MODULE - I

RESEARCH DESIGN
Concept and Importance of Research
‘Research’ simply means search for knowledge. It is a careful investigation or
enquiry to bring out something new for the enrichment of knowledge. It is
systematic enquiry or investigation in a subject. It aims to discover new facts or
revise the known facts or put the facts into theories. Historical research means
search for new historical facts. The Historical research constitute the following
three important objectives.
i) Addition of new data.
ii) New interpretation of known data.
iii) Subordination of data to a principle.
The research in History means a researcher simply adds some new information,
some new facts or ideas. His intensive search, inquiry and investigation brings
to light something new that was not known before. Since the 19 th century
ancient Indian History offered rich scope for research in this direction. They
discovered unknown history of the past which thrilled the scholars of Indian
History. Sir John Marshall and a host of other sincere scholars find out a great
civilization on the banks of the river Indus. The first category of research
involves a keen perception of what is wanting, what is known and what is
remains to be known, and then bringing out to light what had remained
unknown.
The second type of research is little more difficult. It involves interpretation,
elaboration, explanation, evaluation and critical examination of known facts.
Here the physical search for new data is not as important. But strict scrutiny of
the data is important, much of our history was written by foreigners in foreign
language, from foreign view points to serve foreign interests. So it is the duty
of the researchers to remove such misconceptions, and they do it through
interpretative history.
The third category of research is the most difficult one. It would elevate a
scholar to the dignity of a meta-historian. Here the researcher synthesizes all
his knowledge to come out with theory in order to explain a fundamental
principle. He analyses all the facts and to study “why and how” historical
forces behave in a particular manner. Years of analysis would be required to
come up to the level of a theory. Hegel, Marx, Comte, Toynbee etc. explained a
known fact in a different way. They would be immersed in a world of his own
theories in order to reveal the limitless knowledge. They revealed the product of
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original research which may be controversial. But no one can be denying their
research facts.
Features of a Good Research Design
According to Selltiz, “Research design is the catalogue of various phases and
facts relating to the formation of a research effort. It is just like that of a blue
print of the house construction. It represents systematic methodology in
collecting accurate information. It is different from hypothesis. Hypothesis is
tentative but research design is specific. It is comprehensive too. Hypothesis is
an aspect of research design. After selecting a research problem, we have to
workout a plan or research design. This research plan or research design
contain some concepts like research problem, aims and objectives, materials to
be collected, a report for further consultation, techniques for processing the
data, method to be adopted for writing etc.
A research design is benefit to the scholar in the following reasons;
1 The ideas are arranged in a systematic order or plan.
2 It furnishes a conceptual frame work for doing research.
3 We can analyses the research problem through the discussion with the
research supervisor and experts. (experience survey).
4 The scholar cum easily find a relevant theory for solving the research
problem.
A research design is considered as high standard when following conditions are
provided for: -
1 Objectivity: - Collection of data should be authentic and true.
2 Reliability: - When the records give different versions, reliability is in doubt.
Therefore, provision for cross checking the data is important.
3 Validity: - Proper checking of research design is important to ensure its
claims.
4 Generalization: - Generalizations are applicable in the conclusion part. This is
based up on several instances.
The research design is presented in the following order;
1 Title of the project: - It should be precise, brief and emphasis the scope of
study.

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2 Purpose of the study:- It means the relevance and importance of the study.
Also reveal the reason for selecting the particular topic/theme.
3 Review of the previous studies: - It is intended to acquaint himself with the
areas covered by earlier studies.
4 Statement of the problem: - It should be a brief account of the research topic.
5 Formulation of hypothesis: - It is tentative (temporary) solution to the research
problem.
6 Data collection: - It include review of sources, reliability of the sources and
procedure for the collection of data from the sources.
7 Interpretation: - This is to provide interpretation of the historical findings. It
contributes something significant to the enrichment of historical knowledge.
The above said order of research design made it more functional viable.
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INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH
Inductive research simply means general to the specific and deductive means
specific to the general.
Inductive research is a method in which the researcher collects and analyses
data to develop theories, concepts or hypothesis. It uses a ‘bottom-up’ method.
The research starts with specific observations and them moves on to more
general theories or ideas. Inductive research is often used not much research
has been done on a topic before.
The following are the three steps of inductive research process;
1 Observation: It means to make detailed observations of the studied
phenomenon. It can be done through surveys, interviews, or direct observations
etc.
2 Pattern Recognition: It means to look at the data in detail. That is looking at
the data for patterns, themes and relationships.
3 Theory Development: At this stage, the researcher starts to create concepts
based on the themes from the data analysis. That is, putting the data into groups
based on their similarities.
DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH

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The deductive research is a type of research. The researcher starts with a
theory, hypothesis or generalization. It can test through observations and data
collection.
It uses a top-down method. The researcher starts with a general idea. It can test
with specific observation. It often used to confirm a theory or a hypothesis.
STAGES OF DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
1 Formulation of a hypothesis: - The first steps is to develop a hypothesis. It
guesses how variables are related.
2 Design of a research study: - The second step is to design the research study.
This means choosing a research method, how to collect data, test the hypothesis
etc.
3 Collecting data: - Different methods such as surveys, experiments,
observations etc. can be used to collect data.
4 Analysis of the data: - In this step, the collected data are verified whether it
support the hypothesis or not.
5 Drawing conclusions: - The last step is drawing conclusions from the
analyzed data. The data is supported the hypothesis, it can be used to make
conclusion. If the hypothesis is wrong, the researcher needs to develop a new
hypothesis.
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TYPES OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Based on the approach and purpose, historical researches can be classified into
four categories (1) Historical events research (2) Historical process research
(3) Cross-sectional comparative research and (4) Comparative historical
research
(1)Historical events research:- It means that the historians examine the content
of the past events. In the broader sense, history means knowing the past with a
view to understanding the present.
(2)Historical process research:- It includes topic selection, source material
collection ,data analysis and synthesis of the historical problem.
(3)Cross-sectional comparative research:- It is also called prevalence studies.
Two or more social settings or groups are comparing at one particular point in
time. They are also used to document comparisons among the various attributes
of a group.

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(4)Comparative historical research:- It examines historical events in order to
create explanations. It may be direct comparison to other historical events.
Some other types of historical research are the following;
(1)Descriptive Research:- Descriptive research describes and interprets the
historical events. It explains the content of the research. Descriptive research
identifying various characteristics of research problems. It also describes the
characteristics of an existing phenomenon. It provides abroad picture of a
phenomenon or a historical event. Current employment rate, census, number of
single parents working etc. are the examples of descriptive research.
(2) Qualitative Research: - This method examines human behavior in the social,
cultural and political contexts in which they occur. It can be done through
interviews, historical methods, case studies etc.
Qualitative research is a new to the social and behavioral sciences. Some
scientists feel that, the traditional experimental method is too narrow. But the
qualitative research allows to answer a whole new set of questions in a new
way.
Qualitative research is the interpretative study of a specific problem. It is a
naturalistic enquiry. It yields data in the form of words than numbers. It
provides rich description and explanation of events in chronological order.
Qualitative data come from a variety of sources and variety of forms. It can be
obtained through case studies, interviews, participant observation etc.
(3) Analytical Research: - It is a comprehensive methodology for the analysis of
historical events. It is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking
and evaluation of facts and information. The researchers use analytical research
to find out the most relevant information. The researchers use analytical
research to find out the most relevant information. The goal of analytical
research is to develop ‘new ideas’ that are more believable. It is valuable to
many people including students, psychologists, marketers etc.
“The researcher uses facts or information already available. Then analyses
these data to make a critical evaluation of the data”. That is analytical research.
(4) Quantitative Research: - It is a systematic investigation of phenomena by
gathering quantity of data. Then perform statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques. It collects information from existing customers using
sampling methods-online surveys, online polls, questionnaire etc.

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One of the features of this type of research is that, its result will be numerical
form. After a careful understanding of these numbers, it is possible to predict
the future of a product and make changes accordingly.
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BASIC FORMS OF HISTORICAL WRITINGS
There are different forms of Historical writings like book reviews, journals,
journal article reviews, conference literature, dissertation or thesis works etc.
These are the important information for the historian to analyses his historical
problem.
i)Report books: - Monographs are important source of information in
humanities. Biographies, autobiographies etc. illustrate a specific trend of
thinking and method of interpretation.
ii)Book reviews: - A great deal of information is published in news papers and
magazines in the form of critical reviews. It gives us minute coverage of the
current issues. These are valuable source of information about current trends in
the world. News papers are useful source of information in its content.
iii)Journals: - Research in History also published in journals in the form of
articles or papers. Journals are often described as periodicals in the libraries.
Some journals published as regular intervals which are numbered in successive
parts. It deals with particular topics or research details. The scholarly journals
and magazines are highly reliable and readable. It frequently publishes new
information and are used by libraries as the sources of latest information.
iv)Journal article reviews: - Critical reviews of articles are published in
newspapers, magazines and journals. These critical reviews are useful as
valuable source of information.
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HOW TO WRITE A RESEARRCH PAPER
A research paper is written on the basis of the collected data. “No document no
History” is the dictum. Modern historiography requires new historical methods
to establish accuracy in History. Selection of topic, data collection, analysis,
synthesis and exposition are the important duties of the researcher. The
beginning researcher is ignorant of methodology as to how thesis is to be
written. It is the duty of the supervisor to train him in the art of writing history.
In the research paper he links and interconnects the facts and thoughts.

