City College of Angeles

Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 1
Introduction to Ecology
Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Define ecology as a branch of science and state its importance to humans;

2. Review the principles of ecology; and
3. Identify the scales of ecology with the help of the given diagram.

Introduction

Today we hear people from all walks of life using the terms ecology and environment.
Students, homeowners, politicians, planners and union leaders speak of “environment issues”
and “ecological concerns.” Often these terms are interpreted in different ways, so we need to
establish some basic definitions.

Recognizing the earth’s fragile ecosystem is a challenge to everyone. This is a call for all
of us to respect the only world God has a given us, so that God’s kingdom on earth may become
a reality.

Our lives are very much affected by environmental science every day. The knowledge
and technology we have are products of environmental sciences, the study of how humans
interact with their environment and what can be done to improve these interactions.

Let us therefore open our hearts and minds to God’s call for peace and justice for us and
for the world we live in. Look around you, and see and feel just how great God’s love for
mankind is. He showered us with wondrous manifestations of this gift of wisdom – the
knowledge of the Science of Ecology.

Ecology as compared to Environmental Science?

The word ecology has been synonymous with the word environment, with particular
emphasis on our plundered natural resources, dwindling forest, water and air pollution, acid rain,
greenhouse effect, ozone-layer depletion, toxic waste and many other outer evidences of global
human disturbances. In this lesson, we will study the very real concerns of our environment.

Ecology (from Greek: oikos, “household, home or house” and logos “knowledge”) is the
scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and the interactions between organisms
and their environment. The environment of an organism includes physical properties, which can
be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as insolation (sunlight), climate and
geology, and biotic factors, which are other organisms that share its habitat.

The term ecology or oekologie was coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in
1866, when he defined it as “the comprehensive science of the relationship of the organism to the

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 1

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

environment”. Haeckel did not elaborate on the concept, and the first significant textbook on the
subject was written by the Danish botanist, Eugenius Warming. For this early work, Warming is
often identified as the founder of ecology.

The Principles of Ecology

1. Everything is connected to everything else.

2. Everything must go somewhere.
3. Sun is the source of life.
4. Nature knows best.
5. Ours is a finite planet.
6. All life forms are important.

Environmental science can be defined as:

Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment and our place in it
either globally or locally, and its living and non-living components. It is a composite entity
incorporating the different fields of science such as:

1. Natural Sciences which include biology, chemistry, earth science, physics and medicine.
2. Social Sciences which include economics, political science, sociology, history, philosophy
and ethics.
3. Other Sciences such as mathematics, statistics, technology, business and management, law,
religion, morality and aesthetics.

Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment and our place in it. A
relatively new field, it is highly interdisciplinary. It encompasses wide range of scientific
disciplines to better understand and manage the natural environment and the relationship and
interconnectedness of all the organisms. It is inclusive and holistic, mission oriented and implies
that we all have a responsibility to get involved and try to do something about the problems we
have created.

Environment (from the French environner: to encircle or surround) can be defined as:
(1) The circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or a group of organisms; (2)
The social and cultural conditions that affect an individual or a community. Since humans
inhabit the natural world as well as the “built or technological, social and cultural world, all
constitute important parts of our environment.

Environment, as a broad term, encompasses all that surround us, natural world in which
we live, and all the things that are produced by people. We, humans have used the world’s
environment, including its resources, with little knowledge or understanding of the consequences
of our actions.

The diversity of the interactions among various organisms in the biosphere extends to
chains of dependence, ultimately to complex biotic communities, all of which are dependent for
survival on specific factors of the environment.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 2

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Goals of environmental science:

1. To develop a sustainable world, a world in which the supply of food, water, building
materials, clean air, and other resources can sustain human populations to continue to exists
indefinitely with high standard of living and health.

2. To study environmental problems and issues, and priorities regarding acceptable

environmental preservation of natural species and habitats, freedom of nations to do as they
please, within their own potential boundaries, and issues on the quality of life, fairness and
ethics.

Scales of Ecology

atom population community

molecule organism ecosystem

organelle organ biosphere

cell tissue

1. Atom – smallest unit of an element that still retains the characteristic properties of that
element.

2. Molecule – unit of matter in which two or more atoms of the same element or different ones,
are bonded together.

3. Organelle – specialized part of a cell performing one or more specific functions.

4. Cell – basic living unit of all plants and animals.

5. Tissue – a group of cells and intercellular substances that function together in one or more
specialized tasks.

6. Organ – part of the body composed of two or more tissue types and performing one or more
specific functions.

7. Organism – any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed one cell or many.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 3

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

8. Population – all members of the same species inhabiting a particular area.

9. Community – all the populations found in a particular area. Consists of all the population that
live and interact in one environment.

10. Ecosystem – community and its physical environment, characterized by a flow of energy and
a cycle of inorganic nutrients.

11. Biosphere - regions of the earth where organisms exist and the life supporting region of
earth.

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 1. The e-Report

1. News about the environment has now become an important part of television and newspaper
reports. They make our people aware of what is happening with our environment problems. You
should be able to write your own news report about the current situation. Write the article you
have chosen and be sure make a comment for your article.

2. Interpretation and Analysis of Data:

(a) What are the important environmental facts in your article? Give at least 3.

(b) Compare your news article with those of your classmates. Do they have similarities/
differences? State them.

3. Define the following terms:

(1) Environmental Science

(2) Environment

(3) Environmental education

(4) Science

(5) Resources

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 4

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 1
I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the item that best complete the statement.

________1. The regions of the earth where organisms exist and the life supporting region of
earth.
a. Biosphere c. Ecosystem
b. Community d. Population

________2. All members of the same species inhabiting a particular area.

a. Biosphere c. Ecosystem
b. Community d. Population

________3. Part of the body composed of two or more tissue types and performing one or more
specific functions.
a. Organ c. Tissue
b. Organism d. Organelle

________4. A group of cells and intercellular substances that function together in one or more
specialized tasks.
a. Organ c. Tissue
b. Organism d. Organelle

________5. Unit of matter in which two or more atoms of the same element or different ones,
are bonded together.
a. Molecule c. Tissue
b. Organism d. Atom

________6. The smallest unit of an element that still retains the characteristic properties of that
element.
a. Molecule c. Tissue
b. Organism d. Atom

________7. The systematic study of our environment and our place in it either globally or
locally, and its living and non-living components.
a. Environment c. Environmental Science
b. Ecology d. Environmental Education

________8. The circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or a group of

organisms.
a. Environment c. Environmental Science
b. Ecology d. Environmental Education

________9. The study of the interactions of organisms among themselves and with the physical
environment.
a. Environment c. Environmental Science
b. Ecology d. Environmental Education

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 5

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

________10. He defined it as “the comprehensive science of the relationship of the organism to

the environment”.
a. Charles Darwin c. Ernst Haeckel
b. Carolus Linnaeus d. Eugenius Warming

II. Restricted essay: Answer the following items briefly:

1. In your own words, explain these Principles of Ecology. (6 points)

1.1 Everything is connected to everything else.

1.2 Everything must go somewhere.

1.3 Sun is the source of life.

1.4 Nature knows best.

1.5 Ours is a finite planet.

1.6All life forms are important.

2. Define environmental science. (2 points)

3. As students, what will you do to help preserve, conserve and restore our natural resources?
(2 points)

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 6

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 2
Characteristics of Biosphere

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you ahould be able to:

1. Discuss the characteristics of biosphere and the levels of organization comprising it;
2. Differentiate the biological levels of organization;
3. Enumerate the different terrestrial and aquatic biomes; and
4. Discuss what are the different climate zone.

Introduction

Man together with the abiotic factors of the environment live and interact in a great
network that encircles all the God’s creations. The physical environment that supports all life
forms is a relatively thin film which is called the biosphere. The biosphere requires some
amount of energy, although it may be self-sufficient. All requirements for life continue to exist
such as water, oxygen and other substances which are made available continuously through the
process of recycling. This therefore provides an interconnection among the biotic and abiotic
factors of environment. The interconnectedness among the factors of the biosphere is part of
God’s design. He so willed that both factors rely on one another and may not be able to survive
without the other.

Ecology, The Biosphere and Ecosystems

The branch of biology that deals with the study of relationship between organisms and
their environment is called ecology.

The environment is made up of the external elements and conditions that affect the life
and development of an organism.

There are numerous forms of environment where organisms live to sustain life. Biotic
components of the biosphere live together in a biological area called a biotic community. This
community may be big or small like a pond, a bird nest, a forest, or even the ocean.

As interactions take place in an environment, the following biological levels of

organization are involved:

1. Biosphere – the area of the earth in which life is possible

2. Ecosystem – any stable environment in which living and non-living things interact and in
which materials are used over and over again

3. Biotic community – all the living organisms in an ecosystems

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 7

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Characteristics of Biosphere

1. Everything in it is living or recently living, meaning those that haven’t decomposed yet.

2. The existence of food webs or feeding relationships that connects organisms on the basis of
energy flow from one species to another.

3. Each region of the biosphere has distinctive energy flows trophic levels and nutrients.

BIOMES

A natural unit of living and non-living components that interact to form a stable system in
which the exchange of materials follow a circular path.

1. Habitat – place where an organism lives and able to survive and reproduce. Provides a
certain species or population with food, shelter, temperature, water and whatever it is that
they need to survive.

2. Niche – functional role and position of an organism in the ecosystem.

3. Succession – progressive change in plant and animal life of an area.

TERREATRIAL BIOMES

Land biomes: tundra, desert, taiga, tropical rain forest, temperate forest, grassland.

1. Tundra – located nearest to the polar region. Summer are short and winter are long and dark.
Extensive treeless plain that extends across Northern Europe to Asia and Northern America.
Vegetation includes lichens, mosses, grasses and low-growing shrubs. Few animals adapted to
cool temperature live in tundra, polar bears, caribou, and musk ox; during summer, insects
and birds migrate the biome.

2. Deserts – located at about 30 degrees, in both Northern and Southern hemispheres. Support
organisms adapted to arid conditions. Extreme environment, where rainfall is less than 50 cm
per year. Plant are succulents, or shrubs with woody stems and small leaves. Animals require
little water or are adapted in storing water such as kangaroo, rat, roadrunner, insects, lizards
and snakes.

3. Taiga (Boreal forest) – located just below the tundra extending in a broad belt across
northern Eurasia and North America. A coniferous forest that receives between 10 to 40
inches of rain per year. The trees present have usually thick protective leaves and bark, as well
as needle like leaves that can withstand snowfall. Common animals present include grizzly
bears, wolves, caribou, and moose.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 8

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

4. Tropical rain forest – usually found in regions near the equator. The richest biomes in terms
of biodiversity. The climate is always warm with plenty of rainfall about 190 cm per year. Has
a complex structure with many levels of life, from simplest bryophytes and epiphytes to
woody vines and giant trees. Insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are well
represented. Characteristics of Philippine forests.

5. Temperate deciduous forest – located south of the taiga in eastern North America, eastern
Asia and much of Europe. With moderate climate and relative high rainfall. Deciduous,
broad-leaved trees are the dominant plants. Dominated by deciduous trees, oak, beech and
maple. Amphibians and reptiles are found, together with some other vertebrates as squirrels,
rabbits, foxes, deer, and bears.

6. Grassland (Savanna) – characterized by deep, rich soil perfect agriculture, an absence of

trees, and presence of large herds of grazing animals. Located in regions where a relatively
cool dry season is followed by a hot, rainy one. Dominated by grasses that can adapt to
changing temperature and can tolerate high degree of grazing, flooding, drought and
sometimes fire. Supports large group of grazers (zebras and wild beasts) and browsers
(giraffes), and predators (cheetahs and lions).

MARINE BIOMES

Water biomes: oceans (intertidal zones, open sea/pelagic zone, benthic zone/deep sea, abyssal
zone) coral reefs, estuaries.

Oceans

 Occupy 70% of the earth’s surface

 The largest and most diverse of the ecosystems.
 The marine algae supplies most of the Earth’s oxygen and absorbs much of the carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.
 The great reservoir of living things and of nutrients.
 The study of marine habitats is called oceanography.

Divisions of the Oceans:

A. Pelagic division includes the Open Sea – generally cold. Mammals such as dolphins and
whales can be found here as wells as many species of fishes.

1. Neritic province - shallow above the continental shelf, with more nutrients and organisms
because sunlight penetrates the waters up to the bottom.

Subdivided into three zones:

a. supratidal (above the high tide mark)

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 9

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

b. intertidal ( between high and low tide) connects the ocean to land due to the rising and
falling of tides.

c. subtidal (below the low tide mark)

2. Oceanic province - the region of the open sea beyond the continental shelf, above the oceanic
basins.

Subdivided into four zones:

a. euphotic zone (depth up to 120 m, upper part of the ocean into which light can
penetrate)
b. bathyal zone (depth up to 3,000 m, lower part of the ocean in complete darkness)
c. abyssal zone (depth up to 4,000 m, deepest and coldest part of the oceans highly
pressurized)
d. hadal zone (depth beyond 4,000 m)

B. Benthic division includes the depths of the sea – light hardly penetrates; water is very cold.

Subdivided into three zones:

1. continental shelf in the sublittoral shelf – the floor of the neritic province.
2. continental slope in the bathyal zone – a sudden drop of the ocean floor from the
continental shelf up to the abyssal plain.
3. abyssal plain in the abyssal zone – the ocean floor of the abyssal zone, interrupted by
many underwater mountain chains called oceanic ridges.

 Coral reefs - mostly found in warm shallow waters. Can be found as barriers along
continents such as Australia’s Great barrier reef, fringing islands, and atolls.
 Estuary - bodies of water flowing in one direction. Rivers and streams usually get their
start from lakes and springs and travel all the way to their mouths, usually to another
water channel such as the ocean.

FRESH WATER BIOMES

Water biomes: running waters, standing waters.

1. Characterized by having a low salt concentration than the marine biome.

2. The most convenient and cheapest source of water for domestic and industrial needs.
3. The study of freshwater habitats is called limnology.

Types of fresh water biomes:

1. Lotic or running water – bodies of water flowing in one direction. Channel such as the
ocean, rivers and streams usually get their start from lakes and springs and travel all the way to
their mouths, usually to another water.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 10

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

a. Rapid zone – shallow water where velocity of current is great enough to keep the bottom
clear of silt and other loose materials providing a firm substrate.

b. Pool zone – deeper water where velocity of current is reduced and silt and other loose
materials settle to the bottom providing a soft substrate.

2. Lentic or standing water – ponds and lakes may have limited diversity of species since both
bodies of water are isolated from other sources like rivers and oceans.

Lakes and ponds are divided into three zones:

a. littoral zone – topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond; the warmest zone.
b. limnetic zone – near-surface open water; well lighted.
c. profundal zone – deep-water part of the lake; much colder and denser; little light penetrate
here.

What is CLIMATE?

 A pattern or cycle of weather conditions such as temperature, wind snowfall, precipitate,

humidity, and clouds of an area over time.

 The sun’s heat reaches the different parts of the earth at different times throughout the
year which results to variations in weather and climate.

The Different Climate Zones:

1. Tropical zone

 The region that extends from the equator to about 30 degrees north and south latitudes.
 The tropical zone is characterized by a hot climate and strongly monsoonal weather
patterns.
 The zone includes hit desserts and tropical rain forest.
2. Temperate zone

 Extends from 30 degrees to about 60 degrees north and south latitudes.

 The temperature is cooler than in the tropical zone and changes with the season.
 During summer, the temperature changes from warm to hot; while during winter, the
temperature is from cool to cold.
 Precipitation falls as rain or drizzle during summers; and snow or freezing rain during
winters.
3. Polar zone

 Extends beyond 60 degrees north and south latitudes.

 Winters are long and extremely cold.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 11

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 While summers are short and cool.

 All precipitation is frozen.
 Ice and snow covers are extremely thick.

Factors that affect global and regional climate:

1. The distance of the nearest body of water. Those areas near an ocean or lake tend to have a
cooler summers and milder winters.

2. Land formations and mountain ranges. Mountains receive more rainfall than in lying areas
because the temperature here is lower than the temperature at sea level.

3. Altitude. The higher the altitude, the lower is the temperature.

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 2. Film Critique

1. Watch the animated movie “Finding Nemo”.

2. Identify marine animals that live or survive in the intertidal, pelagic, benthic, and abyssal
zone. Explain in writing the adaptations that would help the organisms that they have identified
survive in each of those environments.

a. intertidal

b. pelagic

c. benthic

d. abyssal zone

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 12

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 2

Multiple Choice: Write letter of your choice:

A. Tundra
B. Desert
C. Taiga
D. Tropical rain forest
E. Temperate forest
F. Grassland
G. None of the Choices

______1. Located nearest to the polar region. Summer are short and winter are long and dark.

______2. Animals require little water or are adapted in storing water such as kangaroo, rat,
roadrunner, insects, lizards and snakes.

______3. The trees present have usually thick protective leaves and bark, as well as needle like
leaves that can withstand snowfall.

______4. Has a complex structure with many levels of life, from simplest bryophytes and
epiphytes to woody vines and giant trees.

______5. Amphibians and reptiles are found, together with some other vertebrates as squirrels,
rabbits, foxes, deer, and bears.

______6. Characterized by deep, rich soil perfect agriculture, an absence of trees, and presence
of large herds of grazing animals. Located in regions where a relatively cool dry
season is followed by a hot, rainy one.

______7. Treeless region next to the polar ice caps and high on some mountains. Its climate is
bitterly cold in winter, but it gets very little precipitation. Snow covers most of the
ground most of the year.

______8. Dominated by grasses that can adapt to changing temperature and can tolerate high
degree of grazing, flooding, drought and sometimes fire.

______9. Located south of the taiga in eastern North America, eastern Asia and much of Europe.
With moderate climate and relative high rainfall. Deciduous, broad-leaved trees are the
dominant plants.

