INTRODUCTION

2
 Objectives

➢ Identify fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry.

➢ Indentify main classes of quantitative analysis.

➢ Apply volumetric calculations.

➢ Identify different concentration terms.

3
 Introduction
Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and
methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter

It can be classified as Qualitative and Quantitative

analysis

➢ Qualitative Analysis
establishes the chemical identity of the species in the
sample.
➢ Quantitative Analysis
determines the relative amount of species or analytes,
in numerical terms.
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 Some Important applications
➢ Quality control: uniformity of products; safety of products;
ingredient specifications.
➢ Monitoring of components in industrial processes.
➢ Research & development for new products: such as
pharmaceutical products and new agricultural active
ingredients
➢ Environmental analysis: quantities of hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide and other
pollutants present in air and many parameters in water are
measured to determine their qualities.
➢ Forensics, biochemical and clinical analysis

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 Classification of Quantitative Methods of Analysis
Quantitative Analysis can be classified into two main
groups; Manual & Instrumental Analysis

Manual (Classical) Analysis: in which we use simple

equipments such as pipettes, burettes, flasks, etc… These can
be further classified into two classes:

➢ Gravimetric Methods: in which, the mass of analyte

or a compound stoichiometrically related to the analyte
is measured.

➢ Volumetric Methods: in which the volume of a

solution containing a substance that reacts
stoichiometrically with the analyte is measured.
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Classification of Quantitative Methods of Analysis (Cont.)
Instrumental Analysis: in which, we use an instrument to measure
a certain physical property proportional to the amount of analyte in
the sample.
These can be classified into different categories according to the
property measured :

➢ Spectral Methods: These are based on the measurement of the

interaction between electromagnetic radiation and analyte atoms or
molecules such as absorption or emission of the radiation.

➢ Electrometric Methods: These are based on measurement of an

electrical property such as potential, current, resistance or quantity of
electricity which can be related to the quantity of analyte.

➢ Miscellaneous methods: These include the measurement of such

quantities as charge ratio, rate of radioactive decay, heat of reaction,
rate of reaction, sample thermal conductivity, optical activity and
refractive index. 7
 Concentration Terms
Concentration is the quantity of analyte (solute) dissolved in a
certain amount of solvent.

It can be expressed in several ways:

➢ Weight concentration: in which the amount of solvent is

expressed in weight; e.g., weight percentage (w/w), parts per
million (ppm or mg/Kg) and molality (m).

➢ Volume concentration: in which the amount of solvent is

expressed in volume; e.g., molarity (M), normality (N), strength
(S), volume percentage (w/v & v/v), and p-function (pH).

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 Molar Concentration (Molarity)

Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute per one

liter of solution.

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 (𝐧)

𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐌) =
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬 (𝐕𝐋 )

➢ Moles of solute (n) = Weight of solute / Molecular weight of solute

➢ Moles of solute (n) = Molarity (M) x Volume (VL)

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 Some Important Correlations

➢ Since,
𝐖 (𝐠) 𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐧= 𝐠 𝐧= 𝐌 𝐱 𝑽(𝑳)
𝐌. 𝐖𝐭. ( ) 𝐋
𝐦𝐨𝐥

➢ Then,
𝐖 (𝐠) 𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐠 =𝐌 𝐱 𝑽(𝑳)
𝐌.𝐖𝐭.( ) 𝐋
𝐦𝐨𝐥

𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐠
𝐖 (𝐠) = 𝐌 × 𝐕 𝐋 × 𝐌. 𝐖𝐭. ( )
𝐋 𝐦𝐨𝐥

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Example :
Calculate the molar concentration of NaOH in an aqueous solution
that contains 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide (40 g/mol) in 2.0 liters.
Weight of NaOH
no. of moles of NaOH =
Molecular weight of NaOH
4.0 g
=
40 (g/mol)
= 0.1 mol
no. of moles of NaOH
concentration of NaOH =
Volume of solution in liters
0.1 mol
=
2.0 L
= 0.05 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
In one step
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒈
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆(𝒈) = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑳 × 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 ( )
𝑳 𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒈
𝟒. 𝟎 (𝒈) = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝟐. 𝟎 𝑳 × 𝟒𝟎 ( ) 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝑳
𝑳 𝒎𝒐𝒍 11
 Exercises

1.1. What mass of Ba(OH)2·8H2O, 315.46 g/mol, would be required to make 500.0 mL of a
solution that is 0.1500 M in hydroxide ions? [11.83 g]

1.2. What volume of 0.416 M Mg(NO3)2 should be added to 255 mL of 0.102 M KNO3 to
produce a solution with a concentration of 0.278 M NO3− ions. [81.0 mL]