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i)The Theme: - The researcher has to find out every minute aspects of the topic
which he is to be research.
ii)Organization: - The Research paper can be organized in the following
manner;
(1) Introduction (2) Historical background of the topic (3) Origin and growth
of the system/topic (4) Functions and duties (5) Degeneration of the
system (6) Decline of the system (7) Conclusion.
iii)Writing the text: - After analyzing the collected data, the researcher has to
prepare rough draft. He has to develop critical thinking, avoid repetitions and
add new dimensions etc. He has to transform the facts in to thesis form. He can
modify if needed. The thesis or paper should be ornamented with good
language and references.
After the preparation of first draft, it is necessary to revise and to rewrite the
thesis which make worthy. Unity, continuity and coherence from the beginning
to the end are necessary. It can be realized only by revising and rewriting.
iv)Word processing: - It means the use of a computer to create, store and point a
piece of text usually types in from a key board. A word processor enables you
to create a document, store and to take print out of the document. Its advantage
is that, we can make changes without retyping the entire document.
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PROJECT REPORT OR DISSERTATION OR THESIS
The dissertation or the thesis has the following important aspects;
(1) Title Page (Cover Page): - It indicate title of the research, name of the
researcher, institutional information etc.
(2) Introduction: - It include a brief background of the research topic. The
researcher will present a hypothesis that attempt to answer the key question.
Also, the introduction should summarize the state of key question following the
completion of the research.
(3) Literature Review: - The research will provide relevant readings from
previous works. It typically includes the names of the authors, title of works,
publication place of publication, year of publication, page numbers etc.
(4) Methodology: - It simply means the relevant historical method which the
researcher applies for his study. It may be historical descriptive or survey
method or comparative or combined method etc.

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(5) Data Analysis: - Qualitative data analysis (SWOT analysis- Strength,
Weakness, Opportunities and Threats) is important in historical research.
(6) Results: - It means the actual results of the analysis that has made based on
chosen methodology.
(7) Discussion: - The results of the study, interpretations, evaluation etc. are to
be discussed in detail. If there any anomality’s found, the researcher will point
them out.
(8) Conclusion: - A brief account of the research findings included in the
conclusion part.
(9) Reference Page: - This section provides a list of each author and their
works cited in the research report. Any fact or idea or quotation used in the
report should be cited and referenced.
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WHAT ARE THE STEPS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH?
The essential steps involved in conducting Historical Research are the
following;
i)Identification of research topic;
ii) Search for source materials;
iii)Evaluation of Historical sources;
iv)Analyses and interpret the data;
v)Write the Research Report.
IDENTIFICATION OF HISTORICAL PROBLEM: - “Historical problem
simply means a researcher experience difficulty, either a theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same”. Historical research is the
systematic method of discovering new and old facts. It provides authentic
information to the people that are scientifically proven. In fact, formulation of a
problem is often essential from a solution. It is only on the careful dealing of
the research problem. Scientific method is an attempt to study the cause and
consequences of the problem.
LITERATURE REVIEW: - A literature review is a comprehensive summary of
previous research on a topic. It includes scholarly articles, books and other
relevant sources to a particular area of research. It provides background
information.

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The following are the important types of literature review;
i)Argumentative Review: - It examine the literature selectively in order to
support an argument.
ii)Integrative Review: - The reviewed books, critiques and synthesis are
integrated in a systematic and new frame works and perspectives on the topic.
iii)Historical review: - It focus on examining research throughout a period of
time. It often starts with an issue, concept, theory, phenomena etc. emerged in
the literature.
iv)Methodological Review: - It provides a frame work of understanding at
different levels.
v)Systematic Review: - It is an overview of existing evidence which reveals
major research questions. It focuses on s very specified empirical questions. It
primarily applied to examining in clinical medicine, health fields etc.
vi)Theoretical Review: - It examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated
in regard to an issue or concept. It helps to understand what theories already
exist. And also help to develop new theories or appropriate theories.
MAKING HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a description of a pattern in nature. It is an explanation about
some real-world phenomenon. It can b tested through observation and
experimentation. It is tentative and testable. A hypothesis can be formulated in
various research designs.
Working hypothesis is a preliminary researchers’ assumptions on the research
topic. It guides the researcher in the investigation off a research problem.
MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or
more variables. “A hypothesis is a specific testable prediction about what an
expect to happen in your study. According to Coffey,” hypothesis is an attempt
at explanation, a provisional supposition made in order to explain scientifically
some fact or phenomenon”. Through hypothesis, facts are organized in a
systematic manner. It found in the form of a conclusion. It can be compared
with known facts.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
A good hypothesis must be based on a good research question. It should have
the following characteristics;