______10. Usually found in regions near the equator. The richest biomes in terms of biodiversity
.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 13

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 3
Fundamentals of Ecology

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Relate the article to the discussion of population in the ecosystem;

2. Identify patterns of population growth; and
3. Enumerate and explain the factors affect population growth.

Introduction

Every second, on average, four or five children are born, somewhere on the earth. In that
same second, two other people die. This difference between births and deaths means a net gain
roughly 2.3 more humans per second in the world’s population.

Humans are now the most numerous vertebrate species on the earth. We are also more
widely distributed and manifestly have a greater global environmental impact than any other
species. Many people worry that overpopulation will cause or perhaps already is causing-
resource depletion and environmental degradation that threat the ecological life- support systems
on which we all depend. These fears often leads to the demands for immediate, worldwide birth
control programs to reduce fertility rates and eventually stabilize or even shrink the total number
of humans.

Others believe that human ingenuity; technology and enterprise can extend the world’s
carrying capacity and allow us to overcome any problems that we encounter. Whether human
populations will continue to grow at present rates and what that growth would imply for
environmental quality and human life are among the most central and pressing questions in
environmental science.

Population

Defined as the number of individuals of a particular species in a given area. When

population in an ecosystem changes, one population of a certain species can also change. The
study of the variables that determine the abundance and distribution of a population in time and
space. Group of individuals belonging to the same species that inhabit a specific geographic
location at a specific point in time.

Population Ecology

Study of distribution, density, numbers of individuals and structure (gender, age), rates of
natality and mortality, factors that affect growth. Zebras that live together in a herd are members
of the same species and thus population may change considerably especially when food is
plentiful. The population may decrease in size during severe environmental conditions such as
drought or if the population of predators who feed on zebras will increase significantly.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 14

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Characteristics of Populations

1. Density – number of individuals/per unit area (e.g. per acre or hectare) or unit volume (e.g. in
a column of water)
2. Spacing - dispersion

Density and Numbers

Counting individuals to determine density and population size. Rarely able to count the
entire population, instead – count all the individuals in a prescribed area.

1. Simple counts (# seals/ islands, # burrows/ area, # wildebeest/herd)

2. Mark-recapture technique – capture individuals, mark Individuals, and recapture at a later
point in time – provide estimate of population size for a given area.

Calculation = (total number marked) (total number recaptured)

(number of recapture that were marked)

Example: initial capture of 50 individuals,

second capture of 100 individuals
10 of the 100 were marked from the first capture
estimated population size = 50(100)/10 = 50 individuals

3. Census techniques – transect methods, walk or drive a line (transect) and count the number of
individuals at specific locations, evenly distributed along the line.

Demography - study characteristics of a population that affect growth. Methods: follow a cohort
(group of individuals from birth to death) over time.

Calculations Rates for Populations

1. Survivorship – number of individuals that reach the next year of life

2. Birth – number of individuals born/ designated time frame
3. Mortality – number of individuals that die each year

Ecologists try to identify the factors that influence various populations of organisms:

1. Size
2. Density
3. Distribution
4. Growth

Once of these factors are identified, it would be easier to predict how well a particular population
survives and how fast it grows.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 15

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Population density
Defined as the number of individuals of a certain species per unit area or volume. It is
derived by dividing the number of individuals of a certain species by the area they occupy. Most
of the people live in cities where the number of people per unit per area is significantly higher
than in the provinces.

Natural and human factors that affect population density:

A. Natural Factors

1. Relief (shape and height of land)

High Density: Low land which is flat (e.g. Central Luzon)

Low Density: High land that is mountainous (Mountain Province)

2. Resources

High Density: Areas rich in resources such as coal, oil, wood, fishing etc.
(e.g. Western Europe)
Low Density: Areas with few resources (e.g. The Sahel)

3. Climate

High Density: Areas with temperate climates as there is enough rain and heat to grow crops
(e.g. UK, New Zealand)
Low Density: Areas with extreme climates of hot and cold
(e.g. The Sahara Desert; North and South Pole)

B. Human Factors

1. Political

High Density: Countries with stable government (e.g. Singapore)

Low Density: Unstable countries as people migrate to other countries (e.g. Afghanistan)

2. Social

High Density: Groups of people want to live to close each other for security (e.g. USA)
Low Density: Other groups of people prefer to be isolated (e.g. Scandinavians)

3. Economic
High Density: Good job opportunities encourage high population, particularly in large around
the world.
Low Density: Limited job opportunities cause some areas to be sparsely populated
(e.g. Amazon Rainforest)
Population Distribution

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 16

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

The pattern of dispersal of certain species within the area occupy. It can be said that
places which are sparsely populated contain few people and tend to be difficult to live. While
places which are densely populated contain many people contains habitable environments.

Distribution Patterns

To give a better picture of population density, distribution within the area needs to be
known. Community structure refers to patterns of spatial distribution of individuals and
populations within a community, as well as the relation of a particular community to its
surroundings. At the local level, even in a relatively homogenous environment individuals can be
distributed randomly, clumped together or highly in regular patterns.

There are three patterns of dispersion:

1. Random distribution – (patchy distribution of resources) pattern to be expected when there is

no special force acting on the spatial distribution because members of the species do not
frequently interact with another.
2. Uniform – (territorial species) pattern that result when members of the species are equally
spaced apart because of the interactions among members of the species.
3. Clumped – (random distribution of resources) pattern that results from the restricted
availability of suitable habitat or uneven distribution resources. The clumped pattern may also
be linked with the defense behaviour of the organism as in “safety in numbers.”

Population Age Structure

The population age structure can tell more about population dynamics than either density
or distribution.

1. Functional age classes – because of the difference in life spans, the ages of these groups can
be very different from one group animals to another.
a. Pre-reproductive – too young to reproduce
b. Reproductive – able to reproduce
c. Post reproductive – too old to reproduce

2. Population age profile – an estimation of the number of individuals in each age class

Population Size - the number of individuals in a population. Genetic relationship is used

to single out a certain organism or individual if it belongs to a population or not. Changes over
time just like population density and distribution.

The factors that contribute to the fluctuation of population size are:

1. Natality (rate of birth) – the ratio of the number of births in a given time to the total
population.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 17

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

2. Mortality (rate of death) – the ratio of the number of deaths in a given time to the
total population.
3. Immigration – is the movement of individuals into an area occupied by an existing
population.
4. Emigration – is the movement of individuals out of an area where a population is
located.

Growth pattern

To understand how populations grow, visualize what happens to population under ideal
conditions. Suppose you put a single bacterium in a nutrient-rich culture dish then incubate the
dish under conditions ideal for bacterium to grow.

There are two general of population growth:

1. Organisms that reproduce only once and cease to grow as adults. They expand all their
energy in one reproduction then die.

2. Organisms that reproduce throughout their lifetime and invest all energy for future
survival.

Population regulation two factors affect population growth:

1. Density – dependent – depend on the number of individuals in the population (food,

mates, increased rates of predation and parasitism, stress and behavioural problems due to
overcrowding, available nesting habitat, water, oxygen, waste build up)

2. Density – independent – do not depend on the number of individuals in the population

(weather and climate: drought, typhoon, hurricane, excessive rain or snow, etc...
geological disturbances: earthquake, tidal wave, volcanic eruption, etc...)

Mathematical Models of Population Growth:

1. Exponential growth

A population could reach its biotic potential, the maximum growth rate of which a
population is physiologically capable, if these conditions are met: (1) environmental conditions
are ideal; (b) there are no restrictions on reproduction; and (c) mortality rate is kept extremely
low

2. Biotic potential

Maximum rate at which a population can increase when resources are unlimited and
environmental conditions are ideal. Varies due to difference in: (1) reproductive span; (2)
frequency of reproduction;(3) litter size; and (4) survival rate

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 18

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

3. Limiting factors

Environmental influences that restrict the growth of populations. May include the
availability of food, shelter, water, and space. If the predatory species were not controlled by a
particular limiting factor then the prey species will eventually decrease in number.

4. Carrying capacity

The number of individuals in a population that the environment can sustain over a
relatively long period of time. if the limiting factor is the supply of food, if it eventually
dwindles, birth rate will slow down and death rate will speed up. If the carrying capacity of the
environment is reached, population will level off. It means that the birth and death will evenly
balanced. Thus, population will stabilize, carrying capacity

5. Age distribution

Growing populations have a large percentage of young individuals while declining

populations have a large percentage of elderly individuals.

There are two typical age structure diagrams:

1. Expansive population distribution – is typical in developing countries such as in African and

Asian countries. A pyramid shaped diagram is expected when birth rate is higher than death
rate.

2. Stable population distribution – is typical in industrialized countries such as United States of

America. A bell shaped diagram results when there is a balance birth rate and death rate.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 19

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 3. Understanding Our Community

1. What do you think the maximum and optimum carrying capacities for humans are? Why is
designing experiments in human demography difficult?

2. Research about the current number of people in your chosen community. Gather the pertinent
information such as population numbers (no. of survivors, no. of deaths, mortality rate), age
distribution (age class), sex ratio, spatial distribution. Express your own view regarding
population. Determine how the population affects the resources.

3. Define these terms and explain how they are important the study of human population and
natural resources:

a. Fertility rate

b. Sustainable development

c. Developing and developed countries

4. What is the relationship between human birth rates and death rates in the world? How are both
rates contributing changes to the human, animal, and plant population?

5. What do you think are the factors that influence the growth of human populations?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 20

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 3

I. Identification: Identify what is described in the statement.

________________1. Defined as the number of individuals of a particular species in a given

area.
________________2. Study of distribution, density, numbers of individuals and structure
(gender, age), rates of natality and mortality, factors that affect growth.
________________3. Transect methods, walk or drive a line (transect) and count the number of
individuals at specific locations, evenly distributed along the line.
________________4. Defined as the number of individuals of a certain species per unit area or
volume.
________________5. The pattern of dispersal of certain species within the area occupy.

________________6. Pattern that result when members of the species are equally spaced apart
because of the interactions among members of the species.
________________7. The number of individuals in a population genetic relationship is used to
single out a certain organism or individual if it belongs to a population or
not.
________________8. Depend on the number of individuals in the population (food, mates,
increased rates of predation and parasitism, stress and behavioural
problems due to overcrowding, available nesting habitat, water, oxygen,
waste build up).
________________9. Environmental influences that restrict the growth of populations.

_______________10. It is typical in industrialized countries such as United States of America. A

bell shaped diagram results when there is a balance birth rate and death
rate.
_______________11. Organisms in a community compete with other species for food, shelter,
water, and other survival needs of the species.

_______________12. The ability of the species to use available resources in the presence of
interactions with other species.

_______________13. The consumption of one organism by another where the consumed

organism (prey) was alive when the predator first attacked it.

_______________14. A relationship between species where one organism benefits from the
association and the other organism is neither helped or harmed.

_______________15. A relationship between two species in which the host is harmed, but not
killed immediately, and the species feeding on it (parasite) is benefited.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 21

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 4
Interactions among Organisms in a Community

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Review the definition of community

2. Differentiate composition and diversity
3. Distinguish interactions happening in a community

Introduction

Organisms interact in a community in so many ways. Interactions can be complex and

may cause disturbance or fluctuations in other members in a community. Another way of looking
at interrelationships is to study in detail the ecological relationships of particular species of
organisms. Each organism has particular requirements for life and lives where the environment
provides what it needs.

Each species has particular requirements for life and places specific demands on the
habitat in which it lives. The specific functional role of an organism is its niche. Its niche is the
way it goes about living its life. Just as the word place is the key to understanding to concept of
habitat, the word function is the key to understanding the concept of a niche. Understanding the
niche of an organism involves a detailed understanding of the impacts an organism has on its
biotic and abiotic surroundings and all of the factors that affect the organism.

There are two characteristics to consider in distinguishing a certain community from other
communities:

1. Composition – a recording of the various species in the community Northern

hardwood forest community of central to northern England.

2. Diversity - the number of species (species richness) and the abundance of each species
in a community (species evenness)

Ecological Niche: Example: Oak trees (habitat: Oak woodland)

1. Absorb by sunlight through photosynthesis

2. Absorb water and minerals from the soil
3. Provide shelter for many animals and plants
4. Acts as support for creeping plants
5. Cover the ground with their dead leaves during autumn
6. Serve as a source of food for animals.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 22

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Habitat factors can be divided into two major groupings:

1. Physical factors - terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

2. Biotic factors - all other species that occupy the habitat.
As an example, the following are some of the physical factors in terrestrial and aquatic
habitats:

1. Terrestrial habitats – elevation, steepness, slope direction, soil type, and water
availability.
2. Aquatic habitats – pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen concentration, temperature, flow rate of
water.

Ecological niche can be categorized into two: fundamental niche and realized niche. These
two categories of niche were first recognized by George Evelyn Hutchinson. Elements of habitat
and niche are considered in distinguishing geographic ranges. These concepts can help
understanding in effectively planning conservation programs.

1. Fundamental niche – the species’ potential to use available resources in the absence of
relations with other species or if there were no competition.
2. Realized niche – the ability of the species to use available resources in the presence of
interactions with other species.

Major interactions happening in a community:

1. Competition – organisms in a community compete with other species for food, shelter, water,
and other survival needs of the species. The two types of competition are:

a. Intraspecific – competition occurs between members of the same species. This will limit
how large a population in a community can be.

b. Interspecific – competition occurs between individuals of different species. As an example,

trees in dense forest compete for sunlight. Technically, taller trees can be absorb more
sunlight than shorter trees. Lions and tigers feed on the same prey, and both species are
negatively impacted by the presence of the other because they will limited supply of food.

2. Predation – the consumption of one organism by another where the consumed organism
(prey) was alive when the predator first attacked it.

3. Parasitism – a relationship between two species in which the host is harmed, but not killed
immediately, and the species feeding on it (parasite) is benefited. A parasite is an organism that
obtains its organic nutrients from the host’s body without causing instant death. Examples of
parasites that live inside a host’s body includes tapeworms, liver flukes, and pinworms.

4. Mutualism – a relationship between species that have developed a positive impact and
dependency on each other. Two species interact in a way that benefits each other. As an

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 23

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

example, cows have microorganisms in their digestive tract. These microorganisms help the
cows digest grass, and other plant materials.

5. Commensalism – a relationship between species where one organism benefits from the
association and the other organism is neither helped or harmed. An example is the relationship of
barnacles and whales. Barnacles attached themselves on the skin of the whale and obtain food by
filtering the water. The whale is neither harmed nor helped in this interaction.

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 4: Ecological Walk

1. Take an ecological walk in your home garden or back yard and examine the place.
2. Construct data tables showing:
2.1. biotic – biotic interactions
2.2. biotic – abiotic interactions
2.3. abiotic – abiotic interactions
3. Explain how the habitat of the organism affect their interconnectedness.
4. Describe an ecosystem you see daily. Try to illustrate its parts.

Self-Test 4

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter that best complete the statement or answers the question.

______1. Which one of the following is a logical food chain?

a. grass-grasshopper-horse
b. fish-grasshopper-snake
c. light-grass-human
d. grass-cow-human

______2. Which of the following would be at the highest trophic level?

a. lion
b mushroom
c. grasshopper
d. grass plant

______3. As energy passes through a food chain, approximately ____ is lost as it passes from
one trophic level to the next.
a. 10%
b. 50%
c. 25%
d. 90%

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 24

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

______4. Which of the following is part of the abiotic environment of an organism?

a. grass
b. food
c. rain
d. decomposer

_______5. Which of the following would have the highest

productivity?
a. desert
b. temperate deciduous forest
c. tundra
d. the open sea

_______6. If the world were to support the largest possible human population, all humans would
need to be
a. carnivores
b. herbivores
c. omnivores
d. producers

_______7. In ecosystems, atoms of the element carbon are

a. produced by plants.
b. taken into the bodies of animals as carbon dioxide.
c. released by plants as oxygen.
d. present in the bodies of plants and animals as organic molecules.

_______8. Rabbits are frequently eaten by foxes. The fact that the rabbit is eaten
a. is part of the rabbit's niche
b. is an example of competition
c. demonstrates that the rabbit is a host to the fox
d. None of the choices is correct

_______9. If the rate at which plants and other organisms carry on photosynthesis were reduced
by 75 percent,
a. there would be fewer carnivores
b. there would be fewer herbivores
c. there would be less plant biomass
d. all of the choices would be true

_______10. In the nitrogen cycle, bacteria are involved in

a. converting nitrogen gas in the atmosphere into molecules that plants can use.
b. decomposing organic matter and releasing ammonia.
c. converting ammonia to nitrate.
d. all of the choices.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 25

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 5
Nature of Ecosystems

Objectives

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Review the definition of ecosystem as previously discussed

2. Discuss the characteristics of an ecosystem
3. Discuss how living organisms are classified: producers, consumers and decomposers
4. Cite examples of the three classifications of living organisms

Introduction

We found our house – the planet – with drinkable, potable water, with good soil to grow
food, with clean air to breathe. We at least must leave it in as good shape as we found it, if not
better. - Rev. Jesse Jackson

The system approach of ecology encourages us to think holistically about

interconnections that make the whole systems more than just the sum of their individual parts.

The living components of an ecosystem are called the biotic components. Some of these
factors include plants, animals, as well as fungi and bacteria. These biotic components can be
further classified, based on the energy requirement source. Producers, consumers, and
decomposers are the three broad categories of biotic components.

Producers are the plants in the ecosystem, which can generate their own energy
requirement through photosynthesis, in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. All other living
beings are dependent on plants for their energy requirement of food as well as oxygen.

Consumers include herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. The herbivores are the living
organisms that feed on plants. Carnivores eat other living organisms. Omnivores are animals that
can eat both plant and animal tissue.

Decomposers are the fungi and bacteria, which are the saprophytes. They feed on the
decaying organic matter and convert this matter into nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The
saprophytes play a vital role in recycling the nutrients so that the producers i.e. plants can use
them once again.

