The PTC Education Society’s

Shri Seth Murlidharji Mansingka Arts, Science & Commerce College,

Pachora Dist: Jalgaon (MS)

MA-I

DSE-1

ENG-415 (A): Translation Studies-I

Credits: 4 Internal Examination: 40

Total Marks: 100 External Examination: 60

UNIT TOPIC

I Introduction to Translation 15

1.1 Definitions and its nature

1.2 Terms and Concepts in Translation Studies

1.3 Historical Survey of Translation

1.4 Importance of Translation

II Types of Translation 15

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Typology of Translation classified by Casagrande, Savory, Vinay and Darbelnet,

Catford, Jakobson, Nida, Lefevere, House, Newmark, etc.

III Aspects of Translation 15

3.1 Social, Cultural and Political Aspects of Translation

3.2 Problems of Translation

3.3 Limits of Translation

3.4 Role of a Translator

3.5 Untranslatability

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IV Features of Translation 15

4.1 Translation and Transcreation

4.2 Translation and Multilingualism

4.3Translation as inter-lingual communication

4.4Translation and Equivalence

I Introduction to Translation

1.1 Definitions and its nature

Definitions of translation:

• Nida is of opinion that ―translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language

the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of
meaning and secondly in terms of style.
• Bell says that ―translation involves the transfer of meaning from a text in one
language into a text in another language.
• According to Johnson translation involves the process of change of a text from one
language to another language, retaining the sense.
• Catford defines translation as ―the replacement of textual material in one language
(SL) by equivalent material in another language.
• One of the most prominent definitions of translation is stated by Newmark who
defines translation as “rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the
way that the author intended the text”. This definition stresses on rendering meaning
of the source language text into the target language text as what is intended by the
author.
• Hatim and Munday define translation as “the process of transferring a written text
from source language (SL) to target language (TL)”. In this definition they do not
explicitly express that the object being transferred is meaning or message. They
emphasis on translation as a process.
• Nida and Taber, on the other hand, state that “translating consists in reproducing in
the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message”.
This definition is more comprehensive than the previous ones. Nida and Taber
explicitly state that translation is closely related to the problems of languages,
meaning, and equivalence.

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• Nature of Translation:

Translation is rendering text from a source language into a target language while
preserving meaning. Translation is written.

While linguistic and cultural skills are critical, the most important quality a good
translator is the ability to write well in the target language. Skilled translators must have
the ability to understand the source language and the culture of the country where the
text originated, then using a good library of dictionaries and reference materials, to
render that material clearly and accurately into the target language.

Even bilingual individuals can rarely express themselves in each subject equally well
in both languages, and many excellent translators are not fully bilingual to begin with.
Knowing this limitation, a good translator will only translate documents into his or her
native language.

Definition of translation within the field includes three crucial parts: source language,
target language, and transfer of meaning. Simply put, translators transfer the meaning
from the text written in the source language to the target language.

• Meaningtransfer – the message from language A (source language) needs to be

communicated in language B (target language)
• Written text – translation is often confused with interpretation. However, the latter
deals with spoken, not written, language
• Source language – the language being translated from
• Target language – the language being translated into

Translation is an effort of finding equivalent meaning of a text into the second language.
We emphasis meaning equivalence since in translation meaning is the object to be
rendered from the source language text into the target language text. In this case,
translator is faced with a text as units of meaning in the form of sets of words or
sentences. The main question in translation is of meaning which always appears in the
process of translation, not translation as a product of the process. Translating a text from
the source text (ST) must consider the closest natural equivalent meaning. It implies
that the meaning of the target text must be equivalent with that of the source. Meaning
is classified into two kinds, referential meaning, and connotative meaning. A translator
must be aware of which meaning is possibly intended by the author. Besides, it should
also be paid attention on the components embedded in a certain unit of meaning. By
understanding the components of meaning of the source language expressions a
translator can make the best decision related to the components.

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1.2 Terms and Concepts in Translation Studies

• Creativity:
Creativity is often considered as one of the aspects of translation seen as problem-
solving, thus in relation not only to the translation of genres commonly identified
as involving ‘creative writing’ (e.g., fiction and poetry) but also to the translation
of any text that poses some kind of problem to the translator.

