used Other Germanic languages with
which Old Norse still retained some
for e.[6]
mutual intelligibility
From 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to
diverge from those of Sweden. The innovations spread
unevenly from Denmark, creating a series of minor dialectal boundaries, or isoglosses, ranging from
Zealand in the south to Norrland, Österbotten and northwestern Finland in the north.[6]

An early change that separated Runic Danish from the other dialects of Old East Norse was the change of
the diphthong æi to the monophthong é, as in stæinn to sténn "stone". This is reflected in runic
inscriptions where the older read stain and the later stin. There was also a change of au as in dauðr into a
long open ø as in døðr "dead". This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from tauþr into
tuþr. Moreover, the øy diphthong changed into a long, close ø, as in the Old Norse word for "island". By
the end of the period, these innovations had affected most of the Runic Swedish-speaking area as well,
with the exception of the dialects spoken north and east of Mälardalen where the diphthongs still exist in
remote areas.[7]

Old Swedish
Old Swedish (Swedish: fornsvenska) is the term used for the medieval Swedish language. The start date
is usually set to 1225 since this is the year that Västgötalagen ("the Västgöta Law") is believed to have
been compiled for the first time.[8] It is among the most important documents of the period written in
Latin script and the oldest Swedish law codes. Old Swedish is divided into äldre fornsvenska (1225–
1375) and yngre fornsvenska (1375–1526), "older" and "younger" Old Swedish.[9] Important outside
influences during this time came with the firm establishment of
the Christian church and various monastic orders, introducing
many Greek and Latin loanwords. With the rise of Hanseatic
power in the late 13th and early 14th century, Middle Low
German became very influential. The Hanseatic league provided
Swedish commerce and administration with a large number of
Low German-speaking immigrants. Many became quite influential
members of Swedish medieval society, and brought terms from
their native languages into the vocabulary. Besides a great number
of loanwords for such areas as warfare, trade and administration,
general grammatical suffixes and even conjunctions were
imported. The League also brought a certain measure of influence
from Danish (at the time Swedish and Danish were much more
similar than today).[10]
The initial page of the first complete
Early Old Swedish was markedly different from the modern copy of Västgötalagen, the law code
language in that it had a more complex case structure and also of Västergötland, from c. 1280. It is
one of the earliest texts in Swedish
retained the original Germanic three-gender system. Nouns,
written in the Latin script.
adjectives, pronouns and certain numerals were inflected in four
cases; besides the extant nominative, there were also the genitive
(later possessive), dative and accusative. The gender system resembled that of modern German, having
masculine, feminine and neuter genders. The masculine and feminine genders were later merged into a
common gender with the definite suffix -en and the definite article den, in contrast with the neuter gender
equivalents -et and det. The verb system was also more complex: it included subjunctive and imperative
moods and verbs were conjugated according to person as well as number. By the 16th century, the case
and gender systems of the colloquial spoken language and the profane literature had been largely reduced
to the two cases and two genders of modern Swedish.[11]

A transitional change of the Latin script in the Nordic countries was to spell the letter combination "ae" as
æ – and sometimes as a' – though it varied between persons and regions. The combination "ao" was
similarly rendered ao, and "oe" became oe. These three were later to evolve into the separate letters ä, å
and ö.[12] The first time the new letters were used in print was in Aff dyäffwlsens frästilse ("By the Devil's
temptation") published by Johan Gerson in 1495.[13]

Modern Swedish
Modern Swedish (Swedish: nysvenska) begins with the advent of the printing press and the European
Reformation. After assuming power, the new monarch Gustav Vasa ordered a Swedish translation of the
Bible. The New Testament was published in 1526, followed by a full Bible translation in 1541, usually
referred to as the Gustav Vasa Bible, a translation deemed so successful and influential that, with
revisions incorporated in successive editions, it remained the most common Bible translation until 1917.
The main translators were Laurentius Andreæ and the brothers Laurentius and Olaus Petri.[14]

The Vasa Bible is often considered to be a reasonable compromise between old and new; while not
adhering to the colloquial spoken language of its day, it was not overly conservative in its use of archaic
forms.[15] It was a major step towards a more consistent Swedish orthography. It established the use of
the vowels "å", "ä", and "ö", and the spelling "ck" in place of "kk", distinguishing it clearly from the
Danish Bible, perhaps intentionally, given the ongoing rivalry between the
countries. All three translators came from central Sweden, which is
generally seen as adding specific Central Swedish features to the new
Bible.[16]