Abiotic components are the physical and/or the chemical factors that act on the living
organisms at any part of their life. These are also called as the ecological factors. The physical
and chemical factors are characteristic of the environment. Light, air, soil, and nutrients, etc.
form the abiotic components of an ecosystem.

The abiotic factors vary from ecosystem to ecosystem. In an aquatic ecosystem, the
abiotic factors may include water pH, sunlight, turbidity, water depth, salinity, available nutrients

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 26

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

and dissolved oxygen. Similarly, abiotic factors in terrestrial ecosystems can include soil, soil
types, temperature, rain, altitude, wind, nutrients, sunlight etc.

Here, the sun is the energy source. Producers/plants use this energy to synthesize food in
the presence of carbon dioxide and chlorophyll. The energy from the sun, through several
chemical reactions, turns into chemical energy.

Characteristics of Ecosystems

1. Abiotic components - nonliving parts the physical environment: water, air, soil, temperature,
light, inorganic nutrients and weather conditions

2. Biotic components - living parts composed of a habitat and a niche

a. Autotrophs (producers) – chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs plants – ‘base’ of the

foodchain

b. Heterotrophs – herbivores feed on plants; many are adapted to live on a diet high in cellulose
(graze directly on plants)

Different Roles (niche) of the Biotic Components

1. Producers or Autotrophs

The autotrophic organisms capable of producing their own food from simple inorganic
materials in the process called photosynthesis; mainly green plants. Plants use carbon dioxide,
water and minerals to produce carbohydrates and organic materials with oxygen being given off.
Could be chemoautotrophs (bacteria), obtaining energy by oxidizing inorganic compounds to
synthesize carbohydrates, or a photoautotrophs (plants), obtaining energy from light to
synthesize carbohydrates

2. Consumers or Heterotrophs

Include all animals and other organisms like fungi and bacteria which cannot make their
own foods directly from simple inorganic materials, they take in food that is already formed, by
eating plants or other animals that have eaten plants. Organisms that obtain their own food by
consuming other organisms, if they consume plants they are called herbivore or primary
consumers.

3. Decomposers

The heterotrophic organisms that break down detritus, non-living organic matter, to
inorganic matter, to be used again by the producers. They use dead plants, animals and excrete as
their own food.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 27

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Flow of Energy

Energy enters the ecosystem in the form of sunlight, captured by plants and other
photosynthetic organisms. The interconnecting paths of energy flow are represented by a food
chain, food web and trophic levels. The amount of biomass or biological material produced in a
given area during a period of time. Photosynthesis provides all energy for nearly all ecosystems
Food Chains

The transfer of energy from plants through a series of other organisms constitutes food
chains. E.g. grass -> cattle -> man

Components of a food chain:

1. Carnivores – feed on herbivores, omnivores, and other carnivores

1st level carnivore – feed on herbivores

2nd level carnivore – feed on 1st level carnivores

2. Omnivores (feed on both plants and animals)

3. Decomposers (detrivores) consume on dead animals the final consumer of the group use
energy available in dead plants and animals transform organic material into inorganic material.

Trophic levels refer to the parts of food chain or nutritive series in a group of organisms
secures food. Form by the populations in an ecosystem, from the producers who produce the
food for the population which ate the consumers

Types of Food Chain

1. Grazing Food Chain – starts with green plants base to grazing herbivores and then on
carnivores. The grazing food chain begins with photosynthetic fixation of light, carbon dioxide,
and water by plants (primary producers) that produce sugars and other organic molecules. The
tertiary consumers and secondary carnivores are animals that receive their organic energy by
consuming primary carnivores.

2. Detrital Food Chain – goes from dead organisms or organic matter into microorganisms then
detritus feeding organisms and their predators.

Food Web

Food chains which are interconnected with each other by interlocking of food chains to
form food chains to form food webs, patterns of energy flow is complicated that it is difficult to
disagree all possible relationships.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 28

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 E.g. food web in a small stream numerous food chains linked together found in a natural
ecosystem: plants – herbivorous insects ( spiders, predaceous insects, toads, insectivorous
birds), rabbits, squirrels, mice, seed eating birds – foxes, hawks and owls, snakes.

Marine Web

 Eg.  large shark  tuna  mackerel  small fish  shrimplike creatures (magnified)
 one celled life (magnified)

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 5: Applying Concept

1. Construct a concept map showing all the components of the biotic community of an ecosystem
and the relationships existing in the ecosystem. You will be creating food webs from organisms
living in the Philippines tropical rainforest. Review the kinds of plants and animals that dominate
the tropical rainforest.

2. List at least three (3) plant and six (6) animals species that can be found in the Philippines
rainforest. Then research on the following information:

a. nutrients the plants need and what the animals eat

b. are they prey or predator; producers or consumers

c. survival strategies/ how they interact with other species

3. Illustrate the feeding relationships of each species by creating a food web. If possible, they
may connect and combine all the plant and animal species into one complex food web.

Self-Test

I. Identification: Identify the word or group or words being referred to by following statements.

_________________ 1. It includes the nonliving components of the ecosystem.

_________________ 2. These are organisms that recycle dead plants and animals into chemical
nutrients like carbon and nitrogen that are released back to the soil,
water, and air.

_________________ 3. It describes the various stages or the feeding position of species in a food
chain.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 29

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

_________________ 4. These organisms belong to the second trophic level in a food chain.

_________________ 5. These organisms use photosynthesis to acquire energy such as algae and
all green plants.

_________________ 6. It involves a simple, linear series of species connected by feeding links.

_________________ 7. These organisms feed on the primary consumer and belong to the thirdor
fourth trophic level.

_________________ 8. It is a system of interacting factors and nonliving components in a

specific area.

_________________ 9.) The two processes that take place in an ecosystem.

_________________ 10.)

II. Enumerate the following:

1 – 5 Trophic Levels in Food Chain

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6 – 8 Types of Food Chain
6.
7.
8.
9 – 10 Two Types of Ecological Pyramids
9.
10.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 30

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 6
Basic Components of Ecosystems

Objectives

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Distinguish the basic components of ecosystem;

2. Explain the homeostasis of the ecosystem;
3. Identify the components of human ecosystem; and
2. Distinguish between abiotic and biotic factors.

Introduction

At any given point of time do you find yourself to be surrounded by nature, with all its
beauty in the form of trees, plants, lakes, rivers, animals, insects etc.? Do you think there is some
form of contact or collaboration between the living and the nonliving components of ecosystem?

Living organisms seem to interact amongst themselves and with the physical
environment. This, in short, can be called an ecosystem. There can be different types of
ecosystems. The biosphere, for example, can be a global ecosystem. It all depends on the
different components and the extent to which you want to define the space, to consider it as an
ecosystem. And hence to be able to learn more about them, ecosystems are generally divided into
smaller forms.

Ecology or environmental biology is the field that studies this complex set of
relationships between the living organisms and their surrounding environment. The scope of this
field is very large and covers things like global warming, environmental pollution, plant and
animal extinctions etc.

Ecosystem have processes:

1. Cycling of chemical elements

2. Flow of energy

Unit of Energy and Concept of Productivity

 Energy units - units or weights may be used because energy is stored in the organic
compounds, which compose the animal bodies.

 Bioenergetics - molecular work, continuation or nerve impulses and synthesis of

complex food molecules are some of the examples in which energy transfer involved.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 31

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Law of Thermodynamics

1. First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Living organisms absorb from their environment
useful form of energy under constant temperature and pressure and return to the same energy of
less useful form to the environment. The useful form of energy is called free energy, which is
capable of doing work.

2. Second Law of Thermodynamics

No process of energy transformation will spontaneously occur unless there is degradation

of energy from concentrated form into a dispersal form. Living organisms maintain their
orderliness at the expense of their environment and in return increases its entrophy. Living
organisms are called open systems since they exchange both matter and energy with the
environment.

Flow of Energy

Energy enters the ecosystem in the form of sunlight, captured by plants and other
photosynthetic organisms. The interconnecting paths of energy flow are represented by a food
chain, food web and trophic levels. The amount of biomass or biological material produced in a
given area during a period of time. Photosynthesis provides all energy for nearly all ecosystems

Ecological Pyramids

Representing biomass, number of organisms, or energy content of each trophic level in a

food web, from producer to the final consumer populations show trophic levels stacked one on
top of the other generally show that biomass and energy content decrease from one trophic level
to the next there are two types of ecological pyramids, pyramid of biomass and pyramid of
energy

Pyramid of biomass

Shows a decrease in the biomass from the higher trophic levels. The basic trophic level in
the marine environment the basic trophic level in occupied by the autotrophic plants. e.g.
terrestrial and marine environments biomass of producers is greater than the biomass of
herbivores and the biomass of herbivores than the biomass of carnivores. If the biomass of
herbivores is greater than the biomass of producers (as in aquatic ecosystem, where algae and
phytoplankton are the only producers), the result is inverted pyramid.

Pyramid of Energy

Pertain to the amount of energy being transferred from one trophic level to another.
Follows the 10% rule, the amount of energy from one level to the next is reduced by a magnitude
of 10. If an average of 1,000 kg of plant materials is consumed by herbivores, only 100 kg is

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 32

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

converted to herbivore tissue, 10 kg to the secondary consumer and only 1 kg to the tertiary
consumer. Indicates reduction in the availability of energy between different trophic levels.
Greater amount of energy by respiration increases progressively from lower to higher trophic
levels.

Pyramid of Numbers

Illustrates population density relationship within and between the trophic levels. Number
of individuals decrease at each trophic level due to differences in population growth rate and due
to predation upon small organisms by larger ones. e.g. lake and grassland

 Energy from the sun -- about 1% captured by plants (producers) -- 99% loss of
energy -- 10% energy of plants (herbivores) -- 90% heat loss --10% passed on
primary carnivores -- 90% heat loss -- 10% energy captured by secondary carnivores
-- 90% heat loss.

Cycles of Nutrients (Biogeochemical Cycles)

The herbivores are dependent on plants for the energy requirements. The carnivores, in
turn, feed on the herbivores and other carnivores. At any level, microbes then decompose any
dead and decaying organic matter. These decomposers, after various chemical reactions, release
molecules back to the environment in the form of chemicals. The chemicals are again used by
the producers, and the cycle starts again.

1. Water cycle

The fresh water evaporates from the bodies of water and falls to the earth. Water from the
aerial portion of plants also evaporates through transpiration. Water that falls on land enters the
ground or surface waters and eventually run-off back to the bodies of water. The circulation of
water within the earth’s hydrosphere, involving changes in the physical state of water between
liquid, solid, and gas phases.

Water cycle involved four main physical actions:

1. Evaporation is the transfer of water from bodies of surface water into the atmosphere.

2. Precipitation is the atmospheric moisture that has previously condensed in form clouds
(changed from the gas phases to a liquid or solid phase) falling to the surface of the earth.

3. Infiltration into the ground is the transition from surface water to groundwater.

4. Runoff includes the variety of ways by which land surface water moves down slope to the
oceans.

5. Subsurface flow incorporates movement of water within the earth, either within the vadose
zone or aquifiers.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 33

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

2. Carbon cycle

The carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by green plant through
photosynthesis and is returned by all living things through aerobic respiration. Plants obtain
carbon dioxide from the air and through photosynthesis, incorporate carbon into their tissues.

Many biological processes in motion by people release carbon dioxide:

1. Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas)

2. Slash and burn agriculture
3. Clearing land for permanent pasture, cropland, or human settlements
4. Accidental and intentional forest burning
5. Unsustainable logging and fuel wood collection

3. Nitrogen Cycle

The organism cannot exist without amino acids, peptides and proteins, all of which are
organic molecules that contain nitrogen. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (in nodules and in the soil)
reduce nitrogen gas providing a form of nitrogen available for the producers and followed by the
consumers nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate
back to nitrogen gas.

Nitrogen re-enters the environment in several ways:

1. Death of an organism fungi and bacteria decompose dead organisms releasing ammonia and
ammonium ions.
2. Plants shed on their leaves, needles, flowers, fruits and cones, animals shed hair, feathers,
skin, exoskeleton, pupal cases and silk.
3. Animals produce excrement and urinary wastes that contain nitrogenous compounds.

4. Phosphorus cycle

The weathering makes phosphate available to producers followed by consumers. Death

and decay of all organisms makes phosphate available to decomposers. Most phosphates are
found as salts in ocean sediments or in rocks. Over time, geologic processes can bring ocean
sediments to land, and weathering will carry terrestrial phosphates back to the ocean. Plants
absorb phosphates from the soil. Phosphorus is also found in bones, whose strength is derived
from calcium phosphate, and phospholipids.

5. Sulfur cycle

It plays a vital role in organisms, especially as minor but essential components of protein.
Sulfur compounds are important determinants of acidity of rainfall, surface water and soil. Most
of the earth’s sulfur is tied up underground in rocks and minerals. Weathering, emission from
deep seafloor vents and volcanic eruptions release this inorganic sulfur into the air water.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 34

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

The Cause of Pollution

1. Human activities are controlling the biogeochemical cycles through modern technology.
2. Human activities alter the transfer rates because they move an element from one component of
an ecosystem to another at a greater rate.
3. In carbon cycle, humans increase the transfer rate from fossil fuels to the atmosphere and into
the oceans;
4. In phosphorus cycle, human increase the transfer rate from sediments to the soil and into
bodies of water.
5. In nitrogen cycle, humans increase the transfer rate from the atmosphere to the soil and into
bodies of water any change in transfer rate that can lead directly or indirectly to a degradation of
human health or degradation of the natural condition of the environment is called pollution.

In conclusion, ecosystems have a complex set of interactions that happen between the
biotic and abiotic components. The components of an ecosystem are linked to each other through
the energy flows and nutrient cycles. Even though ecosystems do not have clear boundaries,
these interactions get affected, even if one factor is changed or removed. This ultimately has the
capacity to affect the entire ecosystem.

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Review Questions:

1. How do the components of an ecosystem interact?

2. Why is the flow of energy important?

3. What is trophic level and how does it affect the ecosystem?

4. Why biogeochemical cycles are important in the ecosystem?

Self-Test

Restricted essay: Answer the following items briefly:

1. Describe different components of ecosystem in brief.

2. What are the two components of ecosystem?

3. The major components of an ecosystem are

4. Non-essential components of ecosystem.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 35

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 7
Biological Diversity

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Define biological evolution;

2. Identify the four processes that lead to evolution;
3. Discuss the basic concepts of biological diversity; and
4. Define the terms related to species habitat.

Introduction

Biodiversity includes not only species we consider rare, threatened, or endangered but
also every living thing—from humans to organisms we know little about, such as microbes,
fungi, and invertebrates.

At the Center for Biodiversity and Conservation, we include humans and human cultural
diversity as a part of biodiversity. We use the term “biocultural” to describe the dynamic,
continually evolving and interconnected nature of people and place, and the notion that social
and biological dimensions are interrelated. This concept recognizes that human use, knowledge,
and beliefs influence, and in turn are influenced, by the ecological systems of which human
communities are a part. This relationship makes all of biodiversity, including the species, land
and seascapes, and the cultural links to the places where we live—be right where we are or in
distant lands—important to our wellbeing as they all play a role in maintaining a diverse and
healthy planet.

Biodiversity is important to most aspects of our lives. We value biodiversity for many
reasons, some utilitarian, some intrinsic. This means we value biodiversity both for what it
provides to humans, and for the value it has in its own right. Utilitarian values include the many
basic needs humans obtain from biodiversity such as food, fuel, shelter, and medicine. Further,
ecosystems provide crucial services such as pollination, seed dispersal, climate regulation, water
purification, nutrient cycling, and control of agricultural pests. Biodiversity also holds value for
potential benefits not yet recognized, such as new medicines and other possible unknown
services.

Biodiversity has cultural value to humans as well, for spiritual or religious reasons for
instance. The intrinsic value of biodiversity refers to its inherent worth, which is independent of
its value to anyone or anything else. This is more of a philosophical concept, which can be
thought of as the inalienable right to exist. Finally, the value of biodiversity can also be
understood through the lens of the relationships we form and strive for with each other and the
rest of nature. We may value biodiversity because of how it shapes who we are, our relationships
to each other, and social norms. These relational values are part of peoples’ individual or
collective sense of wellbeing, responsibility for, and connection with the environment. The

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 36

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

different values placed on biodiversity are important because they can influence the conservation
decisions people make every day.
Over the last century, humans have come to dominate the planet, causing rapid ecosystem
change and massive loss of biodiversity across the planet. This has led some people to refer to
the time we now live in as the “anthropocene.” While the Earth has always experienced changes
and extinctions, today they are occurring at an unprecedented rate. Major direct threats to
biodiversity include habitat loss and fragmentation, unsustainable resource use, invasive species,
pollution, and global climate change. The underlying causes of biodiversity loss, such as a
growing human population and overconsumption are often complex and stem from many
interrelated factors.

The good news is that it is within our power to change our actions to help ensure the
survival of species and the health and integrity of ecological systems. By understanding threats
to biodiversity, and how they play out in context, we can be best prepared to manage
conservation challenges. The conservation efforts of the last decades have made a significant
difference in the state of biodiversity today. Over 100,000 protected areas—including national
parks, wildlife refuges, game reserves, and marine protected areas, managed both by
governments and local communities—provide habitat for wildlife, and help keep deforestation in
check. When protecting habitat is not enough, other types of conservation actions such as
restoration, reintroduction, and the control of invasive species, have had positive impacts. And
these efforts have been bolstered by continuous efforts to improve environmental policies at
local, regional, and global scales. Finally, the lifestyle choices of individuals and communities
can have a large effect on their impacts on biodiversity and the environment. While we might not
be able to prevent all negative human impacts on biodiversity, with knowledge we can work to
change the direction and shape of our effects on the rest of life on Earth.

