Be lt Be a ee ey ty Dati * a) ~ ‘Wily sp‘ Reveed Sods ANNA UNIVERSITY ie Bred Grd Sytem (CBCS) tT Semester: V (ECE) ie WIRELESS COMMUNICATION » | » OO z= | g 5 z: —> * uv ==’ TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS |: ° Jn pImetir Renee 5 cat B, 22:32 eyo 14), 2 * vw ‘ VO Tikeo_o WIRELESS COMMUNICATION Sobject Code E3501 ‘Senor - (Btn nd Conmaniaon Enea) 2 Cops ator Pubiched by “=o stn Oban 2 omen TEOHIGAT isso sete, SS a amin PREFACE SA pickingimponent points from “The book not only co ggesion for the improvement of the book will be acknowiedged a appreciated Daduated eReaderSYLLABUS Tireless Communication - [EC3501) UNIT-I THE CELLULAR CONCEPT-SYSTEM DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS 1 Assignment. Stat fandoff Considerations. Interference And ing Effects Due To Multipath Time Delay Spreed, Fading Effects Due To Doppler Spread (Chapter -2) UNIT-II MODULATION TECHNIQUES AND EQUALIZATION AND DIVERSITY In Fading and Mul Inrodvetion ~ Fundamentals OF Equalization - Diversity Techniques (Chapter -3) ‘UNIT-IV MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES Matiple Cells. (Chapter - 4) UNIT-V WIRELESS NETWORKING. jtween Wirelest and Fued Telephone Networks, The Public Development OF Wirdess Networks = Fist 1d Generation Wireless Nevers, Third Generation “Transmission Hierarchy, Traffic Routing In Wireless ‘Accitecrae ~ Packet Reservation Multiple AectsPRMA) ~ Network Databases = Distibuted Database For Mobility Management - Uriversal Mobile Teecommunication ‘Systems (UMTS). (Chapter ~5)TABLE OF CONTENTS Ghapter-1 Ce 411 Introduction: {LL Cel Fundamental 12 Frequency REUSE wn 122 Frequéney Reuse Factor. 113 Channel Assignment Strategies. 1.3: Fixed Channel Assignment 146 Delayed Handott 147 Forced Handee n, 148 Prortaing Hondofts its Ay gf 163 Engineer'sRote.. a 41,7 Cellular System Design . se 1.7.4 General Description of Problem. 417.2 Maximum Number of Calls per Hour/Cll. he Frequency Chan from 2 Normal Case in an Oma 1.73 Mexieum Number 183 Comparison of GOS and Blocking Probatil 1.9 improving Coverage and Capai lular Systems 19.2 GeliSectoring, 1923 Compatison of 19220043 Cel 1.10 ftultiple Choice Questions with Answ 1.11 Two Marks Questions with Answ 233 Qo ne nn Hon HON Nf MAAA Chapter -2 Mobile Radio Propagation @-1 2.1 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation. 2.1.1 Pooblenss Unique to Wireless Systems. oe2.2 Propagation Models, 2.3 Free Space Propagation Mode tay Model of Robie Ensronayent dio Propagation Mech: 2.5.3 Doppler Effect. — 2.6 Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel 2.7 Multipath Channel Parameters... 2.7. Time Dispersion Parameters « 2.7.2 Frequency Dispersion Parameter. xran 2.7.2.1 Coherence Bandit (nomen nn 2.7.2.2 Coherence Time annn a 2.7.3 Doppler Spread and Coherent Time... 2.8 Types of Smal Scale Fading 2.8.2 Fading Effects ue to Doppler Spread. B21 Fanaa. ss 28.22 Slow rng — 2.9 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers. 2.10 Two Marks Questions with Answers. ter. 3 Modulation Techniques and Equalization and Diversity , " (B- 1)t0 (8-34) 3-2 i) 34.1 Factors that nfuence Chace of Dgtal Modulation Techniques 23-2 3.2 neat MOdULtON xem 3.2. Minimum Shit Keg (ASE ann - 32.2 Gaussian Minimum Shit Keving (GMS) 3.3 GMSK Modulation snsnnncnmenernn 33.1 Block Diagram of GMSK.. 332 1B QSiNlbocnnnnnrs 3.33 GMSK ReCea nnn 3.4 Spread Spectrum Techniques weno 3A Features of Sead Specie menor 3.42 Advantages of Sea pect enon 3.4.3 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (05/58). 3.414 Frequency Hopping Seat Spectrum (FHSS) er 3.44.2 Osdvnages of PANS eer 34.43 Advarages cf FHS on OSS —— nnn 3.4.4.4 Comping of OS 2rd FUE 3.5 COMA ith DSS nn 3.6 CDMA With FAIS nn 35 Channel Estimation Modeling and sto ding 3.5A AWGN Chantel nnn 3.5.2 Log Normal Fong Chan eae 3.53 Rayleigh Fading Chom even ~ 3.54 Ricing Fading Channon 3.6 Moduiation Performance in Fading and Mulkipath Channels... 3.7 Diversity Techniques wnusemn- 37a parton atacpe they nd WEE iO 3.8 Equalization and Dive 3.8.1 Equalization Categories... 3.8.2 Structure of a Linear Traversal Equlittanen---nn ©3-26 37 3-28 Chapter -4 Multiple Access Techniques (@- 1) to (4-22) iim 42 a 42 — sob ft sen 3 4.2 Frequency Division Multiple Acces Aes £42 Rats FORA eset as 4.2.2 Nonlinear EffECS in FDMA enn 4s 4.23 Number of Channels in 3 FDMA SYStMe nnn 8-5 4.24 Advantages of FDMA cnn vee 4.25 Disadvantages Of FDMA ene — jon Multiple Access (TOMA) 46 4-7 vB 48 + 4-10 - a 8.8.2 Power Control anne - st its 4.43 Features of COMA Systems. ss 418 444.4 Problems Associated with TOMA, CDMA nd FDMA won se 14 4.45 Comparison of FORA, TDMA, COMB one a 4.5 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). 4-15 Jon of FMA, TOMA, COMA and SOMA $5.2 Public Switched Telecommnusication Network (®STM) anna +53 Development of Wireless Networks 153: Fist Generation 532 Second Generation Wireless Ntwers Routing in Wireless Net 55.1 Comparison of Conne sR 5.61 Types OF PCS va 562 architecture of PCS. siroeanteaae nase taney Nt Managerentneounnn 7 le Telecommunicatons System (UMTS) 592 UMTS Architecturevw wvuvuuweuvuvwwevwvvvu vee : 1 Cellular Concept- i Systein Design Fundamentals 3 UNIT - 1 Syllabus Inarodycion ~ FrequencyRee - Chom Assit Stosegies ~ irate ¢ Srreing Hnfle, Procal Bae Canin. nerernce A Co ChaalTtrfredce An Stor Cay - Chanel Pl Fer Win nero, Power Coal For Rec hacrenc, Trakg. ‘inprning Coverage Abd Copy a Celular Ser; Cal Spin S 1.10 Multiple Choice Questons with Answers 1.41 Two Marke Questions wilh Answers152 Cebit Cones System Design Furdameials wireless networks, fem is a combination of 2 modulation and multiple acces ethod is oquslly applicable to both analy igital systems includes ster ‘development 10 cof many large jo transmission plang and global fixed