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 (1) Hypothesis should be simple: -A simple hypothesis contains one
predictor and one outcome variable. A complex hypothesis contains
more than one outcome variables.
(2) Hypothesis should be specific: - A good hypothesis should be specifying
the subject matter.
(3) Hypothesis should be stated in advance: - The hypothesis should be
prepared during the time of research proposal.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
I)Null Hypothesis: - The null hypothesis states that, there is no association
between the predictor and outcome variables. It is the formal basis for testing
statistical analysis. It also proves that, there is no relationship between the two
groups that the researcher compares on certain variables.
ii)The Alternative Hypothesis: - It is a statement used in statistical inference
(the process of drawing conclusions based on evidence and reasoning)
experiment. It is contradictory to the null hypothesis. It is a statement which a
researcher is testing.
iii)One and two tailed alternative hypothesis: - One tailed or one-sided
hypothesis specifies the direction of the association between the predictor and
outcome variables.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis testing is a type of statistical analysis in which you put your
assumptions about a population parameter to the test. It is used to estimate the
relationship between two statistical variables.
DRAFTING SYNOPSIS
The word synopsis is derived from the Greek word “synopses Thai”. It means,
“a comprehensive view”. A novel synopsis includes a brief summary of main
topic and sub-topics. It is an overview of the main theme or subject. A good
synopsis is single spaced and typed with words between 500 and 700 in
numbers.
A synopsis is a tool for the writing process. It has three objectives;
i)It helps to verbalize the idea which make more concrete.
ii)It is a tool for thinking the subject.
iii)It helps the researcher to focus and structure the paper.

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The research synopsis is the plan for the research. It includes rational
approach , research objectives, proposed methods for data collection and
preparation of questionnaire, interview methods etc.
The following are the important methods of social science research;
(1) Selecting a topic (2) Defining the problem (3) Reviewing the literature (4)
Formulating a hypothesis (5) choosing a research method (6) Collecting the data
(7) Analyzing the results (8) Sharing the results.
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PRELIMINARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Preliminary Bibliography is an outline of the sources that might use to compose
the arguments. It is a list of resources that could be possibly use to write the
thesis.
A Bibliography is an alphabetical list of sources used in the thesis. It gives the
researcher the opportunity to consult your sources of information. The list is
found at the end of the thesis.
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MODULE – II
SEARCHING FOR HISTORICAL SOURCES
1. Define Historical facts
The Oxford Shorter English Dictionary defines ‘facts ‘ as “a datum ( datum means
piece of information) of experience as distinct from conclusions”. E.H.Carr says that,
“history consists of a corpus of ascertained facts. Facts are available to the historian in
documents, inscriptions and so on, According to S.P.Scott, “ facts are sacred, opinion is
free”.E.H.Carr correctly says that, all facts are not historical facts; there are certain basic facts
which are same for all historians and which form the backbone of history. The historian must
not get wrong information. According to Housman, “accuracy is a duty and not a virtue”. It is
the duty of the historian to collect correct facts or information. The historian should not be
confused about the accuracy of facts. Archaeology, epigraphy numismatics, chronology and
other documents must be used to test the accuracy of facts.

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 Selection of facts and arrangement of facts and arrangement of facts at the appropriate
place is a necessity. It is the duty of the historian to transform a mere fact into a fact of
history.
2. Sources of Historical Facts
History is the record of the past events. But the historians can not have direct
knowledge of the past events. So they usually depend on relies
Nature of sources :- Sources are the historian’s raw materials,. The remains which
the past leaves behind for the posterity to examine are called sources. The historical
sources are the remains of man’s unique activities in a society.
The sources of history may be classified into (1) material sources (2) immaterial
sources and (3) written sources.
(1) Material Sources :- It means the material remains of the past.
Monuments ,furniture, pictures, tools, utensils, weapons, coins, and all one
objects are material sources.
(2) Immaterial Sources :- The custom of the people, religious cults,
doctrines, ethical principles ,traditions, legends, superstitions etc are the
immaterial sources.
(3) Written Sources :- It result from the medium of language. It may be
written books or print form. The written sources are called documents.
The historian is mainly concerned with written sources.
I. Primary sources
Generally, historical sources are divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. A
primary source is a testimony of a witness or a mechanical device like archaeological
remains, inscriptions coins, travel accounts etc.
Primary data is information collected through original of first hand research. Eg; Surveys,
group discussions, experiments, interviews, questionnaires etc
The primary sources can be classified into the following categories;
1 . Contemporary Records It is in the form of instructional documents, stenographic and
phonographic records etc contemporary sources refer to new information.
2 .Confidential Reports These type of reports are generally in the form of military and
diplomatic matters, personal letters etc. It will be secret and important document .
3. Public reports The public reports are meant for general public. News papers, memories
and autobiographies are the example.
4. Government Documents Government documents provides first hand information. Court
cases, rules and regulations, other government documents etc are important.
5. Public opinion It may be influenced by public relations and the political media.