Biological Evolution

 Refers to the change in inherited characteristics of a population from generation to

generation
 Evolution was described as the change in gene frequency over time

Four Processes that lead to evolution:

1. Mutation

 Defined as the permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene. DNA can also be
altered when an internal environment agent comes into contact with it such as radiation, x
rays, or gamma rays.

2. Natural Selection

 The theory of Charles Darwin that states that organisms whose characteristics are most
suited to the environment has an overall advantage of survival.
 A theory of natural selection is to use Darwin’s study of the finches. Their beaks change
over time to best perform their function. These finches that come from one ancestor and

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 37

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

have somehow managed to give rise to multiple species to exploit different habitats have
undergone the process of adaptive radiation.
3. Migration

 Migration of one population of species to a habitat formerly occupied by another group of

species can lead to changes in gene frequency.
 Organism that do not move themselves have reproductive structures that migrate such as
when seeds of flowering plants are transported by wind or moved by animals.

4. Genetic Drift

 Refers to the random changes in the frequency of a gene in a population as a result of

chance rather than a mutation, selection, or migration.
 Genetic drift can be a problem for rare or endangered species if the characteristics that
are less adapted by existing environmental conditions may dominate.

Basic Concepts of Biological Diversity (Biodiversity)

 It is important that the meaning of the concept “biological diversity” or “biodiversity” is

clearly defined.

Biological diversity involves three concepts:

1. Genetic diversity

 It is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup (nucleotides,

chromosomes, genes, or whole genomes) of species.
2. Habitat diversity

 It is the range of habitats in a given unit of area.

3. Species diversity

 Refers to the number and distribution of species in a given location. It has three species:
a. Species richness – refers to the total number of species
b. Species evenness – refers to the relative abundance of species
c. Species dominance – it is the most abundant species

Term related to species habitat:

a. Exotic species – a non-native plant or animal deliberately introduced into a new geographic
area.
b. Endemic species – a native species of a particular area that are not naturally found anywhere.
c. Cosmopolitan species – species found anywhere in the world whenever environment is
appropriate.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 38

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

d. Ubiquitous species – species found almost anywhere.

Environmental Factors that Influence Biodiversity

 possible interrelationships among climate, soil, vegetation, and animals.

 the vegetation influences soils and the types of animals that will be present.
 animals affect the plant life.
 existing dominant species will become more abundant if environmental conditions were
constant over time and space at the expense of existing rare species.
Factors that increase and decrease biological diversity:

A. Factors that tend to increase diversity

1. A physically diverse habitat

2. Moderate amounts of disturbance (such as fire, storm, sudden flow of water from a storm
into a pond)
3. Small variation in environmental conditions (temperature, nutrient supply)
4. High diversity at one trophic level, increasing the diversity at another trophic level
5. An environment highly modified by life (rich organic soil)
6. Evolution

B. Factors that tend to decrease diversity

1. Environmental stress (crowding, noise)

2. Extreme environments (conditions near to the limit of what living things can withstand)
3. A severe limitation in the supply of an essential resource
4. Extreme amounts of disturbance
5. Recent introduction of exotic species
6. Geographic isolation (being on a real geographic island)

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 39

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 7: The Sources of Biodiversity in the Philippines

1. Give at least 1 (one) example of each kind of species: exotic, endemic, cosmopolitan, and
ubiquitous. Provide background of each species (eating habits, where the species originates,
etc.). Provide an illustration of the species you have identified for each type.

Exotic Endemic

Cosmopolitan Ubiquitous

2. Discuss the environmental factors that influence biodiversity. Explain how each species in a
tropic level and the geological factors influences each other.

3. Identify factors that increase and decrease biological diversity. How economic growth affects
biodiversity. How is it possible to balance out urbanization and biological diversity?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 40

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 7

I. Identification: Identify what is described in the statement.

________________1. It refers to the change in inherited characteristics of a population from

generation to generation.

________________2. It is defined as the permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene.

DNA can also be altered when an internal environment agent comes into
contact with it such as radiation, x-rays, or gamma rays.

________________3. A theory of Charles Darwin that states that organisms whose

characteristics are most suited to the environment has an overall advantage
of survival.

_______________4. The migration of one population of species to a habitat formerly occupied

by another group of species can lead to changes in gene frequency.

________________5. It refers to the random changes in the frequency of a gene in a population

as a result of chance rather than a mutation, selection, or migration.

________________6. It is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup

(nucleotides, chromosomes, genes, or whole genomes) of species

________________7. It is the range of habitats in a given unit of area.

________________8. It refers to the number and distribution of species in a given location.

________________9. More than 9,250 vascular plant.

________________10. It is one of the most primitive frog species in the world can be found in
the Philippines.

________________11. It measured by the confirmed presence of one or more globally

threatened species.

________________12. It measured through the presence of geographically concentrated species.

________________13. The approach is used to expand the protected areas in the country and to
target the appropriate conservation actions to be done.

________________14. The only province with a Strategic Environmental Plan (SEP) enacted
into law.

________________15. The largest of these mammals found in the Philippines that lives only on
the island of Mindoro.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 41

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 8
Biodiversity in the Philippines

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Describe the location of the Philippines as to why it is considered as a

“megadiversity” country. Post the world map on the board to make sure that the students
know where the Philippines is located.
2. Discuss the flora and fauna endemic to the Philippines.

Introduction

The Philippines is one of the 17 mega biodiverse countries, containing two-thirds of the
Earth’s biodiversity and 70 percent of world’s plants and animal species due to its geographical
isolation, diverse habitats and high rates of endemism. The Philippines’ biodiversity provides
several ecosystem services. It provides food, water, energy sources, pharmaceuticals, biomass
fuels, carbon sequestration and climate regulation, crop pollination, cultural and spiritual
inspiration and ecotourism value.

Thirty percent of the population, including 12 to 15 million indigenous peoples, resides in

the uplands where most of the forests are located. These forests provide timber and non-timber
products totaling $100 million in net benefits yearly. The Philippines is also one of the world’s
hotspots with a large number of endangered and threatened species–making it a top global
conservation priority area.

Status of Biodiversity in the Philippines

 The Philippine is a nation islands which influences its culture and history including its
biological diversity.
 Philippine is also one of the 34 biological hotspots which means that the country’s
biodiversity and endemism is under a high level of threat.
Terrestrial Vertebrate Fauna of the Philippines

Total Species Endemic Species % Endemic

Land Mammals 174 111 64%

Breeding Land Birds 395 172 44%
Reptiles 258 168 65%
Amphibians 101 78 77%

Total 928 529 57%

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 42

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Biodiversity in the Philippines

 The country is one of the worlds 17 “mega diversity” countries which collectively claim
two-thirds of the earth’s biological diversity within their boundaries.
 Excluded in the statistics of land mammals such as dolphins and exotics species
deliberately introduced or accidentally imported by humans.
 Sea birds, migrants, and strays are not included in the total number of reptiles.
 The total number of amphibians consists mostly of frogs.

Elevation, Climate, and Rainfall

 Declining temperature and increasing rainfall in mountainous regions give rise to three
major types of rain forest.
 Layers of humus are thin and scattered in lowland forest, but build into a blanket at
higher elevations.
 Lowland rainforests are previously dominated by towering dipterocarps
(Dipterocarpaceae), prized for their beautiful and straight hardwood.
 Because of the archipelagic nature of the Philippines (2nd largest archipelago country
after Indonesia) each island of the country is home to unique animal species.
Plant Species

 More than 9,250 vascular plant species native to the Philippines, only 1/3 of it are
endemic.
 Luzon mountain rain forests: Sierra Madre Mountains, Philippines.
 Gingers, begonias, orchids, pandan, palms, and dipterocarps are particularly high in
endemic species especially during the time when the country is blanketed by areas of
rainforests.

Birds

 Endemic Birds Areas (EBA): Mindoro, Luzon, Negros and Panay, Cebu, Mindanao and
Eastern Visayas
 The best known endemic bird species in the Philippines is the Philippine eagle
(Pithecophaga jefferyi), the second largest eagle in the world.
 The Philippine eagle is bread only in the remaining lowland rainforest in the islands of
Luzon, Mindanao, and Samar.
 The total population of the Philippine eagle, there are less than 700 individuals left in the
country.

Mammals endemic to the Philippines

 The largest of these mammals found in the Philippines is the Tamaraw (Bubalus
mindorensis) that lives only on the island of Mindoro
 The total population of the Tamaraw a country ago totals to 10,000 individuals.
 Only a few hundreds exists in the wild.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 43

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 Visayan and Philippine warty pigs (Sus cabifrons and Sus philipinensis)
 Calamianes hog-deer (Axis calamaniensis)
 Visayan spotted deer (Cervus alfredi)
 Golden-capped fruit bat (Acerodon jubatus)
 Negros naked-backed fruit bat ( Dobsonia chapmani)
 Philippine Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)
 Pigmy squirrels (Exillisciurus concinnus)
 Flying lemurs (Cynocephalus volans)

Reptiles endemic to the Philippines

 Freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) remained in natural habitats.

 Gray’s monitor (Varanus olivaceus)
 Philippine pond turtle (Heosemys leytensis)are unique to the country and are considered
threatened.
 Monitor lizard (Varanus mabitang), from Panay is only the second monitor species that
specializes on a fruit diet.

Amphibians

 Philippine flat-headed frog (Barbourula busuangensis) is one of the most primitive frog
species in the world can be found in the Philippines.
 There are 26 endemic species of the frog genus Platymantis, of these, 22 are considered
threatened.

Freshwater Fish

 Freshwater sardines (Sardinella tawilis) found only in Taal lake

 The endemic species that are previously found in lake Lanao in Mindanao are now
extinct due to the introduction of non-native species such as tilapia.

Socioeconomic Root Causes of Loss of Biodiversity

 Economic and political history

 Rapid population growth (contribute to the deterioration of the environment)
 Commercial logging
 Kaingin (slash and burn agriculture)
 Human settlement (conversion of forest lands)
 Extraction of fuel and construction materials
 Development of fish ponds
 Access factor has a direct impact to all these causes of loss of biodiversit.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 44

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Historical Context

Year % of total land area covered by forests

1521 90%
1900 70%
1950 49%
1994 18%

Local Context: Cebu

 Spanish clergy and the elite turned good agricultural lands to haciendas which further
restricted the land available to the masses.
 Agricultural production was encouraged by religious orders in their haciendas.
 The production of export crops such sugar, tobacco, corn and cacao were increased.
 In the post-colonial period, other forms of business such as mining, manufacturing, and
tourism were developed.
 Coastal areas were turned into economic zones.

Industrialization of Cebu resulted to the following problems:

 Pollution
 Deforestation
 Insufficient water treatment and waste disposal facilitates
 Mangroves were destroyed due to the development of tourist facilitates, constructions of
industrial estates, and the development of fish ponds.
 Other environmental woes of Cebu include deforestation and pollution from industries
owned by Cebu’s socio-political-economic elite.

Local Context: Negros

 Large tracts of land where converted to sugar plantations and the population has grown
phenomenally which resulted to the destruction of forests.
 Conversion of land to sugar plantations continued up to the mid-1900’s.
 Upland forests were cleared to give way for human settlers.
 Forest land was cultivated for corn, rice, coconut, cotton, banana, and sugar cane
production.
 Strong international demand for timber influence illegal logging that took place alongside
legal cutting.
 In the mid 1980’s during the upsurge of anti-Marcos protests, most sugar planters convert
their coastal sugar plantations to capital-intensive prawn farms and hatcheries.
 In the 20th century, commercial logging was highly encouraged that leads to the
degradation of forests.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 45

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Local Context: Palawan

 54% of the total land area is still converted with forests.

 The Spaniards have a little success in the colonization of Palawan due to the influence of
Muslim peoples from Borneo and Sulu.
 No large plantations, and haciendas were developed in the islands.
 During the American regime, the primary products being exported were timber.
 Secondary products include rattan, tanbark, nigue, almaciga, and beeswax.
 In the 1960’s up to 1980’s, heavy influx of developmental corporations, agribusiness
companies, and multinational companies have flown to Palawan.
 The only province with a Strategic Environmental Plan (SEP) enacted into law.
 Comprehensive framework that guides local government units and national agencies for
sustainable development of Palawan.

National Context

 Loss of forest cover and of biodiversity is correlated to increase in population size.

 A very high density of 243 persons per square kilometres compared to the world average
of 59 persons square kilometres.
 Pushed landless farmers to biodiversity rich areas such as lowland forests, coastal areas
and the uplands to carve living.
 Low implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) has
resulted to underemployment of farmers that drive them to head to the uplands.

Conservation Priorities

Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA’s)

 The approach is used to expand the protected areas in the country and to target the
appropriate conservation actions to be done.
 Identified based on the criterion regarding its vulnerability and irreplaceability:
a. Vulnerability – measured by the confirmed presence of one or more globally
threatened species.
b. Irreplaceability – measured through the presence of geographically concentrated
species.

Criterion on Vulnerability:

Criterion 1: Globally Threatened Species

 KBAs are identified based on the presence of one or more globally threatened species.
 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
classification of species:

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 46

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

a. Extinct (EX)
b. Extinct the Wild (EW)
c. Critically Endangered (CR)
d. Endangered (EN)
e. Vulnerable (VU)
f. Near Threatened (NT)
g. Least Concern (LC)
h. Data Deficient (DD)
h. Not Evaluated (NE)

Criterion 2: Restricted-range Species (RR)

 KBAs on this criterion hold a significant proportion of the global population of one or
more species with a limited global range size.
Criterion 3: Congregatory Species (CC)

 KBAs based on this criterion hold a significant portion of species that gathers in large
numbers at specific sites during some stages in their life cycle.
KBAs in the Philippines

 Are based on 117 Important Bird Areas (IBA) identified by Haribon Foundation and
Birdlife International, and 206 Conservation Priorly Area (CPAs) identified through the
Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priority-setting Program.
 A total of 128 KBAs were identified and which contains all species protected through the
Wildlife Act (Republic Act 9147).
 Approximately, 20% of the total land area of the Philippines is considered as KBA.
 Currently, 45 of the 128 KBAs (35%) benefit from official safeguard status in the
Philippines, having been formally established as protected areas under the legal
framework of the National Integrated Protected Areas System Act (Republic Act 7586).
 The remaining 83 KBAs (65%) lack formal governmental protection.
 Unfortunately, the number of endangered species in the region is just as likely to set a
record, and the rapidly progressing deforestation leaves little hope for any improvement
of the situation.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 47

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 8: Status of Philippine Biodiversity

1. Research on one protected area or key biodiversity area in the Philippines. Provide a brief
background on the selected area. Identify some of the plant and animal species thriving in the
protected area. Identify the conservation programs being implemented to the area.

2. How and where can we best prevent habitat and biodiversity losses?

3. What are our ethical responsibilities toward nature, and how can we foster an ethic of
environmental stewardship and sustainability?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 48

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 8
I. Identification: Identify what is described in the statement.

___________________1. It refers to the change in inherited characteristics of a population from

generation to generation.
___________________2. It is defined as the permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene.
DNA can also be altered when an internal environment agent comes
into contact with it such as radiation, x-rays, or gamma rays.
___________________3. A theory of Charles Darwin that states that organisms whose
characteristics are most suited to the environment has an overall
advantage of survival.
___________________4. The migration of one population of species to a habitat formerly
occupied by another group of species can lead to changes in gene
frequency.
___________________5. It refers to the random changes in the frequency of a gene in a
population as a result of chance rather than a mutation, selection, or
migration.
___________________6. It is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup
(nucleotides, chromosomes, genes, or whole genomes) of species

___________________7. It is the range of habitats in a given unit of area.

___________________8. It refers to the number and distribution of species in a given location.

___________________9. More than 9,250 vascular plant.

___________________10.It is one of the most primitive frog species in the world can be found
in the Philippines.

___________________11. It measured by the confirmed presence of one or more globally

threatened species.

___________________12. It measured through the presence of geographically concentrated

species.

___________________13. The approach is used to expand the protected areas in the country and
to target the appropriate conservation actions to be done.

___________________14. The only province with a Strategic Environmental Plan (SEP)

enacted into law.

___________________15. The largest of these mammals found in the Philippines that lives only
on the island of Mindoro

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 49

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

II. Matching Type: Match the common name in Column A with the scientific name which
identifies in Column B.

Column A Column B

_______ 1. Philippine Eagle A. Barbourula busuangensis

_______ 2. Calamianes hog-deer B. Dobsonia chapmani
_______ 3. Negros naked backed fruit bat C. Heosemys leytensis
_______ 4. Pygmy squirrels D. Varanus mabitang
_______ 5. Flying lemur E. Cynocephalus volans
_______ 6. Tamaraw F. Crocodylus mindorensis
_______ 7. Visayan spotted deer G. Sus cebifrons
_______ 8. Freshwater crocodile H. Exillisciurus concinnus
_______ 9. Philippine pond turtle I. Cervus alfredi
_______10. Philippine flat-headed frog J. Axis calamaniensis
K. Bubalus mindorensis
L. Pithecophaga jefferyi

III. TRUE OR FALSE: Write the word TRUE if the statement is correct; otherwise, write
FALSE.

_______1. The Philippines hosts a remarkably large number of endemic species compared to
Spain and Brazil.
_______2. The Philippine eagle is bread only in the remaining mountain rainforest of the islands
of Luzon, Mindanao, and Samar.
_______3. The loss in forest cover is about 180,000 ha per year at the present rate.

_______4. KBAs are identified based on the species’ vulnerability and irreplaceability.

_______5. The Philippine duck is an example of congregatory species.

_______6. KBAs on under criterion 2 hold a significant proportion of the global population of
one or more species with a limited global range size.

_______7. Approximately 80% of the total land area of the Philippines is considered as KBA.

_______8. The encomienda system during the Spanish colonial period has reached a Palawan
which resulted to the development of plantations, and haciendas in the island.