telecommunications networks. + In cellular systems, improved spectral efficiency and abi demands can be achieved by froquency reuse and EKER cell Fundamental + The ese of hexagon allows for the complete theoretical coverage of an area ‘without any overlapping calls or gape inthe coverage area few geometrical figures 1er overlepping or holes exagons best approximate the drcular shape of base 1s and the hexagonal eiges well approximate the the coverage is a resul TecroicAl PUBLICATIONS? ~ on pons! bx Anonedge A Wiis Communication THAI Frequency Reuse rHABIAINYG TECHNICAL PUBUCATIONS® - an up-nnst for owedee Fig. 122 between frequency reuse distance ‘DY, radius ahd ell Raid D ‘The ratio B is hnown as reuse factor. Call aging R = 5 km Frequency ture distance is given by D = VNR p = JS? vo =asmes D = 22913 km As ¢ or duster size N Bog 2 = + Fig, 1.23 shows various reuse pattems. Cell mins R = 2 km NR Frequency reuse distance is given by D = ee . TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” - an up-nrust for knomtedg?Wireess Communit 18 Solution : Given: Tota BW = 20 MBz BIW of channel = 25 Miz x2 simplex channels = 50 kH2/duplex channel 4) Total numberof avaiable channels = 290% » 400 channels 400 ii) For N =4, numberof channels available per coll = “I” = 100 Channels S552 ale cl Nae 1.65 bw radius id ty pte af The st sport 396 tachi {ol gcgrapad crex ceed the numer of fechas pr cll and tol ber of rales cl oper by 28 ese. Solution : The aren ofa hexagon of radius R is given by ~ A= RNG A= 152165 = 665 kon? 1) Total geographical area covered = 645 % 32 = 213 ton? fi) No.of trafic channels per cell For N'=7, the number of channels per cel is 3° = 48 1) Total channe capecity'= 48 x 32 » 1536 channels == 2 Wk fe lint mr of eng ree e EEX channel Assignment Strategies + Channel assignment is process of allodsting specific channels to cell sites and mobile units, Cereal channel assignment eliminates the interference in the system. ‘The channel assignment is dane on short term and long, term basis. The long tem channel assignment also called as fied channel assignment, ‘+ Channel assignment is appliod for setup channels and voice channels. Channel assignment to cell sites ‘+ The channel assignment to the cell sites is considered with respect to fixed channel assign the concept of fixed channel assignment is that channels are assigned to « for a long peried. The ant types of channels ved are 2. Voice channels i) Setup chennels TeeraCaL PUBLICATIONS? «an ops fr krenlodgo p= Sto Design Fmd Wirless Barmemeaton 1) Voice channels ‘+The assignment ‘Adjacent Channel the voice channels is expressed ine system is allocated Ne4N=7orN may lead to many unused channel of neighbourhood of the block (from A to B or avoid interference in the system. ‘Channel assignment tothe mobile units in moving, status + +The channel assigament process to roaming mobi of moming and evening. is high during pe oppesite during the night hours wh Intensity reduces are applied. They are given below, ) Frequency assignment 2) Frequency assignment : + Thelinquindes relged tox cla pet ifone storm tun be 2 seep hres, M necessary borrowing of chanel — S TH sched ale cl nappa mage Saqutes Inerferenes with neighiouing seco of te el ) Tilted antennas, 4) Also if the tiling angle antenna pattem. Due to ‘can which be achived, there is an additional reduction TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® «an upsnust fer knowledgesedorization in a cell different algorithms are applied. For 131 @) theze are six regions in total for overlay and underlay srangements are adopted in cell sites and its spacity in the system resources distribution. of-view of interchannel done once and kept assignment, permanea ted. predetermined pt within cell can only be served by unused «The channel borrowing technique helps to avoid cel piting in he system. 15 2 (GED Me cet cat in'the cluster can bosrow. ‘channiels from 1+ There are more sophisticated channel assignment methods, which take into account a dyneinielly changing demand for channels sich as chanoel sharing and. channel borrowing, EEEY cheme! snaing + Ina call ifthe trafic is heavy se hy cutee sare €8e) Fig. 4.3.2 Channel shang concept shovn in the Big. 132. Tis considered that thece are 21 channels sets, each set consisting of 16 channels If of face of call needs more channel it shares the channels of another face of vine chowel, Ht cel' shown in Bg. 132, shares Gael fom ere face to ‘arta and due To ths Chanel sharing, there sel be inten developed x sa tame mated with» symbol In channel sharing conrp its eae to Fe ceud conbinrs and at one face of channel the combiner cn handle wpto 32 channels, channel borrowing is done in long-term borrowing, The borrowing, ‘cher cells or borrowing channels from another face of same cel also ping cellular systems. The cll_ Colt Concept - System Cesign Fundamentals Busy Hour Call Attempts (BHC! ber of call attefhpts in the busy hour is tiled Busy Hour Call Attempts (3 Setup Time + The time required to al as setup time. Blocked Call = Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due to congestion is calle blocked call. I: is algo refersed to as a lost, call. Me Traffic Intensity + Messure of channel time utilization, which i the average channel occupancy ‘measured in Erlongs. This is a dimensionless quantity and may be used to ieasure the time utilization of single or multiple channels. Denoted by A. runked radio channel fo a requesting user is called 2. Load = - ‘+ Load is traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system, measured in Pgs. 1. Grado of Service (GOS “The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of congestion which is spedfed as the probability of a call being blocked (for Erlang 8) or the probably ofa eal being Eolayed beyond a certain amount of time (for Erlang C). &, Request Rate: ‘+ The average number of call requests. per unit time is called request rat denoted by 2 seconds [EG] Grade of Service and Blocking Probability 1+ Grade of Service (GOS) 2. Blocking probability. «+ Its theoretically possible for every subscriber to make a call simultancously in an all the trunks in a group of trunks are busy and so it can ther ealls. This state is known as “congestion”. In a message switched that arrive during congestion wait in a queue until an outgoing system, {t not lost. Such systems are trunks becomes free. Thus they are delayed __ therefore called queuing systems or delay systems ‘allie carried = ‘Traffic offered ~ Traffic lost Traffic lost = Traffic offered ~ Traffic carried = A-Ay TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up for hnonted oe Grade of Service (6.0.8) + The proportion of eal the service provided is Tost or delayed due to congestion is a measure of led the grade of service _ Number Gos. = furter Gos.- _Tilic lst * = Fraihc offered Blocking Probability ‘+ The blocking probsbility (P,) ie defined as the probsbity tha all the servers in @ system are busy. Under such condition, no further trafic can be cared by the system, The probability that all the servers are busy-may well represent the faction of call lost, which is GOS. But fundamental difference s Wt GOS is a measure from subscriber point of view whereas the blocking probability i a mescure from network or switching system. EEED Comparison of GOS and Blocking Probability Sn Gos Blocking probability Ne. ” GOS i index of quality of serve fered by etwouk 1 GOS can be 200 3, GOS is measured fcom subscriber point Sing, _pecsbiit) i mosawed fom ol siew cng pot G06 is reened as cll congestion er __ Blocking_pobsbisys_mfeed, se Hime Tess pbb. Cages Useful Results ‘se. No. FORMULA FOR a. Trafic eaied by @ group of trunk igen, | fh = Avorage holding ime Eee is - an wp est tr inleoehigh occupancy and traffi trunk is very lightly loaded. This behaviour is ilusated in the following Bg. 181, ‘hia tate ‘fees XO aN e Fig, 1.81 Traffic distribution of a group with sequential search TECHICAL PUBLICATIONS® - 9 ut for owoago BC __. Wits: Cammuntaton ‘+The performance of such an or Let tafe 'A’ Ee ollered to a group single trunk group is put N = 1, in equation (L82)- In genet, ‘Tralliccarsied by X* trunk = Tra ‘Traffic elfered = A TEage Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems i TECHUCAL PUBLICATIONS® - an ups or Krwie~~ ~~“ FCCC EEE ULES “ess Communication Fig. 1.9.1 Cell epitting replacing large celle by Frequency planning 1eq) ing preserves original frequency reuse plan. ing cause increased frequency handoffs TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” - on up:nnst fr hoowdedge 41 ott cone -Sstom Deoln Fans orignal ce into rigid cll 0 a5 to handle the exginl cell is channel during system design ite. iting + anh matin png Tg cep i ers te lepending upon traffic availability. As demand is more during busy hours ‘many umber of channels azo assigned to cella per the requirement It works in real time, But the complexity involved i complexity, in design tmeabved, -pliting depends on two factors: {The size of a small,cell depends on the capacity of system to ‘be required. Comparing the + communications more number tor while dealing cll sping 2 coverage handling problem is an important technique. Micro Cells ne sizeof els wery small the whe locing process cia brea Y= Trading every call more sumer of Rando ace requis. ASS cata of radiation patter iss toe coridered for aeciing the Se of For this {ntallation of « mastless antenna is used ructures and existing building structure ‘Antenna str fed antenna on bv +f antenna is 8 7ooFtop mount shown below should be, ‘ w= al’) sings ten the eight of post ss dance beeen antenna sre 6 the veri sms fates = isonet post and roo ; “eimien PUBLCATONS® <= mtr” Oe12 cota Coes sjtom Design Fundamentals Fig, 1.92 Antenna mounted on root top of building th vertical beaimoidth as 28° gain is 6 €B distance dy is 31m n= cimen($} will be approximately 75m (DE) sn rgion (5) soit Fig! 192 A 2 Wight of We baing snare “+ A penebtype antenna can be used for antenna structures that can be hanged on the side walls. For example four-panel antennas would be mounted on walls for ‘an omni-directional configuration, and mounted on building walls, + If cell sectorization is used in every sector one antenna can be placed Effects of micro Cells 1) If cell splitting technique is applied in a celular system there will be an unbalanced condition in the system. There will be changes in frequency reuse distances, power level ete. that results in unbalanced system condition. ii), Due to cell spl 1g there will be both larger cells and small cells available. A group of frequencies should be maintained as barrier between those two cells 0 that interference can be avoided. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? - an pte er Boedoo a Wastes Cammanisson 1242 Cetin cenospt- Sytem Design Fur Parameters for micro cells: Celt diss 03-1 km Delay spread (average Max “Transmission power Fy KEE] cat sectoring + Call secoring, uses, directional antensas. to effectively spt 2 cell isto sometines six new cells + The new call structure now uses th ‘widths to lusninate the entice area previously se antenna. + Sectoring of a cell results in a direction in sector experiences from channel conversely the amount of seighbours + Fig, 193 illustzates cell sectoring for increasing apesity Fig. 4.8.3 Cell sectoring TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - en vps fr Krotodye Lan aaa oas~v~vwweseuevwwww todd Color Concer Sytem Desan Frnt New coll structure requires 120° Ger ‘eam width quater 62 of sod By a fect of Medes the amount of interference, col sacoring effectively increases signa