Though it might seem as if the Bible translation set a very powerful

precedent for orthographic standards, spelling actually became more
inconsistent during the remainder of the century. It was not until the 17th
century that spelling began to be discussed, around the time when the first
grammars were written.[17] Capitalization during this time was not
standardized. It depended on the authors and their background. Those
influenced by German capitalized all nouns, while others capitalized more
sparsely. It is also not always apparent which letters are capitalized owing
to the Gothic or blackletter typeface that was used to print the Bible. This Front page of Gustav
typeface was in use until the mid-18th century, when it was gradually Vasa's Bible from 1541,
replaced with a Latin typeface (often Antiqua).[18] using Fraktur. The title
translated to English reads:
Some important changes in sound during the Modern Swedish period "The Bible / That is / The
Holy Scripture / in Swedish.
were the gradual assimilation of several different consonant clusters into
Printed in Uppsala. 1541".
the fricative [ʃ] and later into [ɧ]. There was also the gradual softening of
[ɡ] and [k] into [j] and the fricative [ɕ] before front vowels. The velar
fricative [ɣ] was also transformed into the corresponding plosive [ɡ].[19]

Contemporary Swedish
The period that includes Swedish as it is spoken today is termed
nusvenska (lit., "Now-Swedish") in linguistics, and started in the last
decades of the 19th century. It saw a democratization of the language
with a less formal written form that approached the spoken one. The
growth of a public school system also led to the evolution of so-called
boksvenska (literally, "book Swedish"), especially among the working
classes, where spelling to some extent influenced pronunciation,
particularly in official contexts. With the industrialization and
urbanization of Sweden well under way by the last decades of the 19th
century, a new breed of authors made their mark on Swedish literature.
Many scholars, politicians and other public figures had a great influence
August Strindberg, one of the
on the emerging national language, among them prolific authors like the most influential writers in
poet Gustaf Fröding, Nobel laureate Selma Lagerlöf and radical writer modern Swedish literature.
and playwright August Strindberg.[21]

It was during the 20th century that a common, standardized national language became available to all
Swedes. The orthography finally stabilized and became almost completely uniform, with some minor
deviations, by the time of the spelling reform of 1906.[22] With the exception of plural forms of verbs and
a slightly different syntax, particularly in the written language, the language was the same as the Swedish
of today. The plural verb forms appeared decreasingly in formal writing into the 1950s, when their use
was removed from all official recommendations.[23][24]
A very significant change in Swedish occurred in the late 1960s,
with the so-called du-reformen, "the you-reform". Previously, the
proper way to address people of the same or higher social status
had been by title and surname. The use of herr ("Mr." or "Sir"), fru
("Mrs." or "Ma'am") or fröken ("Miss") was considered the only
acceptable way to begin conversation with strangers of unknown
occupation, academic title or military rank. The fact that the
listener should preferably be referred to in the third person tended
to further complicate spoken communication between members of A sign on the wall of a Swedish
society. In the early 20th century, an unsuccessful attempt was hotel, using both the
made to replace the insistence on titles with ni—the standard recommended[20] dem and the
second person plural pronoun)—analogous to the French vous (see colloquial dom for the word "them"
T-V distinction). Ni wound up being used as a slightly less familiar on the same sign.
form of du, the singular second person pronoun, used to address
people of lower social status. With the liberalization and
radicalization of Swedish society in the 1950s and 1960s, these class distinctions became less important,
and du became the standard, even in formal and official contexts. Though the reform was not an act of
any centralized political decree, but rather the result of sweeping change in social attitudes, it was
completed in just a few years, from the late 1960s to early 1970s.[25] The use of ni as a polite form of
address is sometimes encountered today in both the written and spoken language, particularly among
older speakers.[26]

Geographic distribution
Swedish is the sole official national language of Sweden, and one of two in Finland (alongside Finnish).
As of 2006, it was the sole native language of 83% of Swedish residents.[27] In 2007, around 5.5% (c.
290,000) of the population of Finland were native speakers of Swedish,[28] partially due to a decline
following the Russian annexation of Finland after the Finnish War 1808–1809.[29] The Fenno-Swedish-
speaking minority is concentrated in the coastal areas and archipelagos of southern and western Finland.
In some of these areas, Swedish is the predominant language; in 19 municipalities, 16 of which are
located in Åland, Swedish is the sole official language. Åland county is an autonomous region of
Finland.[30]

According to a rough estimation, as of 2010 there were up to 300,000 Swedish-speakers living outside
Sweden and Finland. The largest populations were in the United States (up to 100,000), the UK, Spain
and Germany (c. 30,000 each) and a large proportion of the remaining 100,000 in the Scandinavian
countries, France, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Canada and Australia.[31] Over three million
people speak Swedish as a second language, with about 2,410,000 of those in Finland.[1] According to a
survey by the European Commission, 44% of respondents from Finland who did not have Swedish as a
native language considered themselves to be proficient enough in Swedish to hold a conversation.[32] Due
to the close relation between the Scandinavian languages, a considerable proportion of speakers of
Danish and especially Norwegian are able to understand Swedish.[33]

