1.

List types of commonly used construction materials and discuss briefly about their
properties.
Construction building material is any substance used in building a structure. There are various
kinds of materials used for building in the construction industry. We use different materials
depending on their structural capabilities. In different regions, local and national standards
govern building materials in construction. On the other hand, Architects choose construction
materials based on aesthetics and cost. Picking the suitable material for a project means
enhancing and lengthening a project’s lifetime. Some of the most common construction materials
are:
A. CONCRETE
Concrete is one of the most common construction materials. It is a composite material from fine
and coarse aggregate mixed with a binder like cement and water. The mixture is then left to cure
and set over time. Concrete takes seven days to cure and an average of 28 days to attain
maximum strength. Reinforced concrete is most common in construction, whereby steel is
embedded in the concrete to increase the structural tensile strength. Concrete comes in many
forms, with examples such as lightweight concrete and waterproof concrete. The project type
dictates the type of concrete used. One of the most significant advantages of concrete is that it
can be poured into any shape and hardened into a stone-like material.
Because of its cost and versatility, concrete is a common material in construction. Concrete is
used for:
 Foundations
 Residential building construction
 Commercial building construction
 Bridge construction
 Culverts and sewers.

B. STEEL
The construction of skyscrapers exploded from the discovery of steel as a reinforcement
material. Steel is a composite material made from alloys of iron and carbon. Steel has high
strength and functionality. It is also lightweight, easy to work with, and cheaper to ship than
other building materials. Steel does not easily deform unless a tremendous amount of weight is
placed on it, and it retains its structural properties even when it is bent. Due to its structural
stability, steel is used to make tall modern buildings' structural frameworks.
Steel has distinguishing qualities such as high strength to weight ratio. It is less time-consuming
to install than concrete, and can be installed in any environment. If not correctly installed,
however, steel is susceptible to corrosion. One of the significant drawbacks of steel as a
construction material is that it is likely to break down during high-temperature levels. Its level of
fire resistance depends on the type of steel.
Steel is commonly used in construction for the following purposes:
 For structural sections: as reinforcing bars to increase the tensile strength of structures.
 Roofing: to make roofing products such as purlins, internal walls, ceilings, and cladding.
 Internal fixtures: to make interior fittings such as rails and stairs.
 Utilities: underground water, fuel, power, and gas lines using steel.
C. WOOD
Wood is the oldest construction material as it has been in use. It is naturally available and cost-
efficient, strong and durable, and flexible in all senses. It can be bent, molded, or cured into
desirable shapes. Other than its durability, wood is an environmentally sustainable material.
Wood can be used for commercial and residential buildings, and it works well with other
materials. It functionally works well with steel, marble, and aluminum. Compared to other
construction materials, wood is relatively light and easy to standardize in size. It has high tensile
strength and is good in soundproofing and insulation.
Wood is used in construction in the following areas:
 Construction of walls, floors, and ceilings
 Construction of interiors such as door and window frames
 Frames of structures in buildings and bridges
 Thermal insulation
 Acoustic insulation
D. STONE
Stone is the longest-lasting building material. The most ancient buildings in the world are made
of stone. Stone is commonly used in walls and floorings, and the texture makes it versatile. Stone
comes with smooth finish textures to rough ones and comes in many different colors. Examples
of stones used in construction are sandstone, granite, and marble. Ordinary stone is cheap, but
the prices go up for unique finishes. For marble countertops, quality and color increase the
production time and cost.
Stone has a few drawbacks. Its density affects its workability due to its weight, thus making it
difficult to move it. Stone is also a terrible insulator therefore ineffective for insulation in cold
environments.
Stone is used in construction in the following aspects:
 As rough aggregate in construction
 In masonry works for walls, dams, and bridge piers
 As ballast for railways
 For damp proofing of external walls
 Stones like marble are used for making excellent polish finishes.
E. BRICK/MASONRY
Masonry uses bricks which are rectangular blocks, and they are later bound with mortar. Bricks
were traditionally made from heated and dry clay. They have a high compression resistance, but
they can break easily. The most vital bricks in existence now are concrete blocks which are
reinforced using steel. Masonry is fire-resistant and durable. Due to its high compressive
strength, It is used to construct load-bearing walls. Masonry can support multi-story buildings
when reinforced with concrete, thus providing an economical building choice.