lo nice rato I does not roquire new tonal anteeas acd ob Caen Syston asin Fudan aio capacity may be Increased Ie eallular eoncapt by ido spectra the number of base stonsandareusing the channels “GL yagi ida antennas above “G) none oh capacily rum is required Mected to other netsork— — Wales Communicator {Cautar Coneep- Stem Deson Fuindamoras “Answer Keys for Aultple Choice Questions = FERED two marks cuetions wit Anemie efine telecommunication traffic. ing rate is defined Say, the 60 minutes interval in which the trafic 1 geographical area coveced by wirele ll. A base station ie located in every cell The shape of 3. What is handoff ? fas: Hants 2 proses of aren teensy channel fom a ool site to other Q4 When handoff is required 7 Ans. + Handoff is required in two situctions ~ QS. What isa dropped call 7 onnection that is uritetonlly terminated while in progress fs se problem, handoff problem, poor signal strength, fading requency-reuse concept 7 ‘Ans. Using same frequency channels in diferent geographic frequency-reuse : ng referred as Q8 Define » TECHMICAL PUBLUCATIONS?- an uptnst fr knofedon 1? Car Concat Sytem Design Fone pasty wil to cells inate signal strength is more and « fy high sped tli and mero els are seal N= 22420343? #19 Reuse factor D/R = VSN = 754 imum BV requi JAMITDM system ie 300 KHz and tho num Insmitted is 20. Find the BW of each channel te * 20 = 6000 te jon power eeisto-2e re more than one obstruction, then the equivalent model ean be fone knife-edge diffraction model as shown in Fig. 243. Fig, 2.4.3 Knife-edge ditraction model TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? . oo ype for noe ls Cenarion EXER scattoring bts Rae Proponation gular objects comparable in sae Wo the wavelength. il directions. Ech sate sets a5 a source resultingtrees communesten ae EZ] small-scale and Multipath Fading «+ Recived signal level varies lang ten (sles) variations. shoe travel dance. This might be so severe that large scale radio propagation lows effects might be ignored EEX] Muttipath Fading Effects 4+ Rapid floenattion is caused L Rapid changes in signs interval. 2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different snltipath signals ~ Movement of terminal foward or away from the ‘base station transmitter is called as Doppler. 3. Time dispersion caused by multipath propagation delays ~ Addition of signals amiving via éifferent paths called as multipath fading throe important eff strength over 2 travel distance oF time EEZT Factors influencing Fading + The folowing physical factors influence smullsale fiding in the radio Propagation channel (2) Matipath propagation 4+ Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that resus in radio signals reaching | the receiving antenna by two oF more paths. : + The effects of nltipeth inckude constructive and destructive interference, and phase shitting of the signal. 2) Speed ofthe mobile ‘+ The relative motion between the base station and the mobile results in random frequency modulation du {0 4 loppler shits on cach of the mulipath components (8) Speed of surrounding objects they induce a time varying Doppler | é tes Conant ding objets move at fate than the mobile, then this “Transmission bandwidth of the sigh al ban’ that the frequency of fe same ss the Frequency s S the a Te Range in eqeney gn a8 Dapper shi z + De ends Ven 2.5.1 Doppler effect ‘lati ‘between the two. Fig. c r ty fy = Aba jose Dorr ftisgivenby fy ~ Death © Te ditfzece in path engi = 81 = WAL < «The plae change nthe rcived signal dv to the free in path Ie siren by: é he = ‘ The Doppler frequency isa function 1. The mobile veloc. of motion of the méhile = direction of a 23, The wavelength of the signaasin 2 ts at red ec Gomme an serotonin to hi aes 1 Dei ec ns gmang EEE constr = tm F ing 6D ph, compute ‘olution = 0162 m is postive and the received frequency is given by equation f = f+ fe MHz = 185) x10° He from the transmitter. The Doppler shift in iequency is given by 52682 x 108 782 = 1849958604 MEx MHz (ie. no Doppler frequency) TECHNCAL PuBLCATIONS® «29 optim fr knowindgo FAA imputse Response Model of @ Multipath Channet + Mobile zadio channel may be modeled 2 linear iter with tine varying impulse ‘ration due to eesiver response in continuous time. To show tis, cons ample esponse MA, 1) 7 appying culty condition inthe see eguion NEA) = Ofer £5 50 ‘Tove: the internal Linits ave changed 0 yiea) Sf xeone moves along the ground at a constant veliy the position & youn = [Laon t= i ut» fnction oft Therefore the above 06) fet, t=) r= x0 Hot) = 09) NBD ing bandwidth Fs than 7 transilted RF signals hav’ ~ ‘TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - 2” pbs1 Wes Gonansin 210 bie Rado Ponagsion thee are N multipa ‘manimum excess delay i given by Nar, plus any additional pha Ik the channel impulse response is wide sens lionary over a small-scale time or distance interval, then hee = Davee 5-1) For measuring ly(t), we use a probing pulse to approximate Hie. pO = &t-r) Power delay profile is taken by spatial average of {h(t.t)[? over a Jocal area. The received power deley profile in a local area is given by Po) = Kj ERA uttipath Channe! Parameters + To compaze the i deine some parameters ‘These Parameters can be TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? an wots fr kroedge lass Camemaneion as, wie Redo 1. Time Dispersion Parameters 2. Frequency Dispersion Parameters FREI Time Dispersion Parameters Include the mean excess delay, me delay spread and The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile the individual multipath signals spread is defined as is the square root of the second ‘central moment can be written a8, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? «an uptina er hnoatedge a aa AA AAGSAN‘iss Conmanan ses acl KEM Doppler Spread and Cohorent Time *+ Doppler speosd and coherent fe are paramere which describe the tne varying "+ When a pure sinusoidal tone of fie tanamited, the received signal t received signal spect, called the Doppler spectrom, will ave components inthe range (l.