_______9. Small changes in temperature and precipitation can have significant effect on forest
growth.

_______10.Those species threatened to extinction are those in the food chain.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 50

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 9
Threats to Biodiversity

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Introduce the threats to biodiversity, that is, human activities and the introduction of
non-native species or exotic species.
2. Discuss how species get introduced to a particular habitat and how the non-native
species become invasive.

Introduction

Ecosystem conversion and ecosystem degradation contribute to habitat fragmentation.

Habitat loss from exploitation of resources, agricultural conversion, and urbanization is the
largest factor contributing to the loss of biodiversity. The consequent fragmentation of habitat
results in small isolated patches of land that cannot maintain populations of species into the
future. Tweedsmuir Provincial Park, at 974,046 hectares, is British Columbia’s largest provincial
park and is big enough to maintain much of the composition, structure and function of
biodiversity within the protected area. However, smaller provincial parks, such as Buccaneer
Bay at less than one hectare in size, will not be able to maintain all of its original biodiversity in
isolation. Scientists report that the effect of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity may not be
fully realized for decades after habitat is degraded. Therefore, habitat connectivity must be
considered in current management practices to prevent the devastating effects of fragmentation
on biodiversity.

The intentional and inadvertent introductions of a wide variety of exotic species to

ecosystems in which they do not belong have resulted in ecosystems that differ radically in
structure and function from those originally present. Exotic species are typically introduced into
ecosystems without their co-evolved predators and parasites, which enables an alien invader to
out-compete native species with similar ecological requirements. In British Columbia, plants
such as Knapweed, introduced to arid grasslands, and Purple Loosestrife, introduced to marsh
and riparian areas, are rapidly becoming dominant plant species in their respective ecosystems.
The interactions between native species are altered or destroyed by these exotic species, and can
result in the loss of native biodiversity.

Atmospheric and hydrologic pollution have far-reaching negative effects on biodiversity.

Pollution from burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas can remain in the air as particle
pollutants or fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid rain, which is primarily composed of sulfuric
and nitric acid, causes acidification of lakes, streams and sensitive forest soils, and contributes to
slower forest growth and tree damage at high elevations. In addition, chemical pollutants such as
pesticides and herbicides leach into soils and watersheds. Some fish species, such as salmonids,
require small freshwater streams to spawn. Polluted streams result in the abandonment of
traditional spawning areas and ultimately in the loss of salmon populations. Species’ sensitivity
to pollution is variable. However, many species are vulnerable to the indirect effects of pollution

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 51

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

through the concentration of toxic chemicals in top predators of food chains and disruption of
predator-prey interactions.

Carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels and biomass, deforestation, and
agricultural practices contributes to greenhouse gases, which prevent heat from escaping the
earth’s surface cause global climate change. With the increase in temperature expected from
increasing greenhouse gases, there will be higher levels of air pollution, greater variability in
weather patterns, and changes in the distribution of vegetation in the landscape. Some species
will not be able to adapt to these changes in the environment and will become extinct. However,
it is expected that many plant and animal species will attempt to disperse to higher latitudes and
altitudes as the temperature increases. Therefore, any barriers in the landscape, such as highways
and urban areas that prevent movement to more hospitable environments, will result in loss of
biodiversity.

Such threats to biodiversity may cause the extinction of many species. Maintaining the
corridors and connectivity of the landscape could offset their impacts on biodiversity. The
corridor concept proposes that refuges connected by corridors will have higher immigration rates
than isolated patches of natural habitat. This can offset extinction by promoting gene flow and
preventing inbreeding. Corridors composed of naturally occurring or restored strips of land that
connect large habitat patches may facilitate the movement of species between patches, and
decrease the effects of threats to biodiversity. Habitat patches connected by corridors must
always be large enough to maintain populations of species, especially for large-bodied
vertebrates.

The effectiveness of wildlife corridors depends on many corridor design parameters,

which include habitat type and structural stage, length and width, and level of human activity in
and around the corridor. Individual species require different scales of connectivity. Some species
are able to disperse in very narrow strips of natural vegetation, such as hedgerows, whereas other
species require large habitat patches close together with very short migration distances through
unsuitable habitat. Solely retaining or enhancing narrow strips of vegetation between habitat
refuges cannot maintain biodiversity; the habitat values of the overall landscape must be
retained.

Introduced/ Non-native Species

How are these species introduced?

 unintentionally released into new environments without the intention of increasing its
population
 intentionally released natural areas for agricultural, horticultural, or aquarium use
 transported via boats and airplanes
 seeds are embedded in hiker’s boots

Reasons why invasive species are considered major threats to the environment:

 They can alter the habitat they occupy.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 52

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 They crowd out or invade the native species.

 They can damage human enterprises such as commercial and recreational fisheries.
 They degrade resources such as national forests.
 They may directly harm human health.
 They can alter the genetic material of native species due to hybridization.

An example of an aquatic invasive species in the Philippines is the freshwater snail

(Pomacea canaliculata) popularly referred to as the “golden apple snail”. It was introduced to
the Philippines from the United States in 1980 as an aquarium novelty and as an aquaculture
commodity. The snail was mass produced in concrete tanks and ponds. Due to lack of consumer
demand as the years goes by the snails where disposed in irrigation and drainage systems. The
snails become a pest of rice in many parts of the country. It even replaced the native freshwater
snail (Pila conica) in Luzon.

How can invasive species be managed?

1. Prevention - some methods of prevention include:

 Decontamination of freight, shipping boxes, packaging materials and transportation

equipment.
 Predict which species may be invasive and will become a problem in the future.
2. Eradication - this is feasible in restricted areas and in early declaration of the invasive
species.

3. Control - control methods include any of the following:

 Chemical control – the use of pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides to kill the species.
 Mechanical control – physically removing the invasive species or changing habitat
conditions.
 Biological control – introducing a natural enemy (predator or prey) of the invasive
species.
4. Restoration

 Restoring native species to reduce the chances an area will be invaded again.

Climate Change

 Greenhouse gases such as water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone trap heat and
warm the planet.
 e.g. use of nitrogen fertilizer, burning of crop residues, etc. among other which changes
the climate.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 53

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Effects of Climate Change

 rising sea levels and degrading permafrost

 more precipitation in temperate and tropical regions that would result to more floods
 less precipitation in Central Asia, Mediterranean, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand that
would result to higher probability of droughts.
 more powerful climatic events such as storms, heat waves, and hurricanes.
 more sea-ice disappearance in the Arctic region and Antarctica
How does climate change affect the species component biodiversity?

 changes in the distribution of species

 increase in extinction rates
 changes in reproduction timings
 changes in length of growing seasons for plants
Effects of climate change in polar ecosystem:
.
 Threatens the habitat of walruses (large sea mammals of Arctic Ocean, and having
flippers and two large tusks), polar bears, seals (marine carnivorous mammals) and other
marine mammals that rely on ice for resting, feeding and breeding.
 Population of krill, and other small organisms essential in the entire marine food web
could be adversely affected.
 Affects the livelihood of the indigenous people in the Arctic region particularly fishing
and hunting.
Effects of climate change in agricultural systems:

 May affect plant growth and reproduction due to the spread of pests and diseases.
 May reduce yields to heat stress, drier soils, changes in rainfall patterns, and wildfires.

Effects of climate change in forests ecosystems:

 More vulnerable to fire and pests.

 Small changes in temperature and precipitation can have significant effect on forest
growth.
 May force species to migrate or may die off as a result.
Effects of climate change in inland water ecosystems:

 Changing rainfall and melt patterns of ice results to changing flow systems in many lakes
and rivers that affects the spawning and feeding of aquatic species.
 Warmer climate forces humans to increase their demand of fresh water to meet domestic
and agricultural needs that would result to decreased flow in rivers and streams.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 54

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Effects of climate change in island ecosystems:

 Increases in sea-surface temperature and changes in water chemistry can cause coral
bleaching and can intensify the probability of coral death.

Human Instrumentality:

Deforestation

 the logging, removing, or burning of trees in forested areas

 almost 50% - 90% of all organisms inhabit tropical rainforests. They prevent soil erosion,
flooding, and landslides.
 most of the primates live in the forest and humans benefit from the rainforests, from food
we eat to life giving medicines.

Causes of deforestation

 logging, cattle grazing, human settlement, fires and acid rain, building of dam, mining
and oil exploration

Effects of Deforestation

 damaged habitat
 extinction of multiple species of plants and animals
 flooding
 soil erosion
 the degraded piece of land will unable to recover its original biomass and fertility for
many years.
Overfishing

 occurs when fish activities deplete fish stocks and a host of marine life below an
acceptable level
 overfishing is caused primarily by poor fisheries management.
 fish contribute to the food supply, health, and economy of a lot of nations.
 many people rely on fish as an important source of protein.

Causes of overfishing

 technological advances, subsidies, fisheries agreement, pirate fishers, catching unwanted

species, destructive fishing practices, lack of conservation program
Impacts of overfishing

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 55

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 May cause unemployment for people who rely on a certain marine species that may never
be recovered.
 The food chain of other marine species may suffer due to lack of food.

Industrial Dumping

 the disposal of toxic waste materials such as dredged materials, industrial waste or
chemicals, sewage- related wastes or sludge, and radioactive wastes in water systems and
landfills.
 human sewage – excrement from toilet flushing, wastewater from laundry, dishwashing,
and bathing, and animal and vegetable matter from food preparation disposed in sinks.
 industrial wastes dumped indiscriminately at illegal sites may create environmental
pollution such as foul odors and water pollution.
Wastes in the Ocean

 wastes being dumped in the ocean can cause serious problems to the reproduction and
development of many marine species.
 human health can also be affected since people depend on fish and other marine
mammals for food.
 marine life can be contaminated with high levels of mercury, lead, copper, and arsenic.

Effects of Human Population Growth

 the poorest people due to poverty often misuse the environment

 lack of better technology, education, access to health care and family planning
 In 1778, Thomas Malthus, an English political economists wrote “An Essay of the
Principle of Population”
 The paper talks about the dangers of population growth and the need to control
population.
 The continuous growth of human population has a grave impact on biodiversity.
Loss of Biodiversity

 human tend to overharvest that diminish the population of the hunted or harvested
species.
 causes of the loss of biodiversity, most of which is due to human interference.
 species extinction is part of the Earth’s history dating back as to the Palaeozaic era, over
100 years humans have amplified the extinction rate by at least 100 times compared to
the natural rate.
 Bob Scholes and and Oonsie Biggs, Systems Ecologists of South Africa’s Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research proposed a new method called BII.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 56

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Biodiversity Intactness Index

 expert knowledge is drawn about how human activities increase or decrease the total
populations of groups of ecologically similar species – such as insect-eating birds or large
herbivorous mammals.
 the index was applied to South Africa in year 2000 and shows 84% of the populations of
all plant and animal species have declined.
 mammals suffered the greatest loss of all the taxonomic groups at 71%.
 among the terrestrial biomes, grassland lost greatly 74% of its former populations.

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 9: Underlying Causes of the Loss of Philippine Biodiversity

1. List 3 plant or animals species introduced to the Philippines (again, depending on where you
resides). Give a brief description on how these species became invasive. Which native species
does the introduced species endanger?

2. What will you recommend the government should do to address the issues on global warming,
deforestation, overfishing, and industrial wastes dumping?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 57

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 9

I. Matching Type: Match the terms to the following definitions/ descriptions.

A. biodiversity E. restoration J. mechanical control

B. climate change F. deforestation K. loss of biodiversity
C. exotic species G. overfishing L. biological control
D. chemical control H. industrial dumping M. human population growth

_______1. The second largest threat to biodiversity.

_______2. It involves the different varieties of species that inhabit planet Earth.

_______3. The disposal of toxic waste materials.

_______4. Those species are threatened for extinction.

_______5. When fish activities deplete fish stocks and a host of marine life.

_______6. The logging, removing, or burning of trees in forested areas.

_______7. Greenhouse gases such as water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone trap
heat and warm the planet.

_______8. This is often the most successful and ecological way to control invasive species that
has established dense populations over large areas.

_______9. The use of pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides to kill invasive species.

______10. Restoring native species to reduce the chances an area will be invaded again.

II. TRUE OR FALSE: Write A if the statement is TRUE and Write B if the statement is FALSE.

_______1. Ground level zone protect us from sun’s harmful ultra-violet rays.

_______2. Due to the continues rising of earth’s temperature, animals tend to move closer to
equator region.

_______3. Climate is the atmospheric condition over a short period of time.

_______4. Increasing human world population is the second largest threat to biodiversity into
ecosystem.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 58

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

_______5. An oil spill occurs when liquid petroleum hydrocarbon is released into the
environment.

_______6. Considered as invasive species or native species affects the habitats they occupy
ecologically, economically and environmentally.

_______7. Biodiversity International Index is a new method of scaling biodiversity proposed by

Bob Scholes and Oonsie Biggs.

_______8. Weather is the distinct change in measures of climate lasting for long period of time
brought about by the increase in earth’s temperature.

_______9. Global warming is the increase on earth’s atmosphere and oceans temperature.

______10. Most threats to biodiversity are due to natural interference.

______11. Deforestation had resulted to flooding, soil erosion and degradation of soil.

______12. The higher the AQI the better the air quality.

______13. Decontamination of freight, shipping boxes, packaging materials and transportation

equipment is an example of eradication control method for non-native species.

______14. Effect of oil spills on marine mammals makes them more vulnerable to temperature
fluctuations and more buoyant in the water.

______15. Extinction is a part of earth’s history since Palaeozoic era, and over the past 100 years
extinction rate is the same as ever.

III. Restricted Essay: Reflect on each question and each answer is equivalent to 3 points.

1. What is climate change?

2. What are the impacts of climate change?

3. What are the vulnerabilities of Philippine ecosystems to climate change?

4. What is adaptation to climate change?

5. What is the most significant change in the world you’ve seen for the last 10 years?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 59

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 10
Man’s Impact on the Environment

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Introduce acid rain and identify the problem it causes;

2. Identify the human activities that caused acid rain;
3. Discuss how ground-level ozone affects one’s health;
4. Discuss what causes global warming; and
5. Discuss the Chernobyl disaster to the students.

Introduction

We as humans have become dependent on luxuries such as cars, houses, and even our
cell phones. But what does our love for manufactured metallic and plastic goods do to the
environment? Things like overconsumption, overfishing, deforestation are dramatically
impacting our world.

Human activity can be directly attributed to the cause of hundreds of extinctions in the
last two centuries, versus the millions of years that extinctions naturally occur. As we progress
through the 21st century, humans have changed the world in unprecedented ways. Modernization
and progress have led to air getting more and more polluted over the years. Industries, vehicles,
increase in the population and urbanization are some of the major factors responsible for air
pollution.

Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution,

burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil
erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water. These negative impacts can affect human
behavior and can prompt mass migrations or battles over clean water.

It is imperative that we support the earth that we live on, but no matter what, the earth
will live on. Human impacts the natural habitat in so many ways and we need to be aware of our
personal environmental input. Whether we live with it or not solely depends on the decisions and
actions we make next. Mother nature is an unrelenting, unforgiving force, so it is probably best if
we treat her well, and maybe, just maybe we can make up for the damage that has already been
dealt with. The best time to act, was yesterday, the best we can do is today, but if we wait for
tomorrow, it may just be too late. Society needs to help itself in order to survive.

Acid rain

 Acidic deposition or more commonly known as acid rain occurs when emissions of sulfur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen and oxidants
to form various compounds

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 60

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 the formed compounds fall to the Earth in either wet form (such as rain, snow, and fog)
or dry form ( such as gas and particles)
 acid rain formation – when it rains, the particles are washed from these surfaces and
make the runoff water more acidic due to the combination of water coming from the acid
rain.
 according to Danish chemist Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and English chemist Martin
Lowry, acid is generally ‘sour in taste’ which often produce stinging feeling on mucous
membranes.
 strong acids are corrosive and cause severe burns even after short contact
 the mixture forms a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid

Problems caused by acid rain:

 acidifies bodies of water that can eradicate marine species

 ruins plant nutrients and the plant’s ability to survive
 accelerates the decay of architecture and artworks (sandstone figure destroyed by acid
rain over a portal of a castle in Germany. The castle was built in 1702.)
 causes serious illness to people
 Sandstone figure destroyed by acid rain over a portal of a castle in Germany. Acid rain
produced by air pollution generated in the heavily industrialized Ruhr region of Germany
probably accounts for the severe damage. The castle was built in 1702.

Human activities that cause acid rain:

 Burning of fossil fuels

 Combustion of fuels

What can be done?

 reduce emissions
 find alternative sources of energy
 conserve resources
 restore the damage done by acid rain

Ozone
 Ozone is a gas that occurs naturally in the Earth’s upper atmosphere that protects us from
the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays produced from the reaction of ultraviolet rays with
oxygen
 Ozone in the lower atmosphere, such as near ground level, is formed from the pollutants
emitted by cars, power plants, boilers, chemical plants, and other sources that react
chemically in the presence of sunlight.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 61

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

How can ground-level ozone effect one’s health?

 It irritates the respiratory system.

 It can reduce lung function by making it more difficult to breathe as deeply as you
normally would.
 It can aggravate asthma and lung diseases.

Who are at risk from ground-level ozone?

 Active people
 People with asthma or other respiratory diseases

How can people defect the actual level of ozone and other air pollutants?

 Air Quality Index (AQI) is a scale used to report the actual levels of ozone and other
common air pollutants.
 The higher the AQI level, the greater is the health concern.
 USA and Canada, the level of air quality is being monitored by the AIR Now website
 In the Philippines, the Environmental Management Bureau of the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources has built air quality built monitoring stations to
monitor pollution levels.