• Compensation:
This term indicates the use of a translation technique aimed at making up for the
loss of an ST effect, such as a pun or an alliteration. Two main types of
compensation can be distinguished (cf. Harvey 1995): compensation in kind tries
to re-create the ST effect by strategically using TL linguistic devices (e.g., turning
an ST alliteration into a rhyme in the TL); compensation in place re-produces the
effect in a different part of the text.

• Connotative meaning:
The connotative meaning of a linguistic expression is the emotive, affective,
largely context-independent component of meaning, distinguished from its more
stable, denotative meaning. The word ‘sunset’ refers, denotatively, to the ‘daily
disappearance of the sun behind the horizon’, while connotatively it might be
associated either with romance or with the final stage in a period of time, e.g., in a
person’s life.

• Denotative meaning:
The denotative, or referential, meaning of a linguistic expression is its stable,
abstract meaning independent of the context and situation. It is usually contrasted
with connotative meaning, which is the emotive, subjectively variable component
of meaning. For example, the word night has the denotative meaning of ‘a period
of darkness between sunset and sunrise’ but can also be associated with connotative
meanings relating to scariness or loneliness.

• Competence:
Currently popular term for the set of things that a professional knows (knowledge),
can do (skills), and is able to do while adopting a certain relation to others
(dispositions or attitudes). “Translator competence” would thus be the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes necessary to become a translator. The concept can be reduced
to just two components: declarative knowledge (“knowing that”) and operational
knowledge (“knowing how”). As such, the term “competence” has very little to do
with the way the same term was used in (Chomsky’s) linguistics to indicate a set
of rules that underlie performance.

• Consecutive interpreting:
Oral translation of a speaker’s words into another language when the speaker has
finished speaking or pauses for interpreting. More formal than ad hoc interpreting

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 and used, for example in formal business meetings, for negotiations, training
sessions or lectures.

• Context:
Information outside of the actual text that is essential for complete comprehension.

• Cultural translation:
Term with many different meanings, most of them equally vague and ideological.
The general notion is that translation is not just of texts, but of entire cultural
representations and identities. When an ethnographer describes a tribe, they thus
translate a culture into the language of ethnography; museums offer iconic and
linguistic translations of entire cultures; migrants translate themselves, forming
cultural hybrids, and so on. Our general preference here is for a discipline focused
on communication across different cultures and languages, rather than processes
that occur within just one culture or language.
• Deverbalization:
The term refers to the idea that a translator or interpreter should move away from
the surface structure (the ‘verbal’ expression) of the ST, thus 36 Difficulty arriving
at the intended meaning of the text to be expressed in the target language. It is often
presented as a way of avoiding formal interference of the source language or text.

• Dubbing:
Recording or replacement of voices commonly used in motion pictures and videos
for which the recorded voices do not belong to the original actors or speakers and
are in a different language.

• Equivalence:
Equivalence is the term used to refer to the relationship existing between a
translation and the original text, a relationship that has been observed by scholars
from a wide variety of perspectives. Often presented as a central concern for those
who study translation, equivalence is also perhaps the most problematic and
divisive issue in the field of translation studies.

• Explicitation:
The term refers to the phenomenon whereby a translated text is seen to convey
information in a more explicit form than in the original text, for example by adding
connectives or explanatory phrases.

• Literal translation:
Translation that closely adheres to the wording and construction of the source text.
A literal translation of continuous text usually appears “stilted” and unnatural and
is therefore to be avoided unless there is a specific reason for translating literally.

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• Machine translation (MT):
Translation produced by a computer program or use of a translation program to
translate text without human input in the actual translation process. The quality of
machine-translated text, in terms of terminology, meaning and grammar, varies
depending on the nature and complexity of the source text, but is never good
enough for publication without extensive editing.

• Transliteration:
Transforming text from one script to another, usually based on phonetic
equivalences. For example, Russian text might be transliterated into the Latin script
so that it can be pronounced by English speakers.