~ f,) and 41g), where fy i the Doppler sit fis» function of the relative velodty of the motile and the angle babeeen the direction of motion ofthe mekile and direction of arial of the scattered waves, + Coherent time T, is the time domain dual of Doppler spread. «s Cobetent time is used to characterize the tine varying nature of the frequency spersiveness of the channel inthe time domain. 1 Tego a) gy > re fg nu Doppler i gn Y fa" 7, = ySpeed of th be = «Two signals arsving with ene separation greater than Tare affected ifferenty ye > + Ae measure of the time duration over which the channel impulse response i sully inant - I the ‘coherent time is defined as the time over which the time corrleation function 3 eave 05, then : TECHIUCAL PUBLICATIONS? «an upthast fr krone eee | |Mobo Ree Propagation Classification based on multipath time delay spread is shown in Fig. 281° There ‘are two types of fading du tothe time dispersive nature of the chartnel coe Flat feding mace fading Fig. 2641 CCassification based on dopples spread is shown in Fig. 282, Si-eaeang (Basaton Depa sp) Co Factiadiog Sow fosiny Fig. 282 Multipath delay spread leads to time dispersion and frequency selective fading Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and time selective facing, ‘Multipath delay spread and Doppler spread sze independent of one another ZEEE Fading Effects due to Multipath Time Delay Spread Time dispersion due to multipath causes the transmitted signal to undergo either flat or frequency selective fading. BERRY Fiat Facing = + Such type of fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is les than the coherence bandwidth ofthe channel. If the channel has a constant gain and linear phase respon: which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signs will undergo flat fading, a bandwidth. ceived signal ‘The received signal strength changes with time due to fuctuations in the gain of the channel caused by multipath TECHICA PURLEATIENS on pen rave so called 1 : ampliode ounnel. AL + Bi fing can also damp waning anne), Mo 3 7 emia re a, 7~2 te —1 - ‘Received signal spectrum —) rm oN 7 Fig. 28.4 Froquoncy selective fading ‘ - + Frequency selective fading is ai oa ng doe te tine operon of the imei ei i the channel. intersymbol interference. = x git a BS > Be a seed tn il = + Fig. 2.8.5 shows characteristics of frequency selective fading. ‘spread of the channel is much less then the bandwidth of the i) 2—T ma |-2 shat dno w anne which ara ok SS yao de. fs © ia x ag under ow ig a SL rN SN me zs —~ oT, 0 ot Ot Ger ana Bg >> By 2 sn @ way oi er ean inp ei cig whew a — ; $ 2 Soran ae 5 fa Lg Ten eS 3 ‘ ‘ ‘ | ES a" Fp 285 Fequoncy solv fang charactors = ) — Frequency scledive fading channels are much more difficult to model than fat ‘fatng reel ~ feding casos A epg mite i [At the receiver, we eblain multiple copies of the transmitted signa), all attenuated ng? Tt and ele ers types of smal se ce sented tne Te cael neces intersymbol inte Ae of he ‘thumb for a channel to have flat fading is if : te <01 es ~ Cn TEGHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? «an upwst for knowledge _ oma PURLATIONS? an pr fr nase Ss a - - ~— ~ a _ eee,Wireless Commantatin 2-26 BEI Multiple choice Questions with Answers | QA Large scale faing refers tho atenuation in IE sigs poner Explanation : large scale fading refers to signal poser altenuation or pth les smotion in age aa 22 Small sae rfr to changes in Lal ample B phase FE beth ofthe menoned [| mone of the mentioned ‘small changes in spatial positioning between transmitter and receiver 23 Small seate facing manifests due to EB) signa dispersion IG) both ofthe mentioned {B! me vasiant behavior {a none ofthe mentioned Explanation: Salt cle ig fetching i Splide and phase w a sll of Explanation: Small scale fing manifests itso in two sears - dime spresding of | the signal (signal dispersion) and time variant behavior ofthe channel, 4 The parameters used fo desc large scale fading ata. [H eferece distance 1B) path lass exponent “€) stnderd deviation of random variable all ofthe meationed time delay |! none ofthe mentioned Explanation = Small sale fading shift, n§ occurs due to time delay and frequency or Doppler Bl Stow fading mentioned =F Both of the mentioned Explanation : Sow fading an fast fading 7 The rocelved a] path loss both of the mentioned Explanation : The ~ aa aewaaaars [ERO Two Marks Questions with Answers: we diferent propagation mechanisms of EM waves 7 ‘The four propagation mechanisms of EM waves ace Free space propagation ii, Reflection ilk, Diffraction sv, Scattering 2. What Is the slgnlneanes of propagation model 7 ‘Ana. : The major significance of propagation model are 4. Propagation model prodics the parameter of receiver. se ii. Te predicts the average received signal strength at © given distan transmitter. factors Int a3. What do you mean by small scale fading 7 What are the fact small seal fading ? TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS. an up-tmvt for inonlodge TECHNCEL PUBLICATIONS? «ee OU | | Oe fultipath propagation, Speed | transmission bandwidth of | of the i : receiver is moving towards the source, then the zero crossings of the | pet nd el pe pes Te ope fle eeu ssciver is moving away from the source. The resulting” change in frequency is | «mas the Doppler shift (fp). sone ” Fo = f= 76 VIC ere, fg ~Tanemitsion frequency &,-Resived feequency. Dilforntat ine selective and frequency + The gan andthe signal strength of the the chanel is desebed as tne selective channel ‘he frequency resporze ofthe time selective char oe lective channel is constant o thet frequency Ihe dare ise iat bt te impulse response af the umd show 2 auency- dependent response so called frequency selective chanel 1 are time varying, means | TEOWCAL PUBLICATIONS? an up knoe r ‘Ane. + The indoor piopagstion' fuodels are’ used to. characterizing, radio propagation ued to predict received sgl tegty | ‘Ana. + The free space propagation model ‘earsmitter and receiver. | ‘when unobstructed Bre-fight path + Friis free space equation is gi Pax@) = PrriGex( 23) “The factor (2/And? is also known asthe free space loss factor. 