Four Air Quality Monitoring Stations that can be found in the country

 Baguio City
 Cebu City
 Iloilo City
 Cagayan de Oro City

Each stations gives the actual level of the following:

 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
 Ozone (O3)
 Benzene (C6H6)
 Toluene (C7H6)

Climate change/ Global warming

 According to the National Academy of Sciences which consists of scholars engaged in

scientific and engineering research in the USA, the term ‘climate change’ is more

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 62

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

preferred to be used than ‘global warming’ to address the concern that there are other
changes in the environment aside from rising temperature.
 Climate change - any considerable change in measures in temperature, precipitation, or
wind lasting for an extended period (decades or longer)
 Global warming – is the increase in the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and
oceans due to human influences.

Climate may result from:

 natural factors such as changes in the sun’s intensity or slow changes in the Earth’s orbit
around the sun.
 natural processes within the climate system
 human activities alter the atmosphere’s composition and the land surface

The most abundant greenhouse gases are:

 water vapor
 carbon dioxide
 methane
 nitrous oxide
 ozone
 CFC’s (chloroflourocarbons)

Some of the sunlight that enters the earth is:

 absorbed and converted to infrared radiation (heat)
 sends heat back to the atmosphere
 reabsorbed by greenhouse gases
 re-emitted toward the surface; some of the heat is not heat is not trapped by greenhouse
gases
 escapes into spaces
 the amount of heat absorbed by the surface increases due to human activities that emit
additional greenhouse gases to the atmosphere before escaping to space

Oil spill

 An oil spill is a form of pollution that occurs when liquid petroleum hydrocarbon is
released into the environment such as the ocean and coastal waters due to human
activities.

Environmental effects:
 an indirect cause of decreased fish production
 disturbs the natural ecosystems of mangroves
 makes birds and and marines mammals vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and less
buoyant in the water

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 63

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

How is oil cleansed up after a spills?

 A boom can be placed somewhere in the ocean or around a habitat oil into many animals
alive.
 Suction skimmers are attached to a boat and suck up the spilled oil into storage tanks.
 Airplane can be used to drop chemicals on the oil spill.
 Vacuum trucks can be driven on the beaches to vacuum up the oil.
 Use of indigineous absorbent materials such as human hair, bird/ chicken feathers, and
rice straw.

Oil spill disasters in the world:

 Philippines: Solar I, oil tanker chartered by Petron Corp. Sank on the coast of the
Guimaras Island, Iloilo on August 11, 2006. About 200,000 liters of bunker oil has
initially spilled and an additional 1.8 million of oil still on board.

 Australia: Hongkong flagged-ship Pacific Adventurer was toppled by Cyclone Hamish

causing 31 containers of ammonium nitrate fertilizer to spill on the ocean floors of
Brisbane, Queensland on March 12, 2009.

 Alaska: The Exxon Valdez spilled 10.8 million gallons of oil into the marine
environment of the Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska on March 24, 1989. It is
one of the largest oil spills in the world.

Chernobyl Disaster

 The Chernobyl Power Plant lies in northern Ukraine near the border of Belarus.
 The Uranium (U-235) nuclei split in a nuclear reactor on the night of April 25-26, 1986.
 The explosion released 100 times more radiation than the atomic bombs dropped on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
 Radiation also spread over large parts of Scandinavia, Poland, Baltic States, as well as
Southern Germany, Switzerland, Northern France and England.

Effects of Chernobyl Disaster

 the accident is one of the most costly nuclear disaster in history costing about $200
billion
 the fire from the disaster was extinguished by dropping over 5,000 tons materials like
sand, lead, clay and boron onto the burning reactor and injection of liquid nitrogen
 most of the fire fighters who helped control the fire on the plant described their
experience of radiation as “tasting like metal”

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 64

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Environmental effects of the disaster:

 radioactive elements such as caesium, strontium, and plutonium contaminate the soil and
entered the food chain through crops and livestock.
 severely contaminated aquatic species.
 almost 2,640 km of agricultural land can no longer be formed. Forested area were
severely contaminated especially the coniferous plants, berries, mushrooms, lichens, and
ferns.
 grazers such as cattle and goats became susceptible to radioactivity.
 people who feed on what they have produced or collected were at high risk.

How does radiation affect the human body?

 radiation produces free radicals that may impair cellular function and will thus damage
the DNA of a person.
 such damage to the genetic blueprint can thereby cancer and other genetic abnormalities.

The following organs can also be affected by radiation:

 cells of the embryo in the uterus

 lymph glands
 bone marrow
 intestinal tract
 thyroid glands
 female breast and egg cells
 (if above organs where affected these may result to thyroid cancer and leukemia, and may
affect the physical and mental development of adolescents and children)

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 65

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 10: Effects of Global Warming

1. What comes to your mind when you hear or are being asked about ozone? Relate your answers
to the technical definition of ozone.

2. How ground-level ozone affects one’s health.

3. How the terms “climate change” and “global warming” differ or is there really a difference
between the two terms.

4. What causes global warming? Use the figure to illustrate the greenhouse effect.

5. What causes oil to spill on the oceans or coastal areas?

6. What are the recent oil spill disaster s you know of?

7. What are the effects of radiation in the body?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 66

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 10

I. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the correct answer on the blank provided for each
number.

______1. The following are the most abundant greenhouse gases, except:
a. Benzene
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Methane
d. Water vapour

______2. A form of pollution that occurs when liquid petroleum hydrocarbon is released into the
environment.
a. Acid rain
b. Climate change
c. Nuclear power plant disaster
d. Oil spill

______3. The following organs can be affected by radiation.

a. bone marrow
b. intestinal tract
c. lymph glands
d. all of the above

______4. Which statement is not true about Greenhouse effect?

I. greenhouse gasses emits heat that enters the earth
II. the earth’s surface bounces back the heat back to the atmosphere
III. some heat that does not absorbed by ozone escapes the earth
a. letter I
b. letter II
c. letter III
d. all of the above

______5. Which of the following is not the cause of deforestation?

a. logging
b. mining
c. flooding
d. cattle grazing

______6. A scale used to report the actual levels of O3 and other common air pollutant.
a. AQI
b. EPA
c. EBM
d. BII

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 67

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

______7. The Philippines being a biological hot spot means:

a. our country is mega diverse country
b. our country’s endemic species is under threat
c. our country is lacks biodiversity
d. our country is extremely biodiverse

______8.. Arrange the following major events of Nuclear Accidents in chronological order
(from first to latest).
1. Three mile island, USA
2. Fukushima, Japan
3. Chernobyl, Ukraine
4. Kyshtym, Russia
a. 4, 3, 1, 2
b. 3, 1, 4, 2
c. 4, 1, 3,2
d. 1, 4, 3, 2

______9. Radio-active elements can contaminate our soil, the following are radio-active element
except:
a. Magnesium
b. Cesium
c. Strontium
d. Plutonium

______10. It is one of the 15 largest nuclear power plants in the world and suffered major
damage last March 11, 2011 earthquake.
a. Chernobyl power plant
b. Three mile island power plant
c. Kyshtym power plant
d. Fukushima daiichi power plant

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 68

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 11
Assessing the Impact of Human activities on the Environment

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Understand the impact of science and technology on individual society and the environment.
2. Identify the environmental effects of the disaster.

Introduction

An environmental impact assessment is a formal process used to predict the

environmental consequences of a plan, policy, program of project prior the implementation
decision, it proposes measures to adjust the impacts to acceptable levels or to investigate new
technological.

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible positive or

negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, considering natural,
Social and Economic aspects.

Environment Impact Assessment is a very beneficial step to check, whether the project is
environment friendly or not.• Since economic development is result of interaction between
natural resources and technology supported by designed for people, so all human activity should
be economic, social and environment friendly.

According Association of Impact Assessment (IAIA)

The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating to the International and mitigating the
biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions
being taken and commitments made.
 EIAs began to be used in the 1960s as part of a rational decision making process.
 It involved a technical evaluation that would lead to objective decision making.
 EIA was made legislation in the US in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
1969.
The main steps in EIAs process:

 Screening
 Scoping
 Prediction
 Mitigation
 Management and Monitoring
 Audit

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 69

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Screening often results in a categorization of the project and from this a decision is made
on whether or not a full EIA is to be carried out.

Scoping is the process of determining which are the most critical issues to study and will
involve community participation to some degree. It is at this early stage that EIA can most
strongly influence the outline proposal.

Detailed prediction and mitigation studies follow scoping and are carried out in parallel
with feasibility studies.

The main output report is called an Environmental Impact Statement, and contains a
detailed plan for managing and monitoring environmental impacts both during and after
implementation.

` Finally, an audit of the EIA process is carried out sometime after implementation. The
audit serves a useful feedback and learning function.

Flow diagram of the EIA process and parallel studies

Data Requirements

 Project
»Type
»Size
»Location

 Area of potential impact

»Physical resources
»Biological resources
»Economic development resources
»Quality of life
»Other existing and planned projects

Externalities of EIA

Positive Externalities:

1. New jobs generated, economic growth stimulated.

2. Growth of local business enterprises supported.
3. Development of supporting and complementary industries.
4. Influx of capital and disposable income.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 70

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Negative Externalities:

Social impacts:

1. Impacts on health of local population.

2. Increase in crime and deviant behaviour.
3. Additional pressure on the existing physical infrastructure (sewage, water supply etc.).
4. Decline in community cohesion.
5. Changed cultural values.

Environmental impacts:

1. Depletion of natural resources.

2. Destruction of habitats.
3. Change in ph, oxygen level, toxicity of water.
4. Increase in toxicity of air.
5. Global warming.
6. Ozone depletion.

Benefits of conducting EIA

1. Facilitates informed decision making by providing clear, well structured dispassionate analysis
of the effect and consequences of proposed projects.

2. Pre-emption or early withdrawal of unsound proposals.

3. Assists in the selection of alternatives, including the selection of the best practicable and most
environmentally friendly option.

4. Results in best practice prediction and mitigation of adverse effects of projects.

5. Influences both project selection and design by screening out environmentally unsound
projects, as well as modifying feasible projects - Mitigation of negative environmental and social
impacts.

6. Guides formal approval, including the establishment of terms and conditions of project
implementation and follow- up.

7. Mitigation of negative environmental and social impacts.

8. Serves as an adaptive, organizational learning process, in which the lessons of experience are
feedback into policy, institutional and project design - Enhancement of positive aspects

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 71

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 11: Assessing the Impact of Human activities on the Environment

1. How do human activities affect the environment?

2. How does the environment affect human activities explain giving three examples?

3. What are the 5 major impacts humans have on the environment?

4. What is the greatest threat to our environment?

5. How can humans reduce their impact on the environment?

6. How does the environment affect your mental health?

7. What are the human activities that destroy the environment?

8. How are humans responsible for pollution?

9.What are the effects of environmental problems?

10. Effects of Environmental Degradation

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 72

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 12
Environmental Economics

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Understand the economic principles in addressing environmental problems;

2. Define environmental economics;
3. Discuss how it can be used to quantify the damages done to the environment;
4. Discuss the purpose of cost-benefit analyses (CBA); and
5. Discussing the concepts of Garrett Hardin mentioned in his essay.

Introduction

“Our world has become a dangerous place to live in, not because of some people who are
evil, but because of the many people who do not do anything about it.” - Albert Einstein

Environmental Economic is an economic area where it is believed that the environment

has an impact on the economy. This is based on the theory that poor management of natural
resources will lead to failures in the market, and thus environmental policies need to exist for the
market’s benefit.

Environmental economists research economic issues relating to environmental issues.

They consider the environmental costs of economic growth such as pollutants and how those
factors could influence economics; they may also look into how the environment may offset
costs associated with economics.

An example of this could be the costs in removing an ecosystem in a community. An

environmental economist would look at the situation and consider what services the ecosystem in
question currently provides. The trees in the area would be removing carbon dioxide from the
air, and individual species that live in the area may be necessary for preventing pests from
entering nearby farm fields. These factors would show that there could be a better benefit to
leaving the ecosystem than removing it.

Environmental Economics

 Seek to reduce these losses in an efficient ways as well as to compare the costs of
environmental damage to the costs of its improvement.
 Seek to quantify human losses such as damaged health, lower productivity, and depleted
natural resources brought about by economic activities that harm the environment.
 In classical economics, the three factors of production are land, labor and production. As
an example, if the owner of the land decides to burn garbage and the resulting smoke
blows into nearby properties affecting other people, does the responsible party pays for
the medical expenses of these people? What if they pollute a stream affecting the water
source of people who resides near that land, who will responsible for these damages?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 73

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Whatever the owner of the land decides to do with his/her properties, it will inevitably
affect the surrounding environment and other people.
Economic Principles

 Economic principles can be used to quantify the outcomes of an environmental project as

well as costs apportioned to it.
 The article, Tragedy of the Commons will be analyzed to study the effects of free and
open access to natural resources. Garrett Hardin wrote an influential article in 1968
entitled, “The Tragedy of the Commons”. He talks about the use of a shared limited
resource (commons) that is ultimately destroyed because of the self-interest of various
individuals. Hardin stresses that overexploitation of limited resources ultimately dooms
the resource. This concept can be applied to many environmental problems those
mentioned in the previous lectures, not just on overgrazing.
 In the article, he stated a hypothetical example regarding herders sharing a common
parcel of land in which they are allowed to let their cows graze. It is in the interest of the
herder to put as many cows as possible that can eventually damage the commons. Hardin
stresses that overexploitation of limited resources ultimately dooms the resource.
 Hardin’s concept traces back to Aristotle who noted that “what is common to the greatest
number has the least care bestowed upon it.” To stop tragedy from happening, one can
restraint the use of resource to allow sustainable renewal and repair.
Garrett Hardin (1968)

 Born 21 April 1915

 Dellas, Texas
 Died September 14, 2003 (aged 88)
 Santa Barbara, California
 Fields Ecology
 Known for The Tragedy of the Commons

Cases: Tragedy of the Commons

Tragic Crash No.1

The influx of people from the provinces to Manila create a lot of problems. With limited space,
resources, diminishing opportunities, and a lot of people, the effects are: cheaper labor, high
unemployement rate, more crimes, prostitution, etc. It creates a never ending loop of crashes
enforcing a weak decision founded on the assumption that life is better in Manila.

Tragic Crash No. 2

Summer just began and everyone was searching for a good grazing area. A herder found a spot
best for feeding his cattle. Soon after, other herders knew of the place and decided to let their
“cattle” graze in the same area. Others brought their goats, sheep, and other herbivores.
Eventually, there was little or no grass for all animals.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 74

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Tragic Crash No. 3

Procter & Gamble and Wal-Mart share a similar goal: to improve profitability and effectiveness
of their respective distribution/production system. However, P&G’s price promotions not only
incur extra cost to but also take a toll on Wal-Mart’s item stocks. Wal-Mart then blames P&G for
low sales. P&G thinks the problem is Wal-Marts distribution system or promotion program.

Tragic Crash No. 4

A new road was contructed to ease congestion in your area. Upon its opening to the public,
everyone was eager to use it. A massive traffic was formed. Considering the poor condition of
the old roads, motorists insist on using the new one even if its primary purpose was to ease
congestion.

Understanding Problems

A problem is an obstacle which makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal, objective or purpose.
It refers to a situation, condition, or issue that is yet unresolved. In a broad sense, a problem
exists when an individual becomes aware of a significant difference between what actually is and
what is desired.

Common problems can be categorized in many different ways:

 according to level of difficulty or gravity

 by nature
 by impact
 by scope

EXTERNALITIES

 In economics, these items are labelled as externalities in which the responsible party does
not pay for these expenses. More technically, it is a consequence of a decision that falls
on someone other than decision-maker. These costs therefore, become the expenses of the
community wherein the government decides how to deal with these costs.

 To regulate environmental common areas and to compensate those who bear the costs,
responsible ownership should be practiced. Thus, finding ways for companies to comply
with environmental policies while maintaining the robustness of the business is the job of
environmental economists.

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS (CBA)

 Cost and benefits are usually measured in dollars (or monetary value). Cost-benefit
analyses are used by environmental economists to assess the cost of doing business in
environmental terms. It is used analyze the cost and benefits of a proposed environmental
policy.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 75

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 The benefits of having environmental policies can include improved air and water
quality, reduced mortality rate for all species, species preservation, and better recreational
opportunities. Costs can include higher taxes or the creation of new taxes, internal and
external costs, and even externalities. If these benefits are deemed “priceless” then the
purpose of using costs and benefit analyses to influence decision is forfeited. However,
not assigning monetary value to the environment is assuming that it is free for all to be
used.
STAGES OF COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS

1. Define project or policy. The economist must consider whose welfare will benefit in the
project or policy and the time period of the project.

2. Identify physical impacts of the project or policy. The implications of the outcomes must be
identified in units. Examples can be the removal of 400 billion tons of landfill, 800 labor hours
required to implement the project.
3. Value impacts. The impact of a specific action or inaction must be valued in accordance to its
marginal cost or benefit.

4. Discount cost and benefit flows. The sooner the benefit is received the more valuable it is. For
cost, the further way in time it is incurred, the less damaging it is. Thus, to reflect present net
values, both costs and benefits must be discounted.

5. Apply the net present value test. To get the net present value, subtract the sum of costs in
present value to the sum of the benefits in present value. Thus, if NPV > 0, the project must be
accepted. If the discounted benefits exceed the discounted costs, the project must be considered.

6. Apply sensitivity analysis. Re-compute the net present value if certain parameters are sensitive
to changes. As an example, 40 thousand liters of paint are needed to reduce the damage on
building structures in a city in the US by 30%. If 50 thousand liters of paint can reduce the
damage is done by acid rain by 60%. The following parameters must be reviewed conducting
sensitivity analysis:

a. Discount rate
b. Physical quantities and qualities of inputs and outputs
c. Project lifespan

Problems and questions that may arise in applying CBA:

1. Determining the value of the environment, is it unethical to place monetary value on our
ecosystem such as the rainforest.
2. Predicting the effects of change in a single parameter on the ecosystems. Understanding the
ripple effects of a certain environmental project or policy is often unclear.
3. Manipulation of CBA. Can the CBA be controlled to reflect the interest of the firm?
4. Discounting future costs and benefits. Is it proper to discount costs and benefits? If so, by what
rate?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 76

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Economic Incentives Policies

Economic incentives seek to correct the situation presented by Hardin by setting a price for the
environmental damage or creating ownership rights to environmental goods. Some examples of
economic incentives policies are:

1. Environmental taxation. This incentive tries to discourage environmentally degrading

behavior. Some examples of charges include: emission charges, fuel taxes, and water pollution
charges. These charges may be used to finance environmental renovation and improvement
projects.