1.3. What mass of Ag2CO3 (275.7 g/mol) is formed when 25.0 mL of 0.200 M AgNO3 is
added to 50.0 mL of 0.080 M Na2CO3? What is the analytical concentration of Na2CO3 in
the resulting solution? [0.69 g Ag2CO3, 0.020 M Na2CO3]

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 Normal Concentration (Normality)
Normality (N) is the number of gram equivalents of solute
per liter of solution

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞

𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐍) =
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬 (𝐕𝐋 )

➢ Number of gram equivalents = Normality  Volume

➢ Number of equivalents = Weight of solute / Equivalent weight of solute

➢ Equivalent weight = molecular weight / number of reacting unit (n)

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/
 Normality (cont.)
The number of reacting units (x) depends on the type of reaction as
will be seen later, e.g. ;
➢ For an acid: ''It is the number of replaceable hydrogen in one acid
molecule.''
Ex: HCl (x = 1), H2SO4 (x = 2), H3PO4 (x = 3, if the three hydrogen atoms are
replaceable)

➢ For a base: ''It is the number of hydroxyl groups present in one base
molecule''.
Ex: NaOH (x = 1), Ca(OH)2 (x = 2), Al(OH)3 (x = 3).

➢ For a salt: ''It is no of cations  its valency or no of anions  its valency”

Ex: NaCl (x=1×1), CaCl2 (x=1×2) or (x=2×1), AlCl3 (x = 3 × 1) or (x = 1  3)
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 Normality (cont.)
 If two substances A and B react with each other completely, the number
of g. equivalent of A = the number of g. equivalent of B, i.e.

NA  VA = NB  VB

 N, which is the number of gram equivalents per liter equals the

molarity of the solution times the number of reacting units, x, Where
n is the number of H+ per molecule for acid or the number of OH− per
molecule for alkali, i.e.

N = xM
or , xA  MA  VA = xB  MB  VB

Example: H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O xH2SO4= 2

2  MH2SO4  VH2SO4 = 1  MNaOH  VNaOH xNaOH = 1
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 Molal Concentration (molality)

It is the number of moles of solute contained in 1000 g of solvent,

i.e.; one molal solution contains one mole/1000 g (1 Kg) of solvent.

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 (𝐧)

𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐦) =
𝐖𝐢𝐞𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐊𝐠)

➢ Molal concentrations are temperature independent, unlike

normality and molarity, where change in temperature has an effect
on volume of solution.

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 Percent Concentration
➢ Weight percent (w/w):
mass of solute
weight % (w/w) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
mass of solution
20% (w/w) HCl solution is a solution containing 20 g of HCl per 100 g of solution.

➢ Volume percent (v/v):

volume of solute
volume % (v/v) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
volume of solution
5% (v/v) aqueous solution of methanol is prepared by diluting 5.0 mL of pure methanol
with enough water to give 100 mL solution

➢ Weight/Volume percent (w/v):

mass of solute
weight/volume % (w/v) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
volume of solution
8% (w/v) aqueous silver nitrate solution can be prepared by dissolving 8.0 g pure silver
nitrate in distilled water to give 100 mL solution.
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 Exercises
1.6. A 135−g sample of seawater is evaporated to dryness, leaving 4.73 g of solid residue
(the salts formerly dissolved in the seawater). Calculate the mass percent of solute
present in the original seawater. [3.5%]

1.7. Cow’s milk typically contains 4.5% by mass of lactose, C12H22O11. Calculate the mass
of lactose present in 175 g of milk. [7.88 g lactose]

1.8. If 500 g of water is added to 75 g of 25% NaCl solution, what is the percent by mass
of NaCl in the diluted solution? [3.26%]

1.9. A 10.0 M aqueous solution of NaOH (40.0 g/mol) has a density of

1.33 g/mL at 25 °C. Calculate the mass percent of the NaOH in the solution. [30.1%]

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 Strength

It is the no. of grams of solute per liter of solution

➢ Strength, S, can be calculated as:

S (g/L) = Molarity (mol/L)  Molecular Weight (g/mol)

Or

S (g/L) = Normality (g. equiv./L)Equivalent Weight (g/g. equiv.)

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 Strength

It is the number of grams of solute present in one liter of solution

Molarity x Molecular mass

Normality x Equivalent weight

Strength
10 x percent x density (or specific density)

Weight x 1000/volume

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 part per million and part per billion
➢ For very dilute solutions, parts per million (ppm, mg/L, mg/Kg) is
a convenient way to express concentration.