10 Dofine EIRP. ‘ans. : FIRP (Equivalent (souopicaly Radiated Power) of a transmitting sytem in a {Huon direcon is defined a the taniter power that would be needed, with an Eotropie radiator, to produc the same power density in the given direction | EIRP =F,G, \ Where, Py ~ Transmitted power in W L ‘Ane path ke is defined a8 the diference (in a) Between, the tive | transriltted power and the received power. Path loss may.or-may not incude the eect | of the antenna gains i Path-loss = Lost in signal strength as a function of distance 1,12 Define: Indoor propagation models. L inside the buildings. \ The distances covered are much smaller and the variability of the environment is puch greater for smaller ange of transmitter and receiver separation distances | rout of the building, the construction materials andthe | influence the propagation within the building, \ 1+ Some of the indoor propagation modes are = i. Long distance path Joss model Ericession multiple ‘breakpoint model fii, Attenuation facior model _ [TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? » an upto knowod®[UNIT - 11 Modulation Techniques and Equalization and Divers sed to ensure the tr the suffciont receiver power is avaiable, fv. To meat the SNR roguitement link budget is caleuated, ‘Syllabus 43, GSK Modulation 34, Sprood Spectum Techniques em nm ea 3.10 Two Mats Questions wih Answers eA AAP THR psa —— tri 2 upehet for neees Communication Medlatio Tocniyns wd Egzeon ond versity *[[igita! Modulation ~ An Overview w domands of modern of three types : ‘ard digital modulation technique. In this method, is switched on of off, depending upon the binary lency atudio tone switched between two levels at a of the transmitted binary data signal. tone is known as the carrer frequency. The carice is and of frequencies. the modulation method used in the low - bit = rate y is varied to represent binary 2 or 0. The ference between-the two caries fs equivalent to summing together the outputs of two +0 Shift Keying (PSK) In PSK, the frequency and amplitude of the carrier signal are kept constant while he camer is shifted in phase as each bit in the data stream is transmitted. I Modulation Techhiques modulation scheme depending on the low SNRs (Power efficiency) ~ Power efficiency lity to. preserve the message's fidelity at low Pesforms well in mulpath and fading conditions TeoHWCAL PUBLICATIONS” « an uptns fr knulga Hiroe Cerminten 2.3 Next Tec nd Equation i ne 3 Nodal Tenn to xunfon ond OO 9) Oceupies minimum RF channel bandh (Bandwidth efikiency)- Abity of 2 deme Yo accommodate data within + limited, bandwidth. liceney reflects tow efficiently the allocated. bandwidth is 4 Robustness to channel impaicments 5. Low power/low-cst implementation 6 Constant envelope EEA Linear Modulation EEX Minimum shitt Keying (MSK) Mini eying, smorilation Paced on «Minimum shit SK, is a form of fequency = ontinwoes phase fequency-shit Keying where te feqpency sper an F5K signals to be coherently orthogonal. The renipiorar shift keying implies the minimum frequency separation i detection: 1 in terms of spect elfiieney compared ‘power amplfis to opente in stursion lowing them to provide igh levels of efficiency FEEL coussian minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) echnige, where the spectrum of MSK 5. Shaped information pubes ough * an Shift Keying or Gaussian teed Minimum Flat’ with no phase discontinuities used _ a ee CATIONS? = an wp trust fr Roied® TECHNICAL PLOLites Comune 3-4 __Mexkénin Tocris and guateatn and Dvorsiy * Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying of GMSK modulation scheme is used in GSM/CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Date) technologies, + In GMSK modulation the phase of the ‘modulating signal Le. the information to trana + Jn GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the cases i fist smoothed with a Guasslan low-pass filter prior to being fed to fcquency modalaer, which freatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (agjcent channel interference). + Ina real system the modulator woiks assigned time slot. camer is instantly varied by the smi. ‘only daring the burst transztission in the * The GMSK differs from MSK (Minimum Shift Keying) in that « Gaussian filter of an appropriate bandwidth is used before the modulation sage * Th GSM, the data within a single TDMA bunt are transmitted at the rate of 270889 Wbit/s wheceas the channel spacing i 200 iz only. This sets stringent Tequzements for the applied modulation, with respect not only to the width of the ‘mainlebe but also to the attenuation of the sidelobes. "+ Also the requitement seated to efficient use ofthe nonnear power ampli mobile station i preserving the constant signal envelope. This feat Particularly important for the energy budget of a mabile station, ERY Block Diagram of GMSK ta * Ks similar to standard Minimum Shift Keying (MSK); however the digital data steam is fist shaped with a Gaussian filter before being applied to a fequency Modulator. This has the advantage of reducing sidebasd power, which in tors reduces outofband interference between signal caries in adjacent frequency channels. * However, the Gaussian filter increases the modulation