2. Deposit-refund scheme. Under this scheme, a deposit is paid by the purchaser on a certain
product or a container of certain product as soft drink bottles or cans, waste oil, or even old
automobiles. When the container is returned to a designated collection center, the deposit is
instantly refunded. The scheme provides an incentive for the consumer to return the item and it
has no negative budgetary impact since the incentive is being provided by the consumer’s
money.

3. Liability law. This law requires the person or the company who caused immense damage to
the environment such as an oil spill to pay for the clean-up and to pay damages to those who
were injured resulting from the action. This law encourages those whose activities may pose
great risk to the environment to be extremely cautions.

4. Disclosure strategies. This is to encourage companies or persons whose activities may cause
great risk to the environment and danger to the public to divulge or disclose the nature of their
activities.

5. Certification strategies. Third party certifiers monitor the production processes of various
companies and allow these companies to label their products “green” or “environmental
friendly” if the product has passed a series of tests and standards. A survey revealed that most
consumers are willing to pay higher for products that pose a lower environmental risk when
being produced or consumed.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 77

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 12: Read the article, Tragedy of the Commons will be analyzed to study the effects of
free and open access to natural resources.

Answer the following questions from the concepts of Garrett Hardin:

1. What are the downsides when people are allowed open and unlimited access to the natural
resources?

2. Is it ethical or fitting to assign values to the environment?

3. Will all resources end inevitably in a catastrophe?

4. What are the ways to control or limit the use of these free resources?

5. Is it but right to control or limit the use of these free resources?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 78

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 12

I. True or False. Write the word true if the statement is correct; otherwise, write false.

__________1. The use of cost-benefit analysis is forfeited if the environment is assumed to be

free to use.

__________2. The surrounding environment will not be affected on any decision made by the
owner regarding the use of his property.

__________3. The International Organization for Standardization develops technical standards

that ensure safe, efficient, and clean goods and services that each organization
worldwide must adhere to.

__________4. Externalities are considered costs by environmental economists.

__________5. The sooner the environmental cost is incurred, the less damaging it will be.

__________6.The Tragedy of the Commons by Garrett Hardin is about the responsible use of
privately owned resource.

__________7. Creating ownership rights to environmental goods is one way of managing

resources.

__________8. Most consumers are willing to pay higher for products that pose a lower
environmental risk when being produced or consumed.

__________9. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is responsible for

evaluating, investigating, and analyzing disease outbreaks and other threats to the
public’s health.

_________10. The temperature of the water affects the amount of dissolved oxygen available to
aquatic life forms.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 79

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 13
Environmental Management System (EMS)

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Define what an environmental management system is;

2. Discuss the EMS framework in terms of its development and implantation;
3. Summarize the EMS elements;
4. Employ the importance of EMS; and
5. Identify various companies that profit from EMS.

Introduction

An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a set of processes and practices that

enable an organization to reduce its environmental impacts and increase its operating efficiency.
This site provides information and resources related to EMS for small businesses and private
industry, as well as local, state and federal agencies. The EPA continues with its progress in
developing and maintaining an environmental management system at each of its offices, labs,
and other facility operations, focusing on the reduction of the agency's environmental footprint.

An Environmental Management System (“EMS”) is a tool that is continuously growing

in importance for companies. Most companies need to manage their products/services, employee
safety, public opinion, environmental impact and other related opportunities. An EMS
encompasses the methods and means to manage all of these aspects within your organization and
helps you run and document its programs for environment-related management. If you want to
become certified to ISO 14001:2015 we offer an all-in one certification package.

This can and does include comprehensive and systematic planning and commitment of
key resources for developing, implementing and maintaining procedures for the preservation of
the environmental systems of the planet. Basically, an EMS allows an organization to
continuously monitor and improve all of their processes and impacts as it relates to the
environmental system that they have created as part of their ongoing operations.
Environmental Management System (EMS)

An Environmental Management System is a continual cycle of planning, implementing,

reviewing and improving the processes and actions that an organization undertakes to meet its
businesses and environmental goals.

It is a set of management tools, principles and procedures developed by organizations

aimed at systematically managing its environmental affairs and the protection of human health.
Monitor an organization’s environmental performance and integrates environmental management
to the daily operations and goals.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 80

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Developing an EMS is usually built on:

 Plan – to decide the purpose

 Do – step by step action plan
 Check - implement preventive action processes
 Act – review the EMS program and apply the previous steps.

How to develop an Environmental Management System (EMS)?

1. Plan – the first step in planning for an EMS is to decide the purpose or objective of
developing such. Goals must be clearly identified. Another critical step in the planning stage is
securing the commitment of the top management in the development and implementation of
EMS.

2. Do – this stage describes the step by step action plan in the implementation of the EMS. As an
example, the services that an organization is offering results in the generation of regulated waste
and therefore must be covered with sanitary permit.

3. Check – conduct internal audits to the EMS processes and use the results to implement
corrective and preventive action processes.

4. Act – the results of the audits can also be used by the management to review the EMS program
for any needed changes.

Summary of key EMS elements:

1. Policy statements – a statement of the organization’s management’s commitment to the

project.

2. Significant environmental impacts – identified environmental impacts of the organization’s

products, services, and activities.

3. Environmental objectives and targets – goals of the EMS with the overall goals of the
organization.

4. Implementation – processes to be done to meet objectives and goals.

5. Training – ensure employees are capable of handling their environmental responsibilities.

6. Management review – internal audit of the EMS its progress and outcome.

Why develop an EMS?

1. Saves company money and increases profits by reducing waste at source.

2. Improves environmental performance and image of the company.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 81

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

3. Allows the organization to successfully comply with present and future rigid environmental
regulations.
4. Improves employee awareness on environmental issues and responsibilities.
5. May qualify to an ISO 14001 certification.

ISO 14000 (International Organization for Standardization) – the function of the

organization is to develop voluntary technical standards for businesses, government, and society
that aim at making the development, manufacture and supply of goods and services more
efficient, safe, and clean.

ISO 14001 – First published in September 1996; second edition was published in 2004

ISO 14004:2004 – provides guidelines on the elements of an EMS and its

implementation together with principal issues involved.

The name ISO is derived from the Greek word isos meaning equal. ISO, located in
Geneva, Switzerland is a non-governmental organization established in 1947. Refers to a set of
standards and guidance that assist organizations address environmental issues. Includes the
following standards for:

1. Environmental Management Systems

2. Environmental and EMS auditing
3. Performance evaluation
4. Life cycle assessment

Objectives that can be met with compliance to ISO 14001:2004 as stated in the ISO 14000
Essentials

Internal:

1. Provide assurance to management that the organizational processes and activities having an
impact on the environmental are under control.
2. Assurance employees that they are working for an environmentally responsible organization.

External:

1. Provide assurance to external stakeholders.

2. Make sure that the organization complies with environmental regulations.
3. Support the organization’s claims and communication about its own environmental policies,
plans and actions.
4. Provides a framework for demonstrating conformity via suppliers’ declarations of conformity,
assessment of conformity by an external stakeholder and for certification of conformity by an
independent certification body.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 82

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Environmental Performance Indicator

1. Identify key environmental costs and benefits such as water use, energy use, and waste among
others.
2. Identify key interested parties and any other concerns such as topics of complaint, and areas of
bad publicity among others.
3. Develop measures of performance that are feasible, and that accurately reflect the area of
concern. Match this with appropriate levels of comparable figures for the future.
4. Create simple and clear EPI’s for easier communication and evaluation.
5. Identify all actions, and provisions for training materials, and equipment that will be used in
data collection.
6. Identify how EPI’s will be used as it might affect how the format in which to collect and
present data will be developed.

Sample Questionnaire: The checklist may also guide the organization in reviewing their
activities, operations, products and services that could significantly impact the environment.

Emission/Discharge

1. Have all sources of emissions to water, air, and land been identified?
2. Have all stacks, vents, and exhausts and associated air pollutant sources been identified and
located?
3. Have the emission being released into the environment by the organization’s operations been
identified, quantified and minimized?
4. Can all emissions, including any low concentration contaminants, be qualified? Is the
company aware of the physical and chemical characteristics of these emissions?
5. Are emissions monitored and are detailed records kept? Do these emissions consistently meet
legal requirements?

Energy

1. Is energy used efficiently?

2. Have ways to reduce consumption been investigated?
3. Is energy consumption regularly reviewed?
4. Are employees trained in energy conservation?
5. Are energy bills/usage monitored by individual departments or the company centrally?

Paper

1. Can paper use be reduced or made more efficient by means such as greater use of electronic
mail, voice communication or changes in office practices.
2. Can more recycled paper be used in offices?
3. Have possibilities for recycling waste paper been investigated? Would it reduce waste disposal
costs?
4. Are different types of waste paper separated for reuse and recycling?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 83

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

5. How many internal and external business forms does the organization have? Are they all
necessary?

Storage on Site

1. Are any raw materials, products or waste materials that are stored on site properly managed to
minimize risk environmental damage?
2. Are any legal requirements relating to storing potentially hazardous materials met?
3. Are storage areas contained to prevent run-off of chemicals in the event of an accident or fire?
4. Are hazardous materials handled properly during delivery and unloading?
5. Are bulk storage tanks fitted with low or high level alarms, and are vent pumps fitted and
protected against electrostatic hazards for flammable materials?

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 13: EMS Checklist

1. Collect checklist that can guide an organization operating in hotel and restaurant
management/services in building an environmental action plan.

2. Create your own checklist assuming that you are assigned as the environmental manager in an
organization operating hotel and restaurant industry. You may choose any type of organization
such a resort, hotel, and restaurant among others.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 84

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 13

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the correct answer for each of the following questions.

_______1. This is one of the key elements of an EMS which involves internal audit of EMS
including its progress and outcome.
a. Policy statement
b. Management review
c. Environmental Objective and target
d. Significant Environmental impacts

_______2. The following are part of the ISO 14001 plan except:
a. Plan
b. Act
c. Think
d. Check

_______3. In developing environmental policies, the following are considered costs except:
a. new taxes creation
b. improvement of air and water quality
c. implementation costs
d. externalities

_______4. In creating an EMS, identification of legal requirements and operational controls,

monitoring of activities, and developing EMS Manual happens in the _____ stage.
a. plan
b. act
c. do
d. check

_______5. _____ is a set of management tools, principles and procedures developed by particular
organizations for environmental management and human health protection.
a. Environment Management Solution
b. Environmental Management System
c. Environment Management Solution
d. Environmental Management Solution

_______6. Arrange the steps in developing an EMS.

a. plan, do, check, act
b. plan, act, check, do
c. check, plan, act, do
d. act, check, plan, do

_______7. The first step in planning for an EMS is to decide the purpose or objective of
developing such.
a. plan

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 85

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

b. act
c. do
d. check

_______8. This stage describes the step by step action plan in the implementation of the EMS.
a. plan
b. act
c. do
d. check

_______9. Conduct internal audits to the EMS processes and use the results to implement
corrective and preventive action processes.
a. plan
b. act
c. do
d. check

______10. The results of the audits can also be used by the management to review the EMS
program for any needed changes.
a. plan
b. act
c. do
d. check

______11. A statement of the organization’s management’s commitment to the project

a. Policy statements
b. Environmental objectives and targets
c. Implementation
d. Training
e. Management review

______12. Identified environmental impacts of the organization’s products, services, and

activities
a. Policy statements
b. Environmental objectives and targets
c. Implementation
d. Training
e. Management review

_______13. The goals of EMS with the overall goals of the organization
a. Policy statements
b. Environmental objectives and targets
c. Implementation
d. Training
e. Management review

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 86

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

_______14. A processes to be done to meet objectives and goals.

a. Policy statements
b. Environmental objectives and targets
c. Implementation
d. Training
e. Management review

_______15. To ensure employees are capable of handling their environmental responsibilities.

a. Policy statements
b. Environmental objectives and targets
c. Implementation
d. Training
e. Management review

II. Write A if the statement is TRUE and Write B if the statement is FALSE.

________1. The International Organization for Standardization was originated in Rome in the
year 1947.

________2. The International Organization for Standardization develops technical standards that
ensure safe, efficient, and clean goods and services that each organization worldwide
must adhere to.
________3. Externalities are considered costs by environmental economists.

________4. The sooner the environmental cost is incurred, the less damaging it will be.

________5. Creating ownership rights to environmental goods is one way of managing

resources.

________6. Implementation is one of the key elements of EMS which ensures employees
capability to handle environmental responsibilities.

________7. Management review contains a statement of the organization about commitment to

the project.

________8. One of the economic incentive policies that discourage environmentally degrading
behavior is the disclosure strategy.

________9. ISOS is a Greek word which means equal.

________10. EMS saves company money and increases profits by reducing waste at source.
Success stories of companies that have been profiting from the implementation of
EMS researched by the e-community of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 87

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 14
Environmental Assessment and Monitoring
System

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Identify various health risk assessment practices and systems;

2. Define ways to monitor the quality of air and water in the Philippines;
3. Identify the legal framework and policies that covers the control, monitoring; and
implementation of programs for quality air and water.

Introduction

“We can change the future by changing it today.” – John Maxwell

Environmental assessment (EA) is the assessment of the environmental consequences

(positive negative) of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move
forward with the proposed action. In this context, the term "environmental impact assessment"
(EIA) is usually used when applied to actual projects by individuals or companies and the term
"strategic environmental assessment" (SEA) applies to policies, plans and programmes most
often proposed by organs of state. It is a tool of environmental management forming a part of
project approval and decision-making. Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of
administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision making,
and may be subject to judicial review.

The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the
environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The
International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact
assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical,
social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken
and commitments made". EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a
predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision makers to account for
environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed
environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts.]

Human health and ecological risk assessment from exposure to chemicals:

Risk assessment is a tool that can help scientists and regulators identify serious health
hazards and determine realistic goals for reducing exposure to toxic chemicals.

 prevent significant health threat to the public due to hazards posed by toxic chemicals in
the environment.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 88

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 estimate the current and future effects of chemical exposure from a contaminated
environment on growth, reproduction, and survival of animal and plant species.
 Usually done by specialists and scientists with degrees in toxicology, and epidemiology
together with biologists, physicians, chemists, engineers.
 An epidemiologic study is usually performed by scientists to identify the link between
chemical exposures and health problems within a community.
 A survey is done to determine the health problems in a community in comparison to the
health problems with those in other communities or cities or with the whole population.
The National Epidemiology Center of the Department of Health in the Philippines:

 evaluates and investigates, and analyzes diseases outbreaks and other threats to the
public’s health.
 provides technical assistance and expert services on matters pertaining to epidemiological
and health surveillance capabilities.

The Environmental Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources

 Provides services to the attainment of an environmental quality that is conducive for

present and future generations. It services include management of air quality, water
quality, and toxic and hazardous chemicals.
Health Risk Assessment

Health risk assessments can help managers, and environmental specialists of an organization
weigh benefits and costs of various alternatives and programs for reducing exposure to
chemicals.

The Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment of the California Environmental

Protection. The group is responsible for developing procedures and practices for performing
health risk assessment.

Four – Step Process of risk Assessment

Step 1: Hazard Identification

 various chemical research studies are reviewed that could assist scientists to determine
the types of health problems a chemical could cause.
 Health effects from exposure to chemicals:
 headaches
 nausea
 eye, nose, and throat irritation
 chronic diseases such as cancer

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 89

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Step 2: Exposure Assessment

 scientists determine the extent of exposure to chemicals: how long the people were
exposed; how much chemical they were exposed to; and how people were exposed.
 exposure can be through eating, drinking, skin contact, and breathing.
 the following information are required to determine the extent of exposure to chemicals
from industrial facilities:

 type of chemical released

 hours of operation of a particular industrial facility
 process that release the chemical
 smokestack height and temperature
 presence of any pollution-control equipment
 local topography and meteorology
 census data of the exposed population

Step 3: Dose – Response Assessment

 scientists determine the amount of dose a person was exposed to a particular chemical.
 for chemicals that can cause cancer, there are no exposures that are “zero risk” since even
low exposure to cancer chemicals may still increase the risk for cancer.

Step 4: Risk Characterization

 all the facts developed during the exposure and dose – response assessments are analyzed
to describe the resulting health risks that are expected to occur in the exposed population.
 For example, a cancer risk of one in one million means that not more than one additional
person would be expected to develop cancer as the result of the exposure to the chemical
causing that risk in a population of one million people.
Air Quality Assessment and Monitoring System

Air quality in the Philippines is officially monitored by the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR), through the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) to
generate necessary information in formulating comprehensive pollution control and management
program. The monitoring equipment measures pollutant concentrations stored in a data logger
and transmitted to data acquisitions system located at the EMB Central Office in Quezon City.

The monitoring stations generate hourly average concentrations of the following:

1. PM10 ( particulate matter with a diameter of 10 micrometers)

2. PM2.5 (particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers)
3. SO2 (Sulfur dioxide)
4. NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide)
5. NO (Nitrogen oxide)
6. Ozone (O3)

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 90

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

7. CO (Carbon monoxide)
8. Benzene
9. Xylene
10. Toluene
11. CH4 (Methane)
12. Methane hydrocarbon
13. Total hydrocarbon

Sources of Pollution

1. Mobile sources – motor vehicles that do not pass the emission testing conducted by the land
Transportation Office through Private Emission Testing Centers (PETC)
2. Stationary sources – different facilities that did not pass the standard emission for sulfur
dioxide or particulate matter such as industrial boilers, thermal plants, incinerators, and smelling
furnaces.
3. Areas sources – those that did not comply the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act 2000
(R.A. 9003) re-open burning of solid waste.