Masonry is used in various construction components such as:
 Used for walls
 Used for masonry foundations
 Other types, such as veneer masonry, are used for decorating finishes.
 Masonry is also used for gabion construction in flood-prone areas.
OTHER CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Other popular construction materials include:
a. Bamboo
Bamboo is a unique material with a high strength-to-weight ratio. It rivals concrete, brick, and
wood in terms of compressive strength and high tensile strength. It is mostly applied in
residential buildings, scaffolding, and bridges.
It can also create planks and sheets for flooring, carpentry, and furniture.
 b. Construction foam
This plastic foam material is used in buildings to curtail air infiltration and provide thermal
insulation. Some common forms of concrete foam include polystyrene and polyurethane foam
inserted between cement, wood, and other concrete forms.
c. Glass
Glass is made from liquid sand and is used in most buildings to construct facades. It is also used
for flooring and internal building partitions. Glass has a lower weight than brick and masonry
and has a better aesthetic appearance.
The thickness of the glass is selected according to the applied loads and is designed to comply
with design standards.
d. Aluminum
Aluminum is increasing in demand, especially with the scarcity of timber in construction. It is an
eco-friendly material with a minimal effect on the ecosystem compared to other construction
materials.
Aluminum is not as strong and is mixed with other alloys like copper and magnesium to increase
its strength. Different aluminum grades have different strengths, and the selection of the material
depends on its application.
2. Write types of slabs and discuss advantage of each slab types.
A reinforced concrete slab is a crucial structural element and is used to provide flat
surfaces(floors and ceilings) in buildings. On the basis of reinforcement provided, beam support,
and the ratio of the spans, slabs are generally classified into one-way slab and two-way slab. The
former is supported on two sides and the ratio of long to short span is greater than two. However,
the latter is supported on four sides and the ratio of long to short span is smaller than two.
Varying conditions and stipulations ask for the selection of appropriate and cost-effective
concrete slab, keeping in view, the type of building, architectural layout, aesthetic features, and
the span length. Concrete slabs, therefore, are further classified into one-way joist slab, flat
slab, flat plate, waffle slab, hollow core slab, precast slab, slabs on grade, hardy slab, and
composite slab.
A. One-Way Slabs on Beams
Cast in situ method is used to construct one-way slabs on beams which involves fixing of forms
followed with the installation of reinforcements, and finally the pouring of fresh concrete.
One-way slabs on beams are most suitable for spans of 3-6m, and a live load of 3 to 5KN/m2.
They can also be used for larger spans with relatively higher cost and higher slab deflection.
Additional formwork for the beams is however needed.
B. One-way joist slab (Ribbed slab)
 It consists of a floor slab, usually 50 to 100mm thick, supported by reinforced concrete
ribs (or joists). The ribs are usually tapered and are uniformly spaced at distances that do not
exceed 750mm. The ribs are supported on girders that rest on columns.
 A one-way joist concrete slab is suitable for spans of 6-9m and live loads of 4-6KN/m2.
Because of the deep ribs, the concrete and steel quantities are relatively low, but expensive
formwork is needed.
C. Waffle Slab (Grid slab)
 It is a type of reinforced concrete slab that contains square grids with deep sides. Waffle
slab construction process includes fixing forms, placement of pods on shuttering, installation
of reinforcement between pods, installation of steel mesh on top of pods, and pouring of
concrete.
 Grid slabs are suitable for spans of 9-15m and live loads of 4-7KN/m2. Formwork,
including the use of pans, is quite expensive.
D. Flat Plates
 Flat plates can be constructed as one-way or two-way slabs and it is directly supported by
columns or walls. It is easy to construct and requires simple formworks.
 Flat plates are most suitable for spans of 6 to 8m, and live loads between 3 and 5KN/m2.
Added to that, the range of spans for prestressed flat plates is between 8-12m, and it can also
be constructed as post-tensioned slabs.
 The advantages of adopting flat plates include low-cost formwork, exposed flat ceilings,
and faster construction. Flat plates have low shear capacity and relatively low stiffness,
which may cause noticeable deflection.
E. Flat Slabs
 This is typically a reinforced slab supported directly by columns or caps, without the use
of beams. This type of slab is generally easy to construct and requires little formwork. The
loads are directly transferred to the columns.