memory in the system and ‘causes intersymbol interference, making. it more difficult to discriminate between iflerent transmitted data requiring more complex channel equalization algorithms such as an aday lizer at the receiver, + GMSK as implemented by quadrature signal processing at baseband followed by quadrature modulator. + By applying Cos and Sin funct bits with Cos and Sin fun ut Sin). The same process is understood lrigonometrié equation mentioned in Fig. 331 TECINNCAL PUBLICATIONS” an upthst bo monde Wess Conmaricton ais Sceasniveg) nn) sigayn(9) “Tégonemetry emuaton cor jar 8) e0e (A) 28 I~ Fig. 33:4 EEE] 1&0 Signals ‘The resulting waveform is divided into In-Phase and Quadrature component 1. Irephase = Left 2. Quadrature: Right sn up-converted 10 + The two signal components are then up- “TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? - 2n prot owedy0 - am AA DPPDAPAANMaa “ou - ob | MOUSE UY I a eee AtriessConmunenton __F_ Mai Tact nd Eustizetin nd Bveety “Fig. 332 EE] cmsk Receiver acicaly drives back 9 using arctan fonction, which is lock to obisin NRZ signal back. this mixing. and Low pass fillering is done to obtain I and Q two chains, The same is understood well by trigonometric din Fig. 333, CHa > Te PUBLICATIONS” an up for knomtedg2 ine Comat ; aay ‘ a Oot . co} Pore OET LF Vey ia “+ Bandwidth efficiency for MSK and GMSK is 1 bt/s/Hz also Known as spectral efficiency. EERE cusk Properties {1k Improved spectral efficiency 2. Power spectral density 3, Reduced main lobe over MSK. |B. Reguies move pote to tanami at as mans > ‘5. Comparable modulation schemes. 6 Sal eynchoonizing capability 7. Constant envelope over enti & Good BER performance. [EGE spread Spectrum Techniques «+ Spread Spectrum ($8) is a means of transmission in which Fr the teanemtted signal occupies hardvklth which is much greater fan the mii necessary to send the information. of a spreading, sign 17 odin Tetsqut and Equation and OVeY core) BW.tess Conruntaton 3-8. ModsotonTctiquas and Equation and Diversity a= Data signa ~? ; Recovered data ‘Sprang cote Sprang code Fig. 2.4.1 Sproad spectrum concept *+ Spread Spectrum ($5) is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley. channel-capacity theorem. Features of Spread Spectrum + Following features of spread spectrum’ technology (whether DSSS or FHSS) 1, Simplified multiple access : No requiteme : 2 Selective addressing capability if sequenceprovides authentication : 3. Relative seewrity from eavesdroppers : The low spread power and relatively fast direct sequence modulation by the pseudorandom code make detection difficult; : 4. Interference rejection : The spread-spectrum receiver teats the other DSSS signals as thermal noise and suppresses narrowband interference. » EEE] Advantages of Spread Spectrum 1. Low power spectral density. 2. Privacy due to unknown random codes. 8. Random access possibilities. 4. Good antijam performance, 5. Reduced crosstalk 6. Better voice quali ta integrity and less static noise, 2 Median Techiuns ood Equation end sding : Applying spread spectrum is quired (untike T sn), This means + tn SS system the signal spreading code is the sovalled Pseudo-Neise jodic and consists of periodic coded sec TecHWckt, PUBLICATIONS? «an eps fy knwiedgePPP Pye ydy SUCRE, peo | W lee Convunieton 3-40 Modan Tetiues nd Equation and ity Fig. 243 Principle of ciract sequence spread spectrum ‘etection [At the receiver for detection a eynctironons pseudorandom sequence c(t) simtlsr ‘© sed. 5/55 signal yt) is multiplied by ct) to recover desired signal m() I ‘Desproadng PN sence peo 00 elt) = mit) CO) eis ding sional —_—— ——anca. icone? wan os =a zee “TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? TEHUCAL PUBLICATIONS? - an apthst for Krowlodvoicoiess Gonmuneaion 3612 _ Medison Techniques ond Equotzation and Divrsly * Chip rate = R. bits/sec and message symbol rate = Ry bits/sce. ‘The processing gain is given as, woke Re or = ie u-2 or Fon Spl Demy gy sa(0) «Tos ) oy For input signal (4) 5, (@) = Te sine( $2) + The PSD of input signal Fig. 3.46. Since the PSD y(t) is N times wider than PSD of For output signal (B) Fig. 24.6 PSDs of the Input and the output signals of a DS/SS systom of input and autput equations are same. This indicates that PSD of y(t) thf ifomaon sais, helo ata ates The spearan apn ba een ati ipiay eT 7 ho spied spin sched ce ne kt TECHIUCAL PUBLICATIONS? «an uptinat fr knowledge Wiraes Communication Flg. 34.7 Approximate spectrum of 3 +The spectrum of PN signal is [> Fig. 34.7 (€) ZEB Features of iss TT {e) Spectrum of consid 14 spectrum signal 2 The resulting spectrum spreading is st 1. Secure communication, » al can be detected at the receiver if the pseudorande known. This prevenis unauthorized acces3-14 _Meosuinten Tochogins nd Equation vy crs on game band) : 2 the same hand with beter signal to noise ratio. i. Advantages of CDMA : "3 Code-Divicion Multiple fading : to reflection is a delayed version of original DS/SS When an unwanted signal strength is more because Of its proximity of its sransmitter to the receiver and the desired signal strength is weak. In such situation the desired signal may be suppressed. This ‘problem can be climinated by making all the codes exthogonal but it is difficult to make lage numberof codes orthogonal | Advantages of DSISS sm has best noise and antijam performance. receivers find it most dificult to detect direct sequence signals 1DS/SS has best diserimination against multipath signals. | Disadvantages of DSSS 105/35 requires wideband channel with small phase distortion S/S has longet acquisition time. ‘The pseudo noise generator should generate sequence at hi Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS) 1 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS) scheme an FSK signal is enerated then