Archaeological sources

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Archaeology is closely associated with excavations and surveying. The goal of archaeology is
to explain the origin and development of human culture. Archaeological sources include old
buildings, houses, pottery, seals, coins, monuments, writings and painting, tools, jewellery,
bones, pieces of metals, and other artefacts. There are four types of archaeological sources-
inscriptions, monuments, artefacts and coins.
Epigraphy
The word epigraphy is derived from two Greek words- “epi and graphic”. Epi means ‘on or
up on’ and graphic means ‘to write’. Hence epigraphy is the study of writings engraved on
stones, metal or other materials like wood, shell etc. It is known as ‘inscriptions. A person
who engaged in the decipherment of epigraphs is called an ‘Epigraphists’.
Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. Systematic study of inscriptions began in India
during the British rule. The Archaeological Survey of India find out more than one lakh
inscriptions in India. It is one of the most important source of understanding the ancient
Indian History and culture.
Numismatics
The scientific study of coins is called numismatics. It is the study of coins and other currency
units. The Numismatists study the physical propertied, production technology, its historical
significance etc. They study the commodity value of coins.
Numismatics materials are important in analysing the economic history of a society. It reveal
the history of coinage, change in the weight system, introduction of different metals into
circulation etc.
Archival Studies
Archival studies or Archival science is the study of archival materials or the original sources.
It is the collection of records and data storage devices. The archives should keep, store,
preserve the past documents and it catalogue the materials. The archival materials are
trustworthy and not intended to change. Hence the Archivists are responsible to ensure the
reliability, integrity and usability of the materials. ‘An Archive Curator’ is called an
‘Archivist’. Primary documents are keeping in the archives. It consists of older data and
retained for future references. Archives are important sources for answering our questions
about the past.
Online Archives
An online archive also called an archive mail box. We can purchase or download the books
and documents from online archives. It is very similar to a physical archives. Digital archives
created with a goal of preserving historical objects.
II SECONDARY SOURCES
The secondary sources include books, personal memoirs, journals, some of the government
published records, reports etc. It is readily available compared to that of primary data.
Literature

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Literature consists of published or unpublished books and accounts. Literature often use
language differently than ordinary language. It will be scholarly articles, peer reviewed
journals, conferences, proceedings, dissertations and theses.
Folklore
Folklore mainly consists of traditional believes. Stories, customs, legends which transmitted
orally. It reveal the stories of legendary heroes. The folklore and proverbs are closely related
to the custom of the people.
The word folklore is the combination of the words ‘folk and lore’. Folk means
community of people. Lore means ‘learning or knowledge’. It reflects culture, believes,
customs, attitudes etc.
Oral History
Oral History is a sound which record the historical information. It may be obtained through
an interview.
Oral history record helps the listeners better understanding. Creating an oral history, requires
two people. One who ask questions and other who narrates the responses to the questions.
The oral history has two strengths- 1. Subjectivity which allows to ask more questions. 2. The
partnership of co creation. It helps the narrator to interpret and analyse their personal
experiences.
Local History
Local History is the study of geographically local contexts. It incorporates cultural and social
aspects. It often documented by local historical societies or groups. It closely associated with
documents and evidences. It is the study of local people and gives ample information.
Micro History
Micro history is a kind of history which focuses on small unit of research. It may explain an
event, community, individual etc. It closely associated with social and cultural history. It
became popular in Italy during 1970’s.
Life History
It is a method of qualitative research. It widely used in Anthropology and Health Science.
Life history explore a person’s micro historical experiences. The materials used for the
reconstruction of life history is personal interviews, video recording, photographs etc. It
developed in Europe and America (1920’s) by W.I Thomas and Florian Znaniecki.
III TERTIARY SOURCES
Books and articles based exclusively on secondary sources ie. On the research of others. They
pull a number of related accounts of a particular event. They also provide a large amount of
information. News papers are the best example of tertiary sources.
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E Sources

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Academic Search Techniques
1, Favorites and bookmarks; It is an easy way to return to a specific webpage without
remember to type in the address .To organize the sites into categories, most browsers offer
tools to create folders .They provide features to export the list of bookmark to another
computer. To access your Bookmarks favorites, you can use my Bookmarks (www. my
bookmarks.com). It is a free internet service that stores your bookmark and favorites online.
Live bookmark; live bookmarks found in the firebox browser. It needs to add the technology
of RSS (Really Simple Syndication). Because the web is constantly changing. With live
bookmarks, the content comes to you. Instead of checking new content, a live bookmark
delivers updates to you, as soon as they become available.
The internet offers mass of information on any topic. There are two main tools to
find information on the web;
● Search engine