Mass solute (mg)

C (ppm) =
Volume of solution (L)

➢ For a solution of given strength, for example NaCl solution 3.5 g/L

𝟑.𝟓 𝐠 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐠 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐠 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐠 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭

= = = = =3500 ppm
𝐋 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐋 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐠 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐠 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭

C (ppm) = C (mg/L) = S (g/L) x 1000

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 Exercises
1.11. A 250.0−mL aqueous solution contains 45.1 µg of a pesticide. Express the pesticide’s
concentration in percent (w/v) and in parts per million. [1.8010–5 % w/v, 0.180 ppm]

1.12. A person is medically considered to have lead poisoning if he or she has a concentration
of greater than 10 mg of lead per deciliter of blood. What is this concentration in parts
per billion? Assume that the density of blood is the same as that of water. [1105 ppb]

1.13. What is the molar concentration of K+ in a solution that contains 63.3 ppm of K3Fe(CN)6
(329.3 g/mol)? [5.7710−4 M K+]

1.14. Fluoride ion is added to drinking water at low concentrations to prevent tooth decay.
What mass of sodium fluoride (NaF, 42.0 g/mol) should be added to 750 L of water to
make a solution that is 1.5 ppm in fluoride ion (19.0 g/mol)? [2.5 g NaF]

1.15. Seawater contains an average of 1.08103 ppm of Na+ and 270 ppm of SO42−. Calculate
the molar concentration of Na+ (22.99 g/mol) and SO42− (96 g/mol) given that the
average density of seawater is 1.02 g/mL. [4.7910−2 Na+, 2.8710−3 M SO42−]

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 Concentration of Commercial Acids and Bases
Example
Calculate the molar concentration (molarity) of HNO3 (63 g/mol) in
a solution that has a specific gravity of 1.42 and is 70% HNO3 (w/w).
70% HNO3 (w/w) 70 g HNO3 100 g solution
W 70 g 100 g solution
n= g mol HNO3 mL solution
M. Wt. g
63 mol 1.42 mL
W
V=
d ?? mol HNO3 1000 mL solution

M
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟕𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐌 = = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟕𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎 × 𝐏 × 𝐒𝐩. 𝐆𝐫.
Generally 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐌) =
𝐌𝐖𝐭.
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 p-Functions
p-function or p-value, is the negative logarithm (to the base
10) of the molar concentration of that species

➢ So for a species X,
pX = − log [X]

➢ Example,
H+ concentration pH value
[H+] = 10−3 M pH = −log [H+] = −log MHCl = −log (10−3) = 3

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 Dilution
When a solution is diluted,
solvent is added to lower its
concentration.
Suppose you have
0.500 M sucrose stock
solution. How do you
The amount of solute remains prepare 250 mL of
0.348 M sucrose
constant before and after the solution ?
dilution: Concentratio
n 0.500 M
Sucrose

moles BEFORE = moles AFTER

250 mL of 0.348 M
sucrose
C 1V 1 = C 2 V 2

10/8/2023 25
 Exercises

1.16. Water is added to 25.0 mL of a 0.866 M KNO3 solution until the volume of the solution is
exactly 500 mL. What is the concentration of the final solution? [0.0433 M]

1.17. You make 1.000 L of an aqueous solution that contains 35.0 g of sucrose (C12H22O11,
342.3 g/mol).
a) What is the molarity of sucrose in this solution? [0.1022 M]
b) How many liters of water would you have to add to this solution to reduce the
molarity you calculated in part (a) by a factor of two? [1.000 L]

1.18. You have 505 mL of a 0.125 M HCl solution and you want to dilute it to exactly 0.100 M.
How much water should you add? [126 mL of water]

1.19. A bottle of concentrated aqueous sulfuric acid, labeled 98.0 wt% H2SO4 (98 g/mol), has
a concentration of 18.0 M.
a) How many milliliters of reagent should be diluted to 1.000 L to give 1.00 M H2SO4?
b) Calculate the density of 98.0 wt% H2SO4.
[a) 55.6 mL, b) 1.8 g/mL]

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 Primary standard solution
It is a highly purified compound that serves as a reference
material in all volumetric titrimetric methods.

Properties:
•High purity
•Stable toward air
•Ready available at modest cost
•Ready soluble in the titration medium
•Absence of hydrate water so that the composition of the solid
doesn't change with variations in relative humidity
Have large molecular weight
10/8/2023 27
 Titrimetric Methods of Analysis

Titrant
Principle of titration

A titration is performed by adding

the volume of a standard solution
(a solution of exactly known
concentration) needed to react with a
known quantity of a second substance
to known its concentration.

Analyte
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