There is considerable migration between the Nordic countries, but owing to the similarity between the
cultures and languages (with the exception of Finnish), expatriates generally assimilate quickly and do
not stand out as a group. According to the 2000 United States Census, some 67,000 people over the age of
five were reported as Swedish speakers, though without any information on the degree of language
proficiency.[34] Similarly, there were 16,915 reported Swedish speakers in Canada from the 2001
census.[35] Although there are no certain numbers, some 40,000 Swedes are estimated to live in the
London area in the United Kingdom.[36] Outside Sweden and Finland, there are about 40,000 active
learners enrolled in Swedish language courses.[37]

In the United States, particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a significant
Swedish-speaking immigrant population. This was notably true in states like Minnesota, where many
Swedish immigrants settled. By 1940, approximately 6% of Minnesota's population spoke Swedish.[38]
Although the use of Swedish has significantly declined, it is not uncommon to find older generations and
communities that still retain some use and knowledge of the language, particularly in rural communities
like Lindström and Scandia.[39][40]

Official status
Swedish is the official main language of Sweden.[41][42] Swedish
is also one of two official languages of Finland. In Sweden, it has
long been used in local and state government, and most of the
educational system, but remained only a de facto primary
language with no official status in law until 2009. A bill was
proposed in 2005 that would have made Swedish an official
language, but failed to pass by the narrowest possible margin A Finnish/Swedish street sign in
Helsinki, Finland
(145–147) due to a pairing-off failure.[43] A proposal for a broader
language law, designating Swedish as the main language of the
country and bolstering the status of the minority languages, was submitted by an expert committee to the
Swedish Ministry of Culture in March 2008. It was subsequently enacted by the Riksdag, and entered into
effect on 1 July 2009.[44]

Swedish is the sole official language of Åland (an autonomous province under the sovereignty of
Finland), where the vast majority of the 26,000 inhabitants speak Swedish as a first language. In Finland
as a whole, Swedish is one of the two "national" languages, with the same official status as Finnish
(spoken by the majority) at the state level and an official language in some municipalities.

Swedish is one of the official languages of the European Union, and one of the working languages of the
Nordic Council. Under the Nordic Language Convention, citizens of the Nordic countries speaking
Swedish have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other
Nordic countries without being liable for interpretation or translation costs.[45][46]

Regulatory bodies
The Swedish Language Council (Språkrådet) is the regulator of Swedish in Sweden but does not attempt
to enforce control of the language, as for instance the Académie française does for French. However,
many organizations and agencies require the use of the council's publication Svenska skrivregler in
official contexts, with it otherwise being regarded as a de facto orthographic standard. Among the many
organizations that make up the Swedish Language Council, the Swedish Academy (established 1786) is
arguably the most influential. Its primary instruments are the spelling dictionary Svenska Akademiens
ordlista (SAOL, currently in its 14th edition) and the dictionary
Svenska Akademiens Ordbok, in addition to various books on
grammar, spelling and manuals of style. Although the dictionaries
have a prescriptive element, they mainly describe current
usage.[47]

In Finland, a special branch of the Research Institute for the

Languages of Finland has official status as the regulatory body for
Swedish in Finland. Among its highest priorities is to maintain
intelligibility with the language spoken in Sweden. It has
published Finlandssvensk ordbok, a dictionary about the
differences between Swedish in Finland and Sweden.[48]

Language minorities in Estonia and Ukraine

From the 13th to 20th century, there were Swedish-speaking
communities in Estonia, particularly on the islands (e. g., Hiiumaa, Map of the Estonian islands, which
Vormsi, Ruhnu; in Swedish, known as Dagö, Ormsö, Runö, formerly housed "Coastal Swede"
respectively) along the coast of the Baltic, communities that today populations

have all disappeared. The Swedish-speaking minority was

represented in parliament, and entitled to use their native language
in parliamentary debates. After the loss of Estonia to the Russian Empire in the early 18th century, around
1,000 Estonian Swedish speakers were forced to march to southern Ukraine, where they founded a
village, Gammalsvenskby ("Old Swedish Village"). A few elderly people in the village still speak a
Swedish dialect and observe the holidays of the Swedish calendar, although their dialect is most likely
facing extinction.[49]

From 1918 to 1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated.
Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative
language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to
Sweden before the end of World War II, that is, before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in
1944. Only a handful of speakers remain.[50]