● Subject Directory

Search engine is a set of Programmes that search the web for specific words. Popular search
engines include “Google and All Web”.
Subject directory is a structured outline of web sites organized by topics and
subtopics. “Librarian’s Internet Index (www.lii.org) is a subject directory .Google and Yahoo
is the popular search engines
2 Search engines; Search engines have three parts;
a; Spider ; It is a programme which collect data on the web.
b; Indexer programme ; It organizes the data into a large database.
c; Software (search engine software); This software searches the indexed data, pulling out
relevant information according to your search.
Each search engines uses a unique formula to formulate the search. Also search
engines differ as to which sites they search. Search engines such as “Google, Yahoo and the
entire web” have capabilities to search the web for digital images audio and video files. “You
Tube “is one of many sites which contains instructional and informational videos.
iii. Subject Directories; Subject Directory is a guide to the internet organized by topics and
sub topics. Yahoo and Google are the search engines; but has added subject directory feature
also. With a subject directory, no need to use keywords to search the web. Instead select the
main subject and click the sub folder which we needed.
Subject directory searches are ‘great ‘for finding information on general topics.
(Such as sports and hobbies). The librarian’s Internet Index ( www.lii.org) is an academic
directory .
IV. Wikis ; Wiki is a type of web site that allows any one visiting the site to change its
content by adding , removing or editing the content . The popular online encyclopedia –

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Wikipedia ( www.wikipedia.org ) uses wiki technology . Those who want to edit the wiki
required to register. ( ie. They have to get permission from them for revision).

4 Creating a Cyber Presence

The internet is the largest computer network in the world. Actually, it is network of
network. It connects billions of computer users. ‘Communication’ is the main aim of internet
Also majority people using internet for shopping, searching information and browsing for
fun. Also it helps us in the following ways;
1 Instant messaging; It is a programme which enable to communicate with others. Google
and Yahoo , ICQ and MSN are the popular instant messaging services “Zango messenger “
and “messenger city “ are the other instant messaging services . It enables us for chat.
2 Pod casts ;A pod cast is a clip of audio or video content that is broad cast over the
internet .it include radio shows, audio books , magazines and even educational Programmes.
Pod cast can be found all over the web. Most Newspaper, TV News, Radio sites etc
offer pod casts of their Programmes. We can download the programme and we can enjoy
anywhere.
Sites such as iTunes (www.itunes.com ), podcast Alley (www.podcastalley.com)
and podcast net (www.podcast.net) are great directories of podcasts .
Inaddition to computer and internet, we need to install an aggregator (software) and a media
player to listen pod casts.
3 Web logs (BLOGS) and videologs (VLOGS ) ;
Weblogs (B logs ) are personal logs or journal entries that are poster on the
web . It is very simple to create manage and read . Although different types of blogs exist ,
there are some basic similarities ;
1 Blogs are arranged as a listing entries on a single page . Recent blog appear on the top of
the list
2 Blogs are public ; every one who has a web browser and internet can read a blog .
3 Blogs are searchable (making them) user friendly
Many people use blogs as sortof personal scarp book For example ,
www.rottentomatoes.com is a blog site that contains reviews , opinion about movies etc.
We can easily create a blog. Two sites that offer blog hosting are www.blogger.com and
www.livejournal.com .
Video logs Video logs (V logs) are personal journals that use video as the primary content in
addition to text, images and audio. Software such as Vlog it! (www.seriousmagic.com) make
adding video content to your blog easy.

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4 web casts; A web cast is the broad cast of audio or video content over the internet. Web
casts are not updated automatically. Current content must be loaded manually. It enables us
to download and viewing audio and video files.
5 E-mail; (Electronic mail)
It is written message that is sent and received over electronic communication systems.
The message can be formatted and include other files as attachment. It is fast and convenient.
It also reduces the costs of postage and long distance phone calls. With E-mail sender and
Receiver do not have to be available at the same time in order to communicate. Even then, it
is not the most secure from of communication .E-mail should not be used to send important
information such as Banking Numbers Social Security Numbers etc.
Internet connection and an E-mail account is necessary to sent and receive messages.
Today many E-mail messages are exchanged through cell phones.
6 Group communication; There are many ways you can interact with people online. Some
of them are the following;
● Internet Social Network (myspace.com facebook.com)

● Multi player online game services (xbox.com/live worldofwarcraft.com

guildwars.com)

● Chat rooms (icq. com|icqchat) etc.

5 Case Study of Academic Website

1 Sakshat; It is an education initiative backed by the ministry of Human Resource
Development, Government of India. It uses Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) for teaching and learning purpose. Sakshat is a part of national mission on education
using Information and Communication technology. It is designed to provide web-based
learning solutions to the students as well as the teachers. Students can simply log –on to the
website and access the available learning resources. Further more, they also provide
scholarship opportunities to the students.
2 Open access publishing models; Open access publishing models can be described as the
publication and distribution models, in which no money is changed from the users. It is
available on the internet in the form of e-book. e- Journals etc.
Open Access publishing helps it’s to obtain desired information without any financial
constraints. Also good quality free content is always available to the users. (Advertisement is
the main source of funds for such models.)