• Loss and Gain in Translation:

The translation is said to be a game of loss and gain. Along with the concept of
equivalence is the notion of loss and gain in translation. Implicit in most translation
theories is the assumption that something is lost when you carry a text from one
language into another. There is always the possibility of miscommunication in the
act of communication that is if the receiver goes slightly askew in the decoding,
the chances are that the message will not be carried across correctly. Certain
elements can be added or left out. Robert Frost’s famous definition of poetry is
notable: “Poetry is what gets lost in translation.”

• Free Translation:
Free Translation is translating loosely from the original. Contrasted with word for
word or literal translation, this may be the best method depending on the most
appropriate unit of translation involved. Free translation provides the general
meaning of the original, but it might be far from the exact wording of the original.
It provides great freedom in translating, the most extreme form of it, and should be
avoided by translators unless there is a specific reason for free translation. Different
theorists use different sets of terms to show the emphasis either on the Source Text
or the Target Text.

• Creative Translation:

Creative translation is not only translation but it is a transcreation. A common

misunderstanding is that translation is a very straightforward process with very
little input from the translator. In effect, the translator is merely a conduit through
which one language is transformed into another. However, nothing could be further
from the truth. A skilled translator injects a healthy dose of creativity into their
task. The act of translating and the creative process are virtually inseparable, a fact
that is especially true in literary translations. Creativity is the key by which a skilled
translator deals with some of the most common problems in translating. Often, a
translator will be torn between representing form versus content.

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 Creativity is the thing that can find a harmonious balance between the two, and the
whole process becomes more art than science. In addition, translations should not
be literal. Rather, they need to convey the full meaning of the original text, which
includes cultural context. Some languages have idioms and sayings that do not exist
in other languages. Many of these are based on cultural cues which may not even
exist in the culture of the target language.

• Structural Translation:

Every language has a unique structure attached to it. In its structure, one finds its
range of simplicity and accuracy embedded in its translation. The simpler the
language, the easier it becomes when translating it. For example, a non-complex
sentence in English “They chew food.” This short sentence in this order has a
subject, verb and object; but this is not applicable in other languages like Persian,
Arabic and Farsi. For Persian, it follows a different pattern compared to English.
For Arabic, the language follows the rule of joining the verb and the subject
pronoun.

1.3 Historical Survey of Translation

Most religious books are translated quickly into many languages to spread their ideas
as fast as possible. The Bible is the most translated book in history. we can say that
the first formal translator whose identity and work is known was Saint Jerome, who
translated the Bible from Hebrew & Greek into Latin around 400 A.D. Saint Jerome
is considered the patron saint of translators, librarians, and encyclopaedists.

The Renaissance, a great revolution in the world of translation that evolved thanks
to political, economic, and aesthetic changes, among many others, that influenced
the way of translating.

The Toledo School of translators is the group of scholars who worked together in
the city of Toledo (Spain) during the 12th and 13th centuries. It was considered as
the first centre of multilingual culture and had prior importance as the first school
for translators and main translation centre in Europe.

William Caxton was the first person to introduce a printing press into England in
1476. The printing press gives writing and translation a new boost since, to reach a
greater number of readers, it is necessary to translate.

Everything should be comprehensive comprehensible was the notion in the 17th

century regarding translation. During the Eighteenth Century we find quite a more
rational translation. It is an age that returns to literalism, excluding the problematic
character of interpreting translation.

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 The two World Wars and the birth of large international organizations (the UN,
UNESCO and the EU), what motivates a need for professional translators in 20th
century. The first training centres for translators appeared after World War II.

Translation Studies (TS) has emerged as a much sought after discipline in the present
time. Teachers, scholars, and students from various disciplines have contributed to
its growth. Most of the major universities and institutions around the world also
have established TS departments/centres to promote research in the field. According
to one study, in 1960 there were 49 university-level institutions that offered degrees
in translation and/or interpreting; that number increased to 108 in 1980 and to at
least 250 in 1994. Online translation is simply the future of translation.

1.4 Importance of Translation

Translation enables effective communication between people around the world. It is

a courier for the transmission of knowledge, a protector of cultural heritage, and
essential to the development of a global economy. Highly skilled translators are key.
Translation Studies helps practitioners develop those skills.

• Not Everyone knows English:

Certainly, English is the language most widely used. But that does not mean that you
should forget all the people who do not speak! And England is home to large global-
and minority-speaking minorities.