Responses of Government, NGO, and Private Sectors:

1. Airshed designation – geothermal airsheds cover areas with existing geothermal energy.
2. Emission standards – maximum hydrocarbons emission from motorcycles and tricycles are
set at 7,800 ppm (parts-per-million).
3. Motor vehicle emission testing – starting January 1, 2003, passing an emission test before the
registration of vehicles.
4. Anti – smoke belching – Makati Pollution and Control Office (MPCO), Lapu-lapu in Cebu
plan to pass an anti-smoke belching ordinance, Task Force Bantay Tambutso in Eastern Visayas,
and Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA) suggested apprehended vehicles should be
impounded to stop them from polluting the air, and when caught for the third time, the vehicles
should be destroyed.
5. Alternative fuels – compressed natural gases (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethanol,
and coco-methyl esters (CME)
6. LGU initiatives - from two-stroke to four-stroke tricycles, smoke-free Makati, motorized to
non-motorized transport, incineration to non-burn technology.
7. Compliance assistance to industries - tax credits, exemption from real property tax, tax
incentives for industries operating within Special economic zones or Freeport zones.

Clean Air Act ( R.A. No. 8749)

1. establishment of a National Research and Development Program.

2. ambient air quality guidelines and standards.
3. airsheds including designation of regional industrial centers as special airsheds with emission
quotas.
4. strengthening of LGU’s role in implementing air quality standard within its jurisdiction.
5. creation of an air quality management fund.
6. creation of an emission charge system.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 91

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

7. financial guarantee mechanisms for environmental rehabilitation of degraded areas.

8. point of emission guidelines and standards.
9. prohibition of incineration and phasing out of bio-medical incinerators for three years.
10. exhaust emission limits for motor vehicles including requirements for registration of motors
vehicles.
11. standard for all type of fuels and fuel – related products.
12. prohibition on manufacture, import, and sale of leaded gasoline and of engines requiring
leaded gasoline.
13. special mention of ozone – depleting substances, greenhouses gases, persistent organic
pollutants and radioactive emissions.
14. increase in fines and penalties for violators of this act.

Water Quality Monitoring

Laboratory studies are undertaken to check the following physico-chemical and

bacteriological parameters present in water:

1. turbidity – measures the clarity of water

2. dissolved oxygen – amount of oxygen dissolved in water
3. biological oxygen demand – measures the amount of oxygen used by microorganisms
4. total dissolved solids – measures the amount of dissolved solids in a solution
5. total suspended solids – measures the amount of undissolved solid particles in water
6. fecal coliform bacteria – microscopic organisms that live on the intestines of all warm
blooded animals, and in animal wastes or feces
7. total coliform bacteria – microorganisms that live in large numbers in soils, plants, and
intestines of humans
8. temperature – measures how to cool or warm the water is
9. oil and grease

Sources of bacteria in drinking water:

1. human and animal waste

2. runoff from pastures, dog runs (yard), and other land areas where animal waste are deposited
3. discharge from septic tanks, sewage treatment facilities, and natural plant/soil bacteria
4. insects, rodents, and animals

Key Stakeholders in the Water Sector:

1. Department of Health (DOH) – responsible for water quality monitoring and development of
standards for drinking water
2. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) – responsible for the construction of
major water supply
3. National Water Resources Board – responsible for licensing water resources for development
4. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) – responsible for the
development of water quality criteria for freshawater standards and effluent standard

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 92

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

5. Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) – monitors the provinces that contribute to the
water quality of the Laguna de Bay
6. Manila Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) – supplies water to metropolitan
ManilaLocal Water Utilities
7. Administration (LWUA) – monitors the water districts and private utilities operating in
different provinces.

Legal framework and policies pertaining to water quality control, use and management:

 Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275)

 National Water Code in 1976
 DENR Administrative Order No. 94-26A Philippine National Standards for Drinking
Water
 Presidential Decree 984 Pollution Control Law (1976)
 Presidential Decree 856 Sanitation Code of the Philippines
Programs and activities of the EMB of the DENR for water quality management:

 fully implements the Ecological Solid Waste Management (ESWM) Act and the Clean
Water Act (CWA)
 implement the Sagip-Ilog Program and Linis Hangin Program
 conduct water pollution discharge inventory
 industrial effluent (wastewater discharge) monitoring on all major industries
 continuous implementation of Tap Watch Program
 continuously pursue the “Beach Eco – Watch”
Philippine Environmental Laws

 Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (R.A. No. 8749) – providing a comprehensive air
pollution control policy.
 Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003 (R.A. No. 9211) – regulating the packaging, use, sale
distribution and advertisements of tobacco products.
 Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990 (R.A. No.
6969) – regulate, restrict or prohibit the importation, manufacture, processing, sale,
distribution, use and disposal of chemical substances and mixtures that present
unreasonable risk and/or injury to health or the environment.
 Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (R.A. No. 9003) – creating the
necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives, declaring certain acts prohibited and
providing penalties.
 Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (R.A. No. 9275) – providing a comprehensive water
quality management of our fresh, brackish and marine waters focusing on pollution
prevention.
 The Water Code of the Philippines (P.D. No. 1067) – this decree revised and
consolidated the Laws governing the ownership, appreciation, utilization, exploitation,
development, conservation and protection of water resources.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 93

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

 Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (R.A. 9147) – the law provide for
the conservation and protection of wildlife resources an their habitats.
 National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 1992 (R.A. No. 7586) – the act
providing and management of (NIPAS).

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 14: Environmental Assessment and Monitoring

1. Define risk assessment.

2. Identify the benefits of health risk assessment.

3. What are the major sources of air pollution and the ways of reducing pollution.

4. Discuss the parameters that should be checked in monitoring the quality of water.

5. How you can contribute to the monitoring of human activities for a sustainable environment.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 94

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self-Test 14

I. Identification: Identify what is described in the statement.

__________________1. The ASEAN was established on ______.

__________________2. Also known as the Protocol on Environment Protection to the

Antarctica Treaty.

__________________3. The Energy Efficiency Investment Project Development for Climate

Change Mitigation is also known as_________.

__________________4. UNEP was founded in _____.

__________________5. World Conservation Union superseded IUCN on what year?

__________________6. The Male Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution was
found in Maldives and covers _____.

__________________7. _____ provides guidelines for water pollution control from industrial
sources.

__________________8. Department of Environmental and Natural Resources Administrative

Order (DAO) No. 34 is about the improvement ______.

__________________9. Epidemiologic study differs with health risk assessment in ________.

__________________10. This agency particularly monitors the Laguna Lake.

II. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter that best complete the statement answers the questions.

________1. Aside from the members of G8 Ministers, the following countries are also included
in the summit except:
a. South Korea
b. Egypt
c. North Korea
d. China

_______2. This happens when a scientists determine the amount of dose a person was exposed to
a particular chemical:
a. Response Assessment
b. Exposure Assessment
c. Hazard Identification
d. Risk Characterization

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 95

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

_______3. The following are the responses of the government, NGO and private sectors except
a. emission standards
b. Fossil fuels
c. motor vehicle emission testing
d. anti-smoke belching

_______4. What is the purpose of RA 8749?

a. Prevent rather than control air pollution
b. Formulate Air pollution Act
c. Utilize sustainable development
d. All of the above

_______5. Climate Change Act of 2009

a. RA 8749
b. RA 7942
c. RA 9275
d. RA 9729

_______6. The establishment of a National Research and Development Program:

a. RA 8749
b. RA 7942
c. RA 9275
d. RA 9729

_______7. Part of water quality monitoring:

a. total coliform bacteria
b. temperature
c. turbidity
d. all of the above

_______8. Which of the following is a major requirement before vehicles can actually be
registered?
a. Installing an auto meter square gauge
b. Obtaining an insurance certificate
c. Passing an emission test
d. Switching to alternative fuels

_______9. Which of the following parameters indicate the acidity and alkalinity of water?
a. pH
b. Biological oxygen demand
c. Turbidity
d. Dissolved oxygen

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 96

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

______10. Which of the following government agencies is responsible for water quality
monitoring and the development of standards for drinking water?
a. Department of Environment and Natural Resources
b. Department of Health
c. Laguna Lake Development Authority
d. Manila Waterworks and Sewage System

II. Write A if the statement is TRUE and write B if the statement is FALSE.

____________1. ECOSOC is a regional agency of UN assesses and monitors member countries’

efforts to reduce pollution levels and manage natural resources.

____________2. UNEP was founded in 1972 and is the designated authority on environmental
issues on atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems

____________3. IUCN is the world’s largest conservation association which unites 82 states,
111 government agencies, more than 800 NGO’s etc.

____________4. Republic Act 8749 is about the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004.

____________5. One of the sources of air pollution is from mobile sources which are from
facilities that did not pass the standard emission test.

____________6. Presidential Decree 984 of the Sanitation Code of the Philippines covers solid
and water wastes disposal.

____________7. Smoking is banned in Makati since 2003 in compliance with the Clean Air Act.

____________8. DPWH supplies water to Metro Manila.

____________9. Epidemiology deals with concerns pertaining to toxic substances.

___________10. Motor vehicles that do not pass emission testing are examples of stationary
sources.

III. Restricted essay: Answer the following items briefly:

1. What agencies in the Philippines monitors air quality? Why do they have to monitor it?

2. Why is the international Collaboration in the Assessing and Monitoring the Environment
established?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 97

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Module 15
International Collaboration in Assessing and
Monitoring the Environment

Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should able to:

1. Appreciate the value of and international collaboration in assessing and monitoring the
environment.

Introduction

“Science is a collaborative effort. The combined result of several people working together is
often much more effective than could be that of an individual scientist working alone.”
United Nations (UN)

The UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-

WCMC) is an executive agency of UN Environment Programme, based in Cambridge in the
United Kingdom. UNEP-WCMC has been part of UN Environment Programme since 2000, and
has responsibility for biodiversity assessment and support to policy development and
implementation.[1] The World Conservation Monitoring Centre was previously an independent
organisation jointly managed by IUCN, UN Environment Programme and WWF established in
1988, and prior to that the Centre was a part of the IUCN Secretariat.

The occurrence of natural and socially driven catastrophic events has increased in the last
few decades in response to global environmental changes. One of the most societally relevant
challenges in managing the effects of these events is the establishment of risk management
strategies that focus on managing vulnerability, particularly in disfavored countries, and
communities among them. Most cases of enhanced vulnerability occur in, but are not limited to,
developing countries, where the combination of social inequity, inappropriate use of natural
resources, population displacement, and institutional mistrust, among other factors, make risk
management particularly challenging.

Environmental risks will be an area of increasing concern in the future. The main drivers
are not only environmental processes per se, but also the socio-economic systems which interact
with environmental processes. A successful management of environmental risks needs to be
based on integral development planning.

Functions:

1. Maintain international peace and unity.

2. Develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and
self determination of people.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 98

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

3. Cooperate in solving international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems and
in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
4. Be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these ends
Main bodies of the UN that focus on environmental issues:

 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – the council is the central forum in
discussing social and economic issues, and in formulating policy recommendations in
uplifting human conditions, promoting higher standards of living, and identifying
solution to international economic, social, and health problems.
 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) – focuses on economic
cooperation and integration, energy, environment , housing and land management,
population, statistics, timber , trade and transport.
 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) – it reviews the global environment,
coordinates the development of environment policy, and brings emerging issues to the
attention of governments and the international community for actions.
Projects, declarations, and agreements on the protection of the environment:

 United Nations Millenium Declaration – it fortifies the commitment of the organization

in solving various global issues including the protection of the environment.

 Kyoto Protocol – an international agreement on climate change. The agreement sets

target to 37 industrialized countries and the European community in the reduction of
greenhouse gases emissions.

 Energy Efficiency 21 Project (Energy Efficiency Investment Project Development for

Climate Change Mitigation) – a region-wide project which aims to assists economies in
transition to develop and promote sustainable energy policies, pursue energy efficiency
strategies, reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

 Agenda 21 (Rio Declaration on Environment and Development) – a comprehensive

plan of action to human health conditions, human settlement, managing the ecosystems
and biodiversity, promoting education, and sustainable development.

 Madrid Protocol (The Protocol on Environment Protection to the Antarctic Treaty) – a

treaty that was agreed on 1991 to protect Antarctica for 50 years from commercial mining
and exploration activities, other than scientific research.

 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Depletes the Ozone Layer – the treaty is designed
to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances
believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The ozone layer is expected to recover
from HCFC’s, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform by the year 2050.

G8 or Group of 8 Summit

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 99

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

1. An annual summit meeting that brings together heads of government of rich and emerging
countries to discuss issues of mutual or global concern.

2. Aims to seal an international pact for curbing greenhouses gases.

Member countries:

 Britain
 Canada
 France
 Germany
 Italy
 Japan
 Russia
 United States

ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

1. Established on August 8, 1967 with the aim of accelerating economic growth, social progress,
and cultural development in Southeast Asia.
2. Intends to promote regional peace and stability with adherence to principles of the United
Nation chapter.

Member countries:

 Indonesia
 Malaysia
 Singapore
 Thailand
 Brunei Darussalam
 Vietnam
 Lao People Democratic Republic (Laos)
 Myanmar
 Cambodia

Ten priority area:

1. Global environment issues

2. Land and forest fires and transboundary haze pollution
3. Coastal and marine environment
4. Sustainable forest management
5. Sustainable management of natural parks and protected areas
6. Freshwater resources
7. Public awareness and environmental education
8. Promotion of environmentally sound technologies and cleaner production

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 100

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

9 Urban environmental management and governance

10. Sustainable development, monitoring and reporting/database harmonization

ASEAN vision for 2020:

“a clean and green ASEAN with fully established mechanisms for sustainable
development to ensure the protection of the region’s environment, the sustainability of its natural
resources and the high quality of life of its people.”

Six working groups:

 ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity

 ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment
 ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreement
 ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable Cities
 ASEAN Working Group on Water Resources Management
 ASEAN Working Group on Environmental Education
South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP)

 An international organization composed of the governments of South Asia to promote

and support protection, management, and enhancements of the environment in the region.
 Member countries include: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan, and Sri Lanka
 The organization has implemented a number of programs and projects concerning
environment education, environmental legislation, biodiversity, air pollution, and the
protection and management of the coastal environment.
The Male Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution

 The only environmental agreement formed in Male, Maldives in April 1998 covering the
South Asian countries.
Major activities under the agreement:

 Base line study on air pollution and its transboundary effects on each member country.
 Compilation of expert’s database.
 Database on air pollution.
 Action plan to combat air pollution.
 Equipment and information for quantitative monitoring.
 Monitoring and reporting.
 Policy recommendation for the prevention of air pollution

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 101

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

The world’s largest and most important conservation association that aims to influence and assist
societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that
any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable.

The IUCN has six Commissions that unite 10,000 volunteer workers to assess the state of the
world’s natural resources and give the Union advice on policies concerning issues on
conservation:

 Species Survival Commission

 World Commission on Protected Areas
 Commission on Environmental Law
 Commission on Education and Communication
 Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy
 Commission on Ecosystem Management
IUCN key products and services:

 IUCN categories for Protected Area Management

 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
The Conservation on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)

 An international agreement to which States must adhere voluntarily that provide control
structure on the trade of animal and plants and wildlife products.
Laws that adopted the provisions of CITES:

 Kenyan Wildlife (Conservation and Management) Act is one of the laws that adopted
the provisions of CITES by banning all game animal hunting and revoking all licenses to
trade in wildlife products since 1977.
 Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Act of 1975 also adopted provisions of CITES by
requiring individuals to obtain a permit in collecting a protected indigenous plant and or
parts thereof for export cultivation and propagation, and for scientific purposes.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 102

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Apply What You Have Learned

After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions.
Be as specific as you can be.

Activity 15: Assessing and Monitoring the Environment

1. What is the future of sustainable development?

2. How do we achieve sustainable development?

3. Why is sustainable development important for the future?

4. What is science and technology for sustainable future?

5. What are the challenges of sustainable development?

6. What benefits will sustainable development serve for society?

7. What are the aims of sustainable development?

8. How science will help us in future?

9. What is the role of technology in sustainable development?

10. Can we live without science?

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 103

 City College of Angeles
Brgy.Pampang, Angeles City, Philippines

Self –Test 15

Portfolio is a documentation of learning. It is a purposeful collection of a student’s work

that exhibits his or her learning efforts or achievements in one or more areas. It is a new
approach of evaluating student learning.

1. Cover Page – may contain the title of the course/subject, name of the student, year and
section, the semester and year when the course is taken, and the name of the faculty and
the school.

2. Course Syllabus – this section provide listing of the content of the subject where these
are located.

3. Student’s Profile – a short biography of the student shall be included in this section. It
will also include the student’s view or interest.

4. Statement of Purpose – this section shall clearly state the purpose/s of the portfolio. It
will express the student’s intention for making the portfolio. This guides the guide in
making his/her portfolio.

5. Portfolio Entries – shall be contain entries of evidences ( learners outputs, narratives,

reports, photo essays, drawings, pictures, articles, film review, research, letters, etc.). The
organization may be sequential, categorical or thematic. Presentation of entries will
depend on the creativity of the student.

6. Personal Reflection – this section captures the overall insights, feelings, beliefs, and
views of the student in relation to the different experiences, processes, and portfolio
contents.

7. Rubric for the Portfolio – this will basis for evaluating the process and the product in
the portfolio. Criteria:

Visual Appeal – 20%

Organization – 20%
Content – 30%
Reflection – 30%.

Modular Text in Environmental Science Page 104