Academic services
1 INFLIBNET; Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET) is a virtual network of
libraries of different academic institutions. An initiative of the UGC (University Grants
Commission) INFLIBNET was devised to create a large database of inter connected library
and information resources .It is very useful to the learners and the teachers. With

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INFLIBNET, the members have access to a host of bibliographic and non-bibliographic
information resources such as book, journals, academic research reports etc. Further more, it
promotes development of digital content through their portal.
2 NIC NET ; National Informatics Centre Network (NICNET) is a networking
infrastructure . It was built by (NIC) National Information Centre) cater to the networking
requirement of the e-governance applications. It provides a host of other services including
video conferencing, remote, database access, information broad casting etc.
3 BR NET; Bio-Resource Network (BR NET) is a collection of biological information
resources distributed over the internet. An initiative of the Japan Science and Technology
(JST) Corporation, BRNET is basically meant to bring together biological information
resources scattered over different networks.
BRNET categorizes the information resources in such a manner that the end
user can easily search the desired information. It also allows the users to create their own
bio-resource database.
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MODULE – 3
AUTHENTICITY OF DATA
1. Heuristics
Heuristics refers to a problem solving and decision-making approach. It is a simple and
useful method of problem solving, decision making and discovery. The word heuristics
is derived from the Greek word ‘heuriskein’ which means ‘to find out’ or ‘to discover’,
sometimes it also referred to as “mental shortcuts.” One of its functions is to reduce the
complexity of a problem.
Heuristic methods were first developed in philosophy and mathematics to solve complex
problems. It played s crucial role in the researchers’ descriptions of their work.
The following are the important types of heuristic methods based on the sources.
1. Affect :- It emphasises the instant emotions generated in individuals in response to a
stimulus. It may be positive or negative feeling which can influence a decision
making.
2. Anchoring :- In this approach individual make judgement on the basis of first set of
information. It is called ‘anchor’.
3. Availability :- It is a process in which persons recall previous instances and evaluate
their effectiveness in solving problems.
4. Representativeness :- This technique enable to evaluate the solution to a problem.
2. HERMENUETICS
The word hermeneutics is derived from the Greek word ’HERMENEUIN” means ‘to
interpret’. Its noun form hermeneia means ‘interpretation’. In the field of qualitative
research, it used for the interpretation of facts. The depth and type of interpretation,
the object of being interpretation etc have changed throughout history, originally,
hermeneutics emerged as a response to the interpretation of Biblical Scripture.
Hermeneutic research allows interpretation and in depth understanding of the
phenomenon investigated. It emphasises subjective interpretations in the
investigation of the meaning of texts, art, culture, social phenomena and thought.

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 Various approaches and methods of analysis used for each discipline. In fact, it is a
qualitative research strategy.
In recent decades, qualitative research gained much popularity in social sciences also.
The concept of hermeneutics originated in Greece and gained popularity to interpret
Biblical Text. But recently, expended to several areas of research. It represents not
only a philosophy but also a theoretical frame work. It concentrates on three
concepts- i) totality ii) interpretation and iii) language. Although the hermeneutics
contain drawbacks, the researcher must understand the relationship between the
context of subject, language and interview process.
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3. STRUCTURAL LINGUISTIC METHOD

Structuralism simply means the analysis and interpretation of historical phenomena and
changes, in terms of geographical, economical and mental structures and systems.
Structural linguistics or structuralism in linguistics denotes a school of thought in which
language is a dominant factor. It is the scientific study of human language. This approach
really started with the advent of modern linguistics. Structural linguistics was the source
of grammar. It focuses on structures with in language. Structural linguistics developed
during the 20th century by Ferdinand de Saussure ( Swiss Linguist).
The following are the primary characteristics of structural linguistics;
1. Langue and parole: - One of the basic concepts introduced by Ferdinand Saussure is
the distinction between the langue and parole. Langue means ‘structure of language’
Parole means individual speech or use of language.
2. Synchronic and Diachronic Analysis: - Synchronic refers to examining language of
one time. Diachronic means ‘through time approach’. They studies the historical
changes in language through time.
3. Phonemic principle: - It means sound function in language in a related manner.
4. Binary oppositions: - Structuralism often focuses on binary oppositions. Claude Levi
Strauss expanded it op on Structural Anthropology. It simply means pairs of
contrasting teams that have opposing meaning.
5. Arbitrariness of the sign: - The relationship between the sound (word) and the
concept is arbitrary.
6. Structure over meaning: - Structures are seen more stable and reliable compared to
the variables.
7. Relational Nature of Elements: - In structural linguistics the value of element is
determined by its relation to other elements.
8. Descriptive Emphasis: - Structuralism aimed to describe languages.
9. Taxonomies and Hierarchies: - Structural linguists aimed to clarify elements of
language into hierarchies or taxonomies.
10. Emphasis on fieldwork:- American Structural Linguistics emphasis on field work and
direct collection of data from the native speakers. Leonard Bloomfield championed
this approach. It led to the description of many unstudied languages.
The structural linguistics laid the ground work for modern linguistics.
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 4. POST STRUCTURALISM