The influence of local culture and language remains as high as ever, because English
has a vast and wide scope nowadays. With the advancement of Internet and
communications technologies, targeting people thousands of miles away is
increasingly simpler, simply based on successful translation. This in turn culminated
in the need for translation in several fields such as education, mass media, science
and technology, literature, travel, religion, industry, and industry,

• The importance of translation in literature

A girl in Japan can easily enter a library, choose one of Tolstoy’s books and enjoy
the world that he has created. Similarly, someone in Indonesia can find Wordsworth
and get lost in the beauty of the English Lake District. All of this is possible due to
translation. The very existence of world literature stands upon translation.
Classics and masterpieces can be enjoyed by people around the world. But perhaps
it is even more important that translation helps preserve literature. While the
language might not be widespread, translation offers the works a much larger
audience for many years to come.

• The importance of translation in media

At the end of a hard day, we love watching our favourite TV series. Translations got
our backs here, as well. We are not limited to one country’s productions.

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• The importance of translation in journalism
Spreading of information today depends on translation. It allows us to discover
what’s happening in different countries through our own language, thereby staying
informed about the world. Otherwise, we would simply live in an echo chamber,
never confronting any different opinions.
Ignorance is indeed dangerous. But translation opens millions of new sources. It
grants access to a variety of worldviews and allows us to learn expert opinions from
countries and cultures other than our own.

• The importance of translation in education

The availability of so much information of course ties into education as well.
Children can receive richer and more comprehensive knowledge from around the
world, and they can learn to compare and discuss different perspectives.

In countries with many foreign-language-speaking children (caused by immigration,

for example) translation can help with integration.

Sometimes schools provide these children with individual educational interpreters.

These people are specially trained, understand the child’s learning needs and
communicate between the family and the school’s administration. This provides an
invaluable help to ensuring a more secure future for the child.

• The importance of translation in business

Business as we know it would not exist without translation. Translation
undoubtedly fuels the global economy.

• Translation for Travel and Tourism

Translation has had the greatest impact in travel and tourism. From documents and
brochures to terms and conditions agreements, translation has helped businesses
offer exceptional services in many different languages. Customers from all different
regions have the desire to travel and it is up to travel companies to make this as easy
as possible. Everyone benefits when interpretation at the same time is properly used
in travel and tourism.

• Cultural Interchange
Music, literature, films, and various other art forms transcend global boundaries
because of the way they are effectively translated to reflect local languages and
sentiments. Translated and subtitled films today generate more revenue than ever for
the global film industry, with blockbuster movies looking at China as the next big
market, where the success of translated films have led production houses touch the
$1bn mark more frequently than ever. And it's not only the film industry which has
benefited from translation, as translated music and literature allows artists to earn
more royalties and international fame as an added bonus.

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• The importance of translation services
Fortunately, the answer is simple. Many translation agencies and individual
translators and interpreters are ready and able to work. Perhaps you need your birth
certificate translated, require an interpreter for a new production line or
have software that’s ready to be localized into several languages. Translation
agencies can guarantee that your project is in good hands and that your information
will be communicated precisely and subtly in the target language.

• Create a Common Understanding

Information technology is rapidly growing nowadays. With technical translation,

you will be able to form a common understanding of many different languages that
will give an advantage to your business massively.

II Types of Translation

• Human Translation

Human translation is the most accurate type of translation. A human translator will
take your document, translate it into another language and then proofread it to make
sure that there are no mistakes.

This process can take days or even weeks, depending on how many documents you
need translated and how many translators you want to work on them.

The cost of human translation varies based on the length of your document, the
number of words in it and the language pair that you want translated.

• Machine Translation

Machine translation is a process by which a computer program is used to convert

text from one language into another. It is not as accurate or fast as human translation,
but it is cheaper and more efficient for large volumes of text.

Machine translation is often used as an intermediate step in the translation process.

It can be useful if you need to get a general idea of what a document says, but it is
not good enough to be published on its own. It is also used to generate the basic
translations that human translators can then edit and refine.

This type of translation is most effective when it is used to translate short documents
like product manuals or simple user guides. It is not useful for long-form writing like
novels because machine translation often lacks the nuance that human translators
provide.