Phonology
Swedish dialects have either 17 or 18 vowel phonemes, 9 long and 9 short. As in the other Germanic
languages, including English, most long vowels are phonetically paired with one of the short vowels, and
the pairs are such that the two vowels are of similar quality, but with the short vowel being slightly lower
and slightly centralized. In contrast to e.g. Danish, which has only tense vowels, the short vowels are
slightly more lax, but the tense vs. lax contrast is not nearly as pronounced as in English, German or
Dutch. In many dialects, the short vowel sound pronounced [ɛ] or [æ] has merged with the short /e/
(transcribed ⟨ɛ⟩ in the chart below).[52]

There are 18 consonant phonemes, two of which, /ɧ/ and /r/, vary considerably in pronunciation
depending on the dialect and social status of the speaker. In many dialects, sequences of /r/ (pronounced
alveolarly) with a dental consonant result in retroflex consonants; alveolarity of the pronunciation of /r/ is
a precondition for this retroflexion. /r/ has a guttural
or "French R" pronunciation in the South Swedish
dialects; consequently, these dialects lack retroflex
consonants.[53]

Swedish is a stress-timed language, where the time

intervals between stressed syllables are equal.
However, when casually spoken, it tends to be
syllable-timed.[54] Any stressed syllable carries one of
two tones, which gives Swedish much of its
characteristic sound. Prosody is often one of the most
noticeable differences between dialects.[55] The vowel phonemes of Central Standard
Swedish[51]

Dental
Labial Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Alveolar

Nasal m n (ɳ) ŋ

voiceless p t (ʈ) k
Plosive
voiced b d (ɖ) ɡ

voiceless f s (ʂ) ɕ ɧ h
Continuant
voiced v l j

Trill r

Grammar
The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, which means that the finite verb (V)
appears in the second position (2) of a declarative main clause. Swedish morphology is similar to
English; that is, words have comparatively few inflections. Swedish has two genders[56] and is generally
seen to have two grammatical cases – nominative and genitive (except for pronouns that, as in English,
also are inflected in the object form) – although it is debated if the genitive in Swedish should be seen as
a genitive case or just the nominative plus the so-called genitive s, then seen as a clitic. Swedish has two
grammatical numbers – plural and singular. Adjectives have discrete comparative and superlative forms
and are also inflected according to gender, number and definiteness. The definiteness of nouns is marked
primarily through suffixes (endings), complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles. The
prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a comparatively large
vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless dorso-palatal velar fricative, a highly variable
consonant phoneme.

Swedish nouns and adjectives are declined in genders as well as number. Nouns are of common gender
(en form) or neuter gender (ett form).[57] The gender determines the declension of the adjectives. For
example, the word fisk ("fish") is a noun of common gender (en fisk) and can have the following forms:
 Singular Plural

Indefinite form fisk fiskar

Definite form fisken fiskarna

The definite singular form of a noun is created by adding a suffix (-en, -n, -et or -t), depending on its
gender and if the noun ends in a vowel or not. The definite articles den, det, and de are used for variations
to the definitiveness of a noun. They can double as demonstrative pronouns or demonstrative determiners
when used with adverbs such as här ("here") or där ("there") to form den/det här (can also be
"denna/detta") ("this"), de här (can also be "dessa") ("these"), den/det där ("that"), and de där ("those").
For example, den där fisken means "that fish" and refers to a specific fish; den fisken is less definite and
means "that fish" in a more abstract sense, such as that set of fish; while fisken means "the fish". In
certain cases, the definite form indicates possession, e. g., jag måste tvätta håret ("I must wash my
hair").[58]

Adjectives are inflected in two declensions – indefinite and definite – and they must match the noun they
modify in gender and number. The indefinite neuter and plural forms of an adjective are usually created
by adding a suffix (-t or -a) to the common form of the adjective, e. g., en grön stol (a green chair), ett
grönt hus (a green house), and gröna stolar ("green chairs"). The definite form of an adjective is identical
to the indefinite plural form, e. g., den gröna stolen ("the green chair"), det gröna huset ("the green
house"), and de gröna stolarna ("the green chairs").[58]

Swedish pronouns are similar to those of English. Besides the two natural genders han and hon ("he" and
"she"), there are also the two grammatical genders den and det, usually termed common and neuter. In
recent years, a gender-neutral pronoun hen has been introduced, particularly in literary Swedish. Unlike
the nouns, pronouns have an additional object form, derived from the old dative form. Hon, for example,
has the following nominative, possessive, and object forms:[58]

hon – hennes – henne

Swedish also uses third-person possessive reflexive pronouns that refer to the subject in a clause, a trait
that is restricted to North Germanic languages:

Anna gav Maria sin bok.; "Anna gave Maria her [Anna's] book." (reflexive)
Anna gav Maria hennes bok.; "Anna gave Maria her [Maria's] book." (not reflexive)