Post structuralism is an intellectual movement that emerged in philosophy and

humanities in 1960’s and 1970’s. Post structuralism challenged the principle of
structuralism.

Post structuralism developed in philosophy and critical theory. It was the outcome of
the 20th century French philosophy. Post structuralism view culture as inseparable from
meaning. Post structuralism is a body of distinct reaction to structuralism.
Post structuralism is very difficult to define. There are two reason for this difficulty.
1. It rejects definitions that claim to have ‘absolute truth’. 2. Very few people accepted
the concept of post structuralism. It was the invention of American academics and
publishers.
Post structuralism developed in France during 1960’s as a critique of structuralism.
That period marked political anxiety. The students and workers rebelled against the state
which caused nearing the downfall of French government. But the French Communist
Party support the oppressive policies of USSR(Russia). As a result, there was increased
interest in alternative radical philosophes. It includes Feminism, Western Marxism,
phenomenology and Nihilism. Michael Foucault later termed it as ‘subjugated
knowledges. Post structuralism justifying all criticisms. Two key figures of post
structuralism were Jacques Derrida and Roland Barthes. Jacques Derrida presented a
thesis about intellectual life. He developed a concept called ‘decentring of the subject’.
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5. OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY

Objectivity is the experience of the external. Subjectivity is the experience of the

internal. Both these are necessary to knowledge and dependent on each other. To be
objective means not to influenced by personnel feelings or opinion. It is the state of
being objective. Objectivity in historical writing refers to “dispassionate, disinterested
and scientific treatment of all events”. It means unbiased and fair writing. A thesis
should not consist of personal experiences or opinions of the research scholar. Unbiased
scholarly writing is important.
Leopold Van Ranke analysed historical sources critically. He followed the principle
of unbiased research. He wrote his historical accounts with objectivity. He said, the
writings of research scholar must be true, unbiased and scientific.
Critical study of history is not possible without objectivity. Objective history is rational
history. Impartiality is soul and spice of historical writing. Real history is possible only
when it is written objectively. It is a matter of intellectual honesty and moral standard.
History is pursuit of truth. It must be free from passions and prejudices of the present. It
must employ systematic methods for the attainment of objectivity. Objectivity ensures
accuracy, authenticity and acceptability.
History is selective in nature. So, historian must be cautious and careful in handling
historical materials. Objectivity along will save his writings from subjectivity.

SUBJECTIVITY

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 Subjectivity is antithesis to objectivity it exists in the mind of the Historian. It refers to
the preconceived ideas, feelings, opinions etc., of the historian. It favours one side
analysis of a historical problem. Bias is the breeding of subjectivity.
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6. CAUSATION AND GENERALIZATION

The term cause is derived from the Latin word ‘causa’ which means ‘a relation of
connectedness between events’. A cause is that which produces an effect. It can make
something happens. Nothing can happen without a cause. There may be varied causes for an
event. The final cause which determines the purpose. It will be the most decisive and
important.
The causes may be real or unreal. Historical changes may occur as a result of multiple
causes. The following are the important characteristics of causation and change;
1.Great historical events take place because of chain factors. One cause which led to other
cause.
2. The process of change is continuous.

GENERALISATION
Generalisation is a very important logical process. It can weave the fabric of history with
historical facts.
Generalisation is an inductive process in which one goes from the particular to general. It
refers the unknown from the known. The known facts must be numerous to justify the
generalisation. While going from known to unknown there is some risk always involved. But
one or two exceptions need not lesson the validity of generalisation.
Historical generalisations are the statements of general truths. It may not be applicable to
every event. But it has no absolute validity or universal applicability. It cannot claim
validity.
There is a concept that, the historian should gather the data of the past and arrange it in
chronological order. The materials have to be organised on the basis of rational principles.
There are three basic facts of generalisations;
1.Since facts are too many, selection is necessary.
2. Gathered facts have to be arranged and grouped. Analysis is necessary for both data.
3. In any case, we go beyond dates or names, no narration is possible without generalisation.
In short, generalisation serve as the organising principles for his data. It may increase his
ability to grasp reality. Generalisation lead the historian to look new facts and sources. It
also enables historian to establish new connections between old known facts.
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