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 A good example of machine translation is Google Translate. This tool can be useful
for basic translations, but one should always check the results against a human
translator’s work before publishing them to website or social media.

• Word-to-word Translation:

The Word-for-word translation can be the most unimaginative translation possible.

Here the emphasis is on mechanically transferring each word from the Source
Language onto the Target Language without giving any importance to the whole
structure of the text or without paying attention to the loss of meaning in the Target
Text. It is the process of matching the individual words of the source language as
closely as possible to individual words of the target language. It is often referred to
as literal translation. One will rarely see a true word-for-word translation, which is
readable and with the exact meaning as the original. Literal or Word-For-Word
Translation is the transferring of the meaning of each word in a text to another, an
equivalent word in the target language. It is called both Literal Translation and Word
for Word translation.

In this type of translation, the primary unit of translation is the word. A substitute of
each word in this source language is made from the target language and the order of
words remains the same as in the source language. It is based on the principle that
while translating a text, no word should be left untranslated and no word which does
not occur in the original text should be included in the translated text.

• Literary Translation
The name is quite self-explanatory- literature translation means the translation of
literary works like novels, stories, plays, and poems. It is usually considered the
highest form of translation as a literary translation is so much more than just
conveying the meaning and context of the document in the source language into the
target language.
It involves the suitable translation of humour, cultural nuances, emotions, feelings,
and other subtle elements of a specific work. Many litterateurs believe that it is very
difficult, if not possible, to convey works of literature- especially poetry.

• Commercial Translation
This kind of translation entails a translator to own specialized skills, like the industry
to which the business belongs, and knowledge of the business jargon. The types of
text in the translation of commercial documents could include reports, business
correspondence, company accounts, tender accounts, memos, and so on.

• Legal Translation
This is the most complicated translations which generally involves marriage
certificate translations and birth certificate translations, agreements, translating
contracts, memorandums, treaties, wills, and so on.

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• Technical Translations
We have to understand the term “technical translation” in two different ways: In its
broadest sense, it is about translating user manuals, internal notes, instructions
leaflets, financial reports, medical translation, administrative terms in general,
minutes of proceedings, and so forth. These documents share the distinction of being
for a limited and specific target audience and generally have a limited shelf-life.

• Medical Translations

Any medical content that is related to the patient, like packaging, labels, instructions,
or software, and content that is related to the product, like clinical trial paperwork,
research papers, quality management certificates, generally needs translation. It is
genuinely imperative that the translation service providers are experienced, have the
necessary knowledge, and are in-country experts.

• Website Translations

We are of course discussing website copy, subtitles for video on your web pages,
and every other document you have there. Here we will also have to change things
such as address formats and layouts and currencies, to appeal to the various local
audiences. One must think about the languages want on site to be translated into and
localize only those pages which will approach the target audiences.

• Script Translation

Many famous TV shows and movies that come out of Hollywood are dubbed into
multiple languages and released worldwide. Sometimes the film is from foreign
languages and translated into English and other European languages- like the Telugu
language blockbuster Baahubali which was released in both German and Chinese,
among other languages.

• Book Translation
Book translation needs an excellent knowledge of the target and source languages.
Only a person who knows the importance of the original tone of the book can
translate its exact meaning. Book translation assists in capturing the massive crowd
of the entire world. It comes to play to enable decoding of written stories, poems,
books, and much such contents of literature written in foreign languages.

Getting more and more books translated initiates to experiment with native literature.
Many authors avail book translation with an aim to communicate textually attitudes,
thoughts, and intentions into another language by creating varied copies just as the
original one.

• Patent Translation
Translation of patents is the task of translating patent documentation into another
language. These are most likely to be ready by legal experts and genuine patent
license in a foreign country. The patent translation should be such that a person
having no prior knowledge of it also knows the invention. A small mistake can make
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 or break the deal, so utmost care should be taken for the proper translation. Patent
translation in a particular country also meets the filing country’s particular patent
norms.

• Multimedia Translation
Multimedia translation is advantageous because it makes it possible to communicate
effectively with the target market, which represents market penetration. Localization
also makes sure that the requirements of the target market are taken into
consideration. Additionally, it makes sure that the messages conveyed suit them
effortlessly.