Swedish used to have a genitive that was placed at the end of the head of a noun phrase. In modern
Swedish, it has become an enclitic -s, which attaches to the end of the noun phrase, rather than the noun
itself.[59]

hästen; "the horse" – hästens "the horse's"

hästen på den blommande ängens svarta man; "the horse in the flowering meadow's
black mane"

In formal written language, it used to be considered correct to place the genitive -s after the head of the
noun phrase (hästen), though this is today considered dated, and different grammatical constructions are
often used.[60]
Verbs are conjugated according to tense. One group of verbs (the ones ending in -er in present tense) has
a special imperative form (generally the verb stem), but with most verbs the imperative is identical to the
infinitive form. Perfect and present participles as adjectival verbs are very common:[58]

Perfect participle: en stekt fisk; "a fried fish" (steka = to fry)

Present participle: en stinkande fisk; "a stinking fish" (stinka = to stink)

In contrast to English and many other languages, Swedish does not use the perfect participle to form the
present perfect and past perfect. Rather, the auxiliary verb har ("have"), hade ("had") is followed by a
special form, called the supine, used solely for this purpose (although often identical to the neuter form of
the perfect participle):[58]

Perfect participle: målad, "painted" – supine målat, present perfect har målat; "have
painted"
Perfect participle: stekt, "fried" – supine stekt, present perfect har stekt; "have fried"
Perfect participle: skriven, "written" – supine skrivit, present perfect har skrivit; "have
written"

When building the compound passive voice using the verb att bli, the past participle is used:

den blir målad; "it's being painted"

den blev målad; "it was painted"

There exists also an inflected passive voice formed by adding -s, replacing the final r in the present tense:

den målas; "it's being painted"

den målades; "it was painted"

In a subordinate clause, the auxiliary har is optional and often omitted, particularly in written Swedish.

Jag ser att han (har) stekt fisken; "I see that he has fried the fish"

Subjunctive mood is occasionally used for some verbs, but its use is in sharp decline and few speakers
perceive the handful of commonly used verbs (as for instance: vore, månne) as separate conjugations,
most of them remaining only as set of idiomatic expressions.[58]

Where other languages may use grammatical cases, Swedish uses numerous prepositions, similar to those
found in English. As in modern German, prepositions formerly determined case in Swedish, but this
feature can only be found in certain idiomatic expressions like till fots ("on foot", genitive).[61]

As Swedish is a Germanic language, the syntax shows similarities to both English and German. Like
English, Swedish has a subject–verb–object basic word order, but like German it utilizes verb-second
word order in main clauses, for instance after adverbs and adverbial phrases, and dependent clauses.
(Adverbial phrases denoting time are usually placed at the beginning of a main clause that is at the head
of a sentence.) Prepositional phrases are placed in a place–manner–time order, as in English (but not
German). Adjectives precede the noun they modify.[62] Verb-second (inverted) word order is also used for
questions.[63]

Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Swedish is mainly Germanic, either through common Germanic heritage or through
loans from German, Middle Low German, and to some extent, English. Examples of Germanic words in
Swedish are mus ("mouse"), kung ("king"), and gås ("goose"). A significant part of the religious and
scientific vocabulary is of Latin or Greek origin, often borrowed from French and, lately, English. Some
1–200 words are also borrowed from Scandoromani or Romani, often as slang varieties; a commonly
used word from Romani is tjej ("girl").[64]

A large number of French words were imported into Sweden around the 18th century. These words have
been transcribed to the Swedish spelling system and are therefore pronounced recognizably to a French-
speaker. Most of them are distinguished by a "French accent", characterized by emphasis on the last
syllable. For example, nivå (fr. niveau, "level"), fåtölj (fr. fauteuil, "armchair") and affär ("shop; affair"),
etc. Cross-borrowing from other Germanic languages has also been common, at first from Middle Low
German, the lingua franca of the Hanseatic league and later from Standard German. Some compounds are
translations of the elements (calques) of German original compounds into Swedish, like bomull from
German Baumwolle ("cotton"; literally, tree-wool).[65]

As with many Germanic languages, new words can be formed by compounding, e. g., nouns like
nagellackborttagningsmedel ("nail polish remover") or verbs like smyglyssna ("to eavesdrop").[66][67]
Compound nouns take their gender from the head, which in Swedish is always the last morpheme.[66]
New words can also be coined by derivation from other established words, such as the verbification of
nouns by the adding of the suffix -a, as in bil ("car") and bila ("travel (recreationally) by car").[68] The
opposite, making nouns of verbs, is also possible, as in tänk ("way of thinking; concept") from tänka ("to
think").[69]

Writing system
The Swedish alphabet is a 29-letter alphabet, using the 26-letter ISO basic Latin alphabet plus the three
additional letters ⟨å⟩, ⟨ä⟩, and ⟨ö⟩ constructed in the 16th century by writing ⟨o⟩ and ⟨e⟩ on top of an ⟨a⟩,
and an ⟨e⟩ on top of an ⟨o⟩. Though these combinations are historically modified versions of ⟨a⟩ and ⟨o⟩
according to the English range of usage for the term diacritic, these three characters are not considered to
be diacritics within the Swedish application, but rather separate letters, and are independent letters
following ⟨z⟩. Before the release of the 13th edition of Svenska Akademiens ordlista in April 2006, ⟨w⟩
was treated as merely a variant of ⟨v⟩ used only in names (such as "Wallenberg") and foreign words
("bowling"), and so was both sorted and pronounced as a ⟨v⟩. Other diacritics (to use the broader English
term usage referenced here) are unusual in Swedish; ⟨é⟩ is sometimes used to indicate that the stress falls
on a terminal syllable containing ⟨e⟩, especially when the stress changes the meaning (ide vs. idé, "winter
lair" vs. "idea") as well as in some names, like Kastrén; occasionally other acute accents and, less often,
grave accents can be seen in names and some foreign words. The letter ⟨à⟩ is used to refer to unit cost (a
loan from the French), equivalent to the at sign (⟨@⟩) in English.[70]

The German ⟨ü⟩ is treated as a variant of ⟨y⟩ and sometimes retained in foreign names and words, e. g.,
müsli ("muesli/granola"). A proper diaeresis may very exceptionally be seen in elaborated style (for
instance: "Aïda"). The German convention of writing ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ if the characters are
unavailable is an unusual convention for speakers of modern Swedish. Despite the availability of all these
characters in the Swedish national top-level Internet domain and other such domains, Swedish sites are
frequently labelled using ⟨a⟩ and ⟨o⟩, based on visual similarity, though Swedish domains could be
registered using the characters ⟨å⟩, ⟨ä⟩, and ⟨ö⟩ from 2003.[71]

In Swedish orthography, the colon is used in a similar manner as in English, with some exceptions: the
colon is used for some abbreviations, such as 3:e for tredje ("third") and S:t for Sankt ("Saint"), and for
all types of endings that can be added to numbers, letters and abbreviations, such as a:et ("the a") and
CD:n ("the CD"), or the genitive form USA:s ("USA's").[72]

Dialects
According to a traditional division of Swedish dialects, there are
six main groups of dialects:[73][74]

Norrland dialects
Finland Swedish
Svealand dialects
Gotland dialects
Götaland dialects
South Swedish dialects
Isogloss for the pronunciation of "R"
The traditional definition of a Swedish dialect has been a local (c. 1960), being alveolar north of the
variant that has not been heavily influenced by the standard boundary and uvular ("French R")
language and that can trace a separate development all the way south of it. It follows that the R+S
combination is pronounced as
back to Old Norse. Many of the genuine rural dialects, such as
spelled south of the boundary, while
those of Orsa in Dalarna or Närpes in Österbotten, have very
pronounced [ʂ] (similar to "sh" in
distinct phonetic and grammatical features, such as plural forms of "shark") north of it. This isogloss is
verbs or archaic case inflections. These dialects can be near- the most imperative of all Swedish
incomprehensible to a majority of Swedes, and most of their pronunciation differences.
speakers are also fluent in Standard Swedish. The different
dialects are often so localized that they are limited to individual
parishes and are referred to by Swedish linguists as sockenmål (lit., "parish speech"). They are generally
separated into six major groups, with common characteristics of prosody, grammar and vocabulary. One
or several examples from each group are given here. Though each example is intended to be also
representative of the nearby dialects, the actual number of dialects is several hundred if each individual
community is considered separately.[75]

This type of classification, however, is based on a somewhat romanticized nationalist view of ethnicity
and language. The idea that only rural variants of Swedish should be considered "genuine" is not
generally accepted by modern scholars. No dialects, no matter how remote or obscure, remained
unchanged or undisturbed by a minimum of influences from surrounding dialects or the standard
language, especially not from the late 19th century onwards with the advent of mass media and advanced
forms of transport. The differences are today more accurately described by a scale that runs from
"standard language" to "rural dialect" where the speech even of the same person may vary from one
extreme to the other depending on the situation. All Swedish dialects with the exception of the highly
diverging forms of speech in Dalarna, Norrbotten and, to some extent, Gotland can be considered to be
part of a common, mutually intelligible dialect continuum. This continuum may also include Norwegian
and some Danish dialects.[76]

The samples linked below have been taken from SweDia, a research project on Swedish modern dialects
available for download (though with information in Swedish only), with many more samples from 100
different dialects with recordings from four different speakers: older female, older male, younger female
and younger male. The dialect groups are those traditionally used by dialectologists.[77]

1. Överkalix, Norrbotten; younger female

(http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Norrland/Norr
botten/Overkalix/yw.html)
2. Burträsk, Västerbotten; older female
(http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Norrland/Vast
erbotten/Burtrask/ow.html)
3. Aspås, Jämtland; younger female (htt
p://swedia.ling.gu.se/Norrland/Jamtlan
d/Aspas/yw.html)
4. Färila, Hälsingland; older male (http://
swedia.ling.gu.se/Norrland/Halsinglan
d/Farila/om.html)
5. Älvdalen, Dalarna; older female (http://
swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Dalarna/A
lvdalen/ow.html); traditionally
considered a dialect, but now often
recognized as Elfdalian, a separate
language
6. Gräsö, Uppland; older male (http://sw
edia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Uppland/Gra
so/om.html)
7. Sorunda, Södermanland; younger
male (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealan Map showing location of the various modern dialect
d/Sodermanland/Sorunda/ym.html) samples
8. Köla, Värmland younger female (htt
p://swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Varmla
nd/Kola/yw.html)
9. Viby, Närke; older male (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Narke/Viby/om.html)
10. Sproge, Gotland; younger female (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Gotland/Sproge/yw.htm
l)
11. Närpes, Ostrobothnia; younger female (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Finland/Osterbotten/Narpes/
yw.html)
12. Dragsfjärd, Southwest Finland; older male (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Finland/Aboland/Dragsfj
ard/om.html)
13. Borgå, Eastern Uusimaa; younger male (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Finland/Nyland/Borga/ym.h
tml)
14. Orust, Bohuslän; older male (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Bohuslan/Orust/om.html)
15. Floby, Västergötland; older female (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Vastergotland/Floby/o
w.html)
16. Rimforsa, Östergötland; older female (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Ostergotland/Rimfor
sa/ow.html)
17. Årstad-Heberg, Halland; younger male (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Halland/Arstad/y
m.html)
18. Stenberga, Småland; younger female (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Smaland/Stenberg
a/yw.html)
19. Jämshög, Blekinge; older female (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Blekinge/Jamshog/ow.ht
ml)
20. Bara, Skåne; older male (http://swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Skane/Bara/om.html)

Standard Swedish
Standard Swedish is the language used by virtually all Swedes and most Swedish-speaking Finns. It is
called rikssvenska or standardsvenska ("Standard Swedish") in Sweden.[78] In Finland, högsvenska
("High Swedish") is used for the Finnish variant of standard Swedish and rikssvenska refers to Swedish
as spoken in Sweden in general.[79]

In a poll conducted in 2005 by the Swedish Retail Institute (Handelns Utredningsinstitut (http://www.hui.
se/)), the attitudes of Swedes to the use of certain dialects by salesmen revealed that 54% believed that
rikssvenska was the variety they would prefer to hear when speaking with salesmen over the phone, even
though dialects such as gotländska or skånska were provided as alternatives in the poll.[80]

Finland Swedish
Finland was a part of Sweden from the 13th century until the loss of the Finnish territories to Russia in
1809. Swedish was the sole administrative language until 1902 as well as the dominant language of
culture and education until Finnish independence in 1917. The percentage of Swedish speakers in Finland
has steadily decreased since then. The Swedish-speaking population is mainly concentrated in the coastal
areas of Ostrobothnia, Southwest Finland and Nyland where the percentage of Finland Swedes partly is
high, with Swedish being spoken by more than 90% of the population in several municipalities, and on
Åland, where Swedish is spoken by a vast majority of the population and is the only official language.
Swedish is an official language also in the rest of Finland, though, with the same official status as
Finnish.[81] The country's public broadcaster, Yle, provides two Swedish-language radio stations, Yle
Vega and Yle X3M, as well a TV channel, Yle Fem.[82]

Immigrant variants
Rinkeby Swedish (after Rinkeby, a suburb of northern Stockholm with a large immigrant population) is a
common name among linguists for varieties of Swedish spoken by young people of foreign heritage in
certain suburbs and urban districts in the major cities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö. These
varieties could alternatively be classified as sociolects, because the immigrant dialects share common
traits independent of their geographical spread or the native country of the speakers. However, some
studies have found distinctive features and led to terms such as Rosengård Swedish (after Rosengård in
Malmö), a variant of Scanian.[83] A survey made by the Swedish linguist Ulla-Britt Kotsinas showed that
foreign learners had difficulties in guessing the origins of Rinkeby Swedish speakers in Stockholm. The
greatest difficulty proved to be identifying the speech of a boy speaking Rinkeby Swedish whose parents
were both Swedish; only 1.8% guessed his native language correctly.[84]
New linguistic practices in multilingual urban contexts in fiction and hip-hop culture and rap lyrics have
been introduced that go beyond traditional socio-linguistic domains.[85] See also Källström (Chapter 12)
and Knudsen (Chapter 13).

Sample
Excerpt from Barfotabarn (1933), by Nils Ferlin (1898–1961):[86]

Original Free, prosaic translation

Du har tappat ditt ord och din papperslapp, "You have lost your word and your paper note,
du barfotabarn i livet. you barefooted child in life.
Så sitter du åter på handlar'ns trapp So you sit on the porch of the grocer anew
och gråter så övergivet. and cry so abandoned.
Vad var det för ord – var det långt eller kort, What word was it – was it long or short,
var det väl eller illa skrivet? was it well or poorly written?
Tänk efter nu – förr'n vi föser dig bort, Think twice now – before we shove you away,
du barfotabarn i livet. you barefooted child in life."

See also
Languages of Sweden
Languages of Finland
Swedish as a foreign language
Swenglish

Notes
1. Swedish (https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/swe) at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
2. "Svenska talas också i Finland" (https://svenskaspraket.si.se/finlandssvenska/). Svenska
språket (in Swedish). 7 December 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021081614
4545/https://svenskaspraket.si.se/finlandssvenska/) from the original on 16 August 2021.
Retrieved 16 August 2021.
3. "Nordic Languages: What's The Difference?" (https://wordminds.com/blog/difference-nordic-l
anguages). Wordminds. 25 March 2019. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023020305
3536/https://wordminds.com/blog/difference-nordic-languages) from the original on 3
February 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
4. "Var tionde Oslobo är nu svensk" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181011214654/https://sveri
ge-norge.se/var-tionde-oslobo-ar-nu-svensk/) (in Swedish). Sverige-Norge
Personalförmedling. Archived from the original (https://sverige-norge.se/var-tionde-oslobo-ar
-nu-svensk/) on 11 October 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
5. Crystal 1999, Scandinavian
6. Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in Dahl & Edlund 2010, pp. 26–31
7. Bergman 1984, pp. 21–23
8. The oldest dated fragments are from 1250 and the oldest complete manuscript is from
c. 1280
9. Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in Dahl & Edlund 2010, pp. 28–29
10. Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in Dahl & Edlund 2010, pp. 29, 31
11. Pettersson 1996, pp. 150–157
12. Pettersson 1996, p. 139
13. Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in Dahl & Edlund 2010, p. 29
14. Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in Dahl & Edlund 2010, p. 33
15. Pettersson 1996, p. 151
16. The Nordic Languages (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z17C7s3r_nwC&pg=PA1900).
Walter de Gruyter. 2005. p. 1900. ISBN 978-3-11-019706-8.
17. Grünbaun, Katharina (2012). "Svenska språket" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121025181
238/http://www.sweden.se/upload/Sweden_se/otherlanguages/factsheets/SI/Svenska_sprak
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praket.pdf) (PDF) on 25 October 2012.
18. Bandle, Oskar; Elmevik, Lennart; Widmark, Gun (2002). The Nordic Languages (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=RqkBXIJkkuEC&pg=PA517). Walter de Gruyter. p. 517. ISBN 978-
3-11-014876-3.
19. Pettersson 1996, p. 138
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Norstedts. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-91-1-304370-8.
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Publishing. p. 302. ISBN 978-90-272-9903-1.
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Further reading
Swedish Essentials of Grammar Viberg, Åke; et al. (1991) Chicago: Passport Books.
ISBN 0-8442-8539-0
Swedish: An Essential Grammar. Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian; (2000). London; New York:
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16048-0.
Swedish: A Comprehensive Grammar Second Edition. Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian;
(2003). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27884-8.
Svenska utifrån. Schematic grammar-Swedish structures and everyday phrases Byrman,
Gunilla; Holm, Britta; (1998) ISBN 91-520-0519-4.

External links
Swadesh list of Swedish basic vocabulary words (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Sw
edish_Swadesh_list) (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix (https://en.wiktionary.org/wik
i/Appendix:Swadesh_lists))
Swedish-English (http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/swe-eng.html)/Swedish-Arabic (http://lexin2.nad
a.kth.se/sve-ara.html)/Swedish-Russian (http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/sve-rys.html)/Swedish-
Spanish (http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/sve-spa.html) Dictionaries from Språkrådet – Institute for
Language and Folklore (http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/)
People's dictionary (http://folkets-lexikon.csc.kth.se/folkets/folkets.en.html)
Online version (https://www.saob.se) of Svenska Akademiens ordbok (in Swedish)

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