the frequency of FSK signal is shifted by pseudensise (PN) aquence, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® an uptns orknomldgD 3:15 Mason Tenigues ond Egan a Oech oes ae Receiver \Waoinss Communit + Fig. 348 shows FH/SS transmitter and receiver. Fig. 348 FSS system 1+ ‘The FSK output fequency is ©, and synthesizer frequency i ©, The output of since contain (0, + ©) a0d (04 ~ 0.) The BPF passes (@y + 0) feguenry Components. The signal now tarsited by pulses whose frequencies hop ove Svide range of frequencies according to PN exe, The BW of FH/SS signal is rmuich more than FSK signal. The FH/SS seceiver an identical PN code is synchronized with the rsived sign shifts the frequencies buck to otiginal PSK frequencies, These frequencies can be demodulated. i “There exits two conditions depending en frequency hopping rate Ry and symbol rate Ry, i}. When Ry R, the scheme is called as Slow Frequency Hopping (SF. iif TF Ry > Re the scheme i called as Fast Frequency Hopping (FF. BEEN ravantages of HS 1. The systems bandwidih of FI/S5 i very Targe. 2. It can be programmd to evid some portions of spectrum 3. thas zeativelyshost acquisition time, 4, Te has les distance effec. ELEY visodvantages of FHSS FHSS system requires complex frequency synthesizers. 2. Iki not useful for range and range rte measurement. requires error correction. TEGHNGAL PUBLGATIONS® ~ an up thus fr Anowleda?3:16 _ Neda ecg ed Equal ad sy EXXED Aevoniages of FHSS over OS'S 1. FH/SS can produce signals of much wider BW as compared to DS/SS. The processing gain of PH/S8 is much higher than DS/S FFH/SS is los susceptible to nearfar probleme than DS/SS. Fu/SS os compere 55/58 EERIE comparison of 0998 an Ss Vv Y 8 “on eda Y 0 o—9-9rt dis an Fig, 348 COMA with DSISS system EEE coma with FHSS dla pnudo: ansel can be sh fore, the coma ly. The frequency hopping pattern for xs. Because timnin compared: to band higher comp ‘using FHSS is ir and hence more inforenation rates are posible TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? 9 wrk hwo “Tecnica, PUBLICATIONS? - am pans for konto aAAaAngP PP?, “© CVVbGCoEEL SLY) must be estimated. The multipath fading channel listibution function of the instantaneous power of ument, Different types of fading multipath channel ise (AWGN) channet esired signal is degraded by the thermal noise associated ef and losses in transmitter and receiver circuitry. [AWGN channel is accurate in specific cases such as space communication and co-ncl tunication It i not suitable for mobile communication. Log Normal Fading Channel ‘The propagation models 2 developed to determine the path loss are Known as the large distance. But due to trees, foliage, rainfall, and n there is gradual change in local mean power and such type of fading channel is characterized by log normal distribution function, A Rayleigh Fading Channel ding can be dealt by studying performance characteristics in such caitcal environment I Ricing Fading Channel Rican fading exsts where there is a direct Line Of Sight (LOS) path along with ‘number of indirect multipath signals. This model is mostly applicsble in indoor leigh fading model characterizes outdoor environment anvirenment whereas TEcHNICAL PUBLICATIONS? «on up-mst for knowlege 2-19 Modtton Teche od Euan ad Dey 2-19 mosatonTecnigns odo ard Bie, ‘+All the carnes ate characterized by a parameter" where ~ x Foverin dominant pal ower neater pats |) For Rayleigh chard), numerator is zero therefore K=O Wireless Conminiaton fil) For Rican channe, with raconably stron ‘it Eeor Rate (BER) for vatious fading conditions is shown in Fg. 354. rbetiny of i res (OER Fig. 364 Theoretical bit error rate for varlous fading condone [EG Modulation Performance in Fading and ‘Multipath Channels «The nie do hae fs araceriad by various fimpainsents such a iN smullipath and Doppler speed «Bit Enor Rate (BER) does not provide information about sradilton scheme, ile radio environment necessary to evaluate the performance __ reste denen cei - “eMacaL PURLCATIONS? «an the busty errors in potion osmdy he eflevenns of 7 i ‘6f the modulation scheme overirioss Commniatan 3-20 Modulation Techniques and Eqn nd Cvrsty * Evaluating the probibility of outage is another means to judge the ellectiveness of feral the signaling scheme in a mobile radio channel. An outage event is specified by a specifi number of bit errors occurring in a given transmission, Wireless Communication 3:21 Modulotgn Tedniquoa ana Evatzaton ado binary PSK 1 € Pepesk " 3057) a e Bit error rates and probability of outage for Various modulation schemes under For non-coherent orthogonal binary FSK various types of channel impairments can be evaluated either ‘through analytical 1 e techniques or through simulations. Pencesk = TF + Analyt techniques are used for BER in slow fading channels while the eae, © Pedomance in fequeny slave Ghnne! and. computation al okey of For coherent . sige aOR A REG Gleraer teodti. 4, [FE .2 e Peawsk = |! -Varei |= 29r 4. Perormance in sow, fat fading channels To evaluat the probity of erorof any digital modulton sche in vow; ft foding channel, the probability of error of the particular modtlation in AWGN channels over the possible ranges of signal strength due to fading i averaged ont. + The probsbilty of enor in a slow, lat fading channel is given by R= [Reeopooax a the probability of err for an arbitrary modulation ito epecifc vakue ration X. For Rayleigh fading channels, a has a Rayleigh distribution, so ao? and consequently X have a chi-square distribution with two degrees of freedom. Hence we: 100 = beo( 2x20 were «tite ge va the salt io +The pry of erin lw, Ht fing ea cn te ep ‘coherent binary PSK and coherent binary PSK as For coherent binary PSK: tm For coherent binary FSK : 4 Parse = 3[- Fr] TECHOUCAL PUBLICATIONS? - an uptot for knows