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Typology of Translation classified by Casagrande, Savory, Vinay and

Darbelnet, Catford, Jakobson, Nida, Lefevere, House, Newmark, etc.

Typology of Translation classified by Casagrande

Casa Grande a national monument in S Arizona, near the Gila River: ruins of a
prehistoric culture. It means a big house.

Typology of Translation classified by Savory

The Savory theory divides the translation into four types: perfect translation, adequate
translation, composite translation, and scientific translation. Savory theory explains that
the perfect translation is all purely informative statements.

Typology of Translation classified by Vinay and Darbelnet

Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet in the 1950s came up with seven procedures of
translation and as many ways to attain equivalence. These are borrowing, transposition,
modulation, equivalence, calque, literal translation, and adaptation. Each of which can
be used at the linguistics level of lexis, grammar, and text.

Typology of Translation classified by Catford

Catford makes categories of translation in terms of extent, levels, and ranks. Based on
the extent, he classifies translation into full and partial translation. On the levels of
translation, there are total and restricted translation and, on the ranks, there are rank
bound and unbounded translation.

Typology of Translation classified by Jakobson

1) intralingual - rewording or paraphrasing, summarizing, expanding or commenting

within a language;

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2) interlingual - the traditional concept of translation from ST to TT or the "shifting of
meaning from one language to another";

3) intersemiotic - the changing of a written text into a different form, such as art or
dance. As translators, we deal with the following types of translation.

Typology of Translation classified by Nida

Eugene Nida was an American linguist who developed the dynamic-equivalence Bible-
translation theory and one of the founders of the modern discipline of translation
studies.

Nida then sets forth three factors that must be considered in translating:
1. The nature of the message: in some messages the content is of primary
consideration, and in others the form must be given a higher priority.
2. The purpose of the author and of the translator: to give information on both form
and content; to aim at full intelligibility of the reader so he/she may understand
the full implications of the message; for imperative purposes that aim at not just
understanding the translation but also at ensuring no misunderstanding of the
translation.
3. The type of audience: prospective audiences differ both in decoding ability and
in potential interest.

Nida states three stages of translation as literal transfer, minimal transfer, and literary
transfer. While reminding that while there are no such things as "identical equivalents"
in translating, Nida asserts that a translator must find the "closest natural equivalent."
Here he distinguishes between two approaches to the translation task and types of
translation: Formal Equivalence (F-E) and Dynamic Equivalence (D-E).

Typology of Translation classified by Lefevere

André Alphons Lefevere developed the idea of translation as a form of rewriting, which
means that any text produced on the basis of another has the intention of adapting that
other text to a certain ideology or to a certain poetics, and usually to both.

Typology of Translation classified by House

The history of Translation Studies contains many theorists, each suggesting different
translation classifications and dichotomies. Juliane House is a translation scholar who
has divided translation into two types of “overt” and “covert.” House makes the basic
assumption that the source text and its target text should be functionally equivalent
whenever possible.

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Typology of Translation classified by Newmark

Peter Newmark divides the function of language into six categories ie. expressive
function, informative function, vocative function, aesthetic function, phatic function,
and metalanguage function. Newmark divided texts into expressive text, informative
text, and vocative text in A Textbook of Translation. Newmark said the translator
translates the text by considering four levels:

(1) the source language text level,

(2) the referential level or the level of the objects and events, whether it is real or
imaginary,

(3) the cohesive level, and

(4) the level of naturalness.

III Aspects of Translation

3.1 Social, Cultural and Political Aspects of Translation

Translation communicates words and meanings, but also includes culture, social
norms and even politics. This is why translators face challenge of how to translate
content in a professional manner, while respecting aspects of the target language and
locale. When localizing and translating content into a language, numerous factors
influence how the end message is perceived. What might seem understandable in
one language, when directly translated, might not convey the same meaning.

• Cultural Factors

The idea of culture is vital to understand the implications for translation and, Cultural
factors range from syntax, ideologies, religion, language, and dialect, to art and
literacy.