 Flat slabs are most suitable for spans of 6 to 9m, and for live loads of 4-7KN/m2. They
need more formwork than flat plates, especially for column capitals. In most cases, only drop
panels without column capitals are used. It can be constructed as a post-tensioned flat slab.
F. Two-way Slabs on Beams
The construct of this type of slab is similar to that of one-way slab on beams, but it may
need more formworks since two-way slabs are supported on all sides. Slabs on beams are
suitable for spans between 6 and 9m, and live loads of 3-6KN/m2 . The beams increase the
stiffness of the slabs, producing relatively low deflection. Additional formwork for the
beams is needed.
G. Hollow core slab
It is a type of precast slab through which cores are run. Not only do these cores decline
slab self-weight and increase structural efficiency but also act as service ducts. It is
suitable for cases where fast constructions are desired.
There is no restriction on the span of the hollow core slab units, and their standard width
is 120mm and depth ranges from 110mm to 400mm.
The slab units are commonly installed between beams using cranes and the gaps between
units are filled with screeds. It has been observed that, hollow core slab can support 2.5
kN/m2 over a 16m span. It is suitable for offices, retail or car park developments.
H. Hardy Slab
It is constructed using hardy bricks which significantly decline the amount of concrete
and eventually the slab's self-weight. The thickness of hardy slab is commonly greater
than conventional slab and around 270mm.
The construction of hardy slab involves formwork installation, hardy block placement,
placement of reinforcement into gaps between blocks, placement of steel mesh on the
blocks, and finally pouring of concrete.
It is economical for spans of length up to 5m, and it reduces the quantity of concrete
below neutral axis, and moderate live loads shall be imposed. It is constructed at
locations where the temperatures are very high. The application of this type of slab can be
seen in Dubai and China.
I. Bubble Deck Slab
 It is constructed by placing plastic bubbles which are prefabricated and the reinforcement
is then placed between and over plastic bubbles and finally, fresh concrete is poured. The
plastic bubbles replace the ineffective concrete at the center of the slab.
Bubble Deck slabs reduce weight, increase strength, larger spans can be provided, fewer
columns needed, no beams or ribs under the ceiling are required. Consequently, not only
does it decline the total cost of construction but it is also environmentally friendly since it
reduces the amount of concrete.
J. Composite Slab
Commonly, it is constructed from reinforced concrete cast on top of profiled steel decking.
The decking acts as formwork and working area during the construction phase, and it also
acts as external reinforcement during service life of the slab.
For a steel decking of thickness between 50-60mm, the span of the slab can reach up to 3m.
However, if the steel decking thickness is increased up to 80mm, slabs with span of 4.5m can
be constructed.
K. Precast Slab
Precast concrete slabs are cast and cured in manufacturing plants, and then delivered to
the construction site to be erected. The most outstanding advantage of the preparation of
slabs in manufacturing plants is the increase in efficiency and higher quality control
which may not be achieved on site.
The most commonly used precast slabs are the channel and double-T types. They can be
used for spans up to 15m. The double-T slabs vary in sizes and spans up to 15m have
been used.
The tongue-and-groove panel could vary in size based on the design requirement. When
they are placed, the tongue of one panel is placed inside the groove of adjacent panel.
With regard to the cost of precast slabs, it is reported that precast concrete slabs are
cheaper than cast in situ concrete slab by approximately 24%.
L. Slab on grade
The slab which is cast on the surface of the earth is called a Ground slab. Generally, slab
on grade is classified into three types:
a. Slab on ground
It is the simplest type of slab on grade which is a composite of stiffening beams
constructed from concrete around perimeter of the slab, and has a slab thickness of
100mm. It is suitable for stable ground which is mostly composed of sand and rock and
not influenced by moisture, and soils that undergo slight movement due to moisture.
b. Stiffened raft slab
It is similar to slab on ground apart from stiffening beams which are set in channels
through the middle of the slab. Consequently, it creates a kind of supporting grid of
concrete on the base of the slab. Soil with moderate, high amount, and severe movement
due to moisture.
c. Waffle raft slab
It is constructed entirely above the ground by pouring concrete over a grid of polystyrene
blocks known as 'void forms'. Waffle raft slabs are generally suitable for sites with less
reactive soil, use about 30% less concrete and 20% less steel than a stiffened raft slab,
and are generally cheaper and easier to install than other types. These types of slabs are
suitable only for very flat ground.