For example, if you are marketing your line of athletic shoes, in the U.S. you would
have phrases like “tennis shoes,” “cross trainers,” or “running shoes” but in Canada,
athletic shoes are referred to as “runners.” In Canada, “college” refers specifically
to community colleges, but “university” is used for any institution awarding a
degree. In the U.S., “college” and “university” are commonly used interchangeably.

• Political Factors

The political environment of a country or region can have a huge impact on how
your message is seen and understood. Politics can be affected by religion, elections,
wars, geographical location, and many other factors.

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 In many western countries, like the United States, Canada and much of Western
Europe, religion and politics are separate. However, in other regions, like the Middle
East, where religion and politics are deeply intertwined, if your content goes against
their religious beliefs, you can expect serious consequences.

In countries, like China, where the government has total control and internet
censorship is common, you could easily have your website blocked for not abiding
by their laws.

• Social Factors

Social factors include wealth, religion, buying habits, education level, family size
and structure and population density.

What may be acceptable in one country, could be a possible no-no somewhere else.

For example, being a resident of one country does not mean that you speak its
language. The expat community in many areas is growing at an exponential rate
because of better work opportunities and even unsavoury political situations in their
home country.

3.2 Problems of Translation

• Structural Problems

The structure of sentences in English and other languages may be different. This is
one of the main structural problems in translation.

• Cultural Differences
The culture practised by the speakers of each language may also be vastly
different; Often, colloquialism is woven into formal language, making the
translator’s task very difficult indeed.

• Compound words

They could be closed of three forms – closed form, like notebook; hyphenated like
long-distance, or open form like fighter pilot. Some compound words are
straightforward, and mean exactly what they say – like afternoon; some mean only
half of the term, like say bellboy, and some mean nothing of their original words –
for example deadline. In such cases, it can get very tricky for the translator.

• Missing Terms
Missing terms are very common translation issue. In some languages, certain terms
may be completely absent – this has also to do with culture, as those objects may

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 not be used by the people, or those actions or activities may not be permitted or
simply not performed.

• Words with multiple Meanings

There are several words in the English language that have different meanings based
on the way they are used in the sentence. Words are sometimes spelled alike and
pronounced alike, but have different meanings, like break (a plate) or take a coffee
break. Words that have the same spellings but different pronunciations like to lead
a conference, or a lead pencil.
Homonyms — These are spelled and pronounced in the same way but can have
different meanings. For example, “Scale the fish and put it on the scale”.
Heteronyms — They look the same but have different meanings and
pronunciations. “Tear off a piece of paper and wipe your tear with it” is an example
here.

• Lack of Technical Knowledge

Regarding technical knowledge, translators are first and foremost, linguists;
though they do have good knowledge of certain subjects, they are usually not the
top experts in the field.

• Limited Time
Limited time is the most common problem that translators face every single day,
because most clients need the translated work quickly; they have no time to lose.

• Personal Challenges
Personal Challenges, as opposed to linguistic challenges, are those arises because
of the environment around the translator. All the challenges we discussed above
are linguistic challenges.

• Expressions and Idioms

These idiosyncrasies found in language present translation problems and

difficulties. Idioms, for example: Explain something through using a unique
grouping of words which only have that meaning when in that group.

• Sarcasm is Difficult to Translate

Sarcasm is a bitter, sharp, or cutting expression that typically means the opposite
of any literal meaning. Sarcasm usually loses its meaning once it has been
translated word-for-word into a different language. The translation has been known
to cause serious misunderstandings.

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• Figures of Speech
Although figures of speech are part of everyday language, they still pose obstacles
for translators. That is because a figure of speech deviates from the literal meaning
of a word or phrase, often in a culturally-relevant way. Even countries that speak
the same language have unique expressions that make little sense outside their
borders.

• Grammatical problems

Grammatical problems can include questions of temporality, aspect –where the

verb indicates if the action is continuing or completed–, pronouns, and whether to
make the subject pronoun explicit.

• Preserving Tone
The tone is a central part of a text. For example, in branding, it’s how you
communicate, the voice you give your business. It sets you apart from the
competition, helps you connect with customers, and is recognizable in slogans,
taglines, ads, and more.
To make sure it translates well in other languages, you have to pay attention to
what constitutes tone:

Diction — Your use of words, whether they are simple or complex.

Formality — You can use informal or formal tone.
Rhythm — The flow of words.

• Translating Names
Translating names can be a challenge. This is especially for names that are
originally in non-Latin script.

• Lack of Knowledge on the Subject Matter

Translation is first and foremost a linguistic endeavour. One must possess the
general knowledge of how to transfer text from one language to another.

3.3 Limits of Translation

Of the most common factors that interrupt precisely equivalent translations

are cultural, historical, linguistic, and environmental differences. Variance among
these factors in every language, as well as language evolvement.

• Slow Speed

On an average, it is estimated that a human translator can translate 200-250 words

in an hour. This corresponds to 1000-1500 words per day, considering breaks,

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 checks etc. If your document is made up of 10,000 words or more, it would easily
take 10 working days to be translated. Compare this with a software, which will
literally do the job in a few seconds.

• Higher Cost
translation is a costly affair. Cost consciousness is a crucial common
denominator for all businesses, and using human translators often causes one to
go beyond the stipulated budget.

• Confidentiality Risks
Outsourcing anything carries the risk of your secrets getting leaked. The same
holds true when you hand over a job to human translators.

3.4 Role of a Translator

A Translator is a professional who specializes in converting written or spoken

material from one language to another while maintaining the original meaning,
format, and tone. They play a crucial role in facilitating communication and
understanding between different language speakers.

A translator should be able to accomplish:

• Understand the purpose and meaning of the original document.

• Investigate/assess relevant cultural and technical terminology.
• Decide and weigh the word choice for a new language.
• Recreate document formatting.
• Edit documents for accuracy and clarity.

Qualities in a translator:

• Language Fluency.
• A good demonstration of written communication skills.
• Software and web proficiency.
• Attention to detail, high level of accuracy.
• Excellent ability to work under pressure and meet deadlines.
• Basic knowledge of topics at hand.
• Often either a relevant bachelor's degree (language, communications) or
translation certification

Essential Skills in a translator

a. Good Command Over the Languages

b. Writers make good translators
c. Good Inbuilt Vocabulary
d. Knowledge Of Idioms and Phrases
e. Technical Terminology

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 f. Specialize In One Or A Few Subject Areas
g. Reading Comprehension
h. Research
i. Composition
j. Method of Translation
k. Handling Cultural Elements
l. Good General Knowledge

3.5 Untranslatability

Untranslatability is the property of text or speech for which no equivalent can be

found when translated into another language. A text that is untranslatable is
considered a lacuna, or lexical gap. The term arises when describing the difficulty
of achieving the so-called perfect translation.

Untranslatability refers to expressions of a given language that simply cannot be

converted into other languages. It can be a single word or a phrase, either written
text or verbal utterance. Sometimes, the barrier is that of idiom or metaphor,
something which only makes sense within the context of that language.

IV Features of Translation

• Accurate
Accuracy is the priority when it comes to translation. Poor or mistranslation will
not get paid. For example, suppose a person is asking you, “how are you,” but the
translator is telling you, “Who are you” so the purpose is not served. Therefore,
when we talk about quality translation, accuracy is a must in translation.

• Clear Form
Another criterion is to keep the translation in clear form. For example, if the
translation is asked in handwritten mode, it must be readable and clear to the
audience. A good translator always keeps their work transparent, and it is a crucial
skill of a translator.

• Easy to Understand
Of course, a high-quality translation will be easy to understand. If the text
translated is hard to read, then another translation will be required. Therefore, the
translation needs to have accessible and compelling words. The sentences used
should be readable as well as short. Comments must be adequately fit in the
sentence so that it becomes simple to understand. A sound translator always keeps
his translated text easy.

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• Natural Work
One of the most outstanding qualities of a translator is to provide natural work. The
translation provided must look original and genuine. It must ensure that the text
must appear appealing to the audience. Moreover, there should not be any
grammatical or spelling errors as it defines the quality of the translator. The sounds
must also look natural.

• Stand Out Translation

It is probably the most required trait of a good translation. The piece of text
translated must stand out among the audience. The translation should not confuse
the audience. There should be a cultural adaptation and clarity. Such translation is
a cherry on the cake as it serves the audience.

• Concision
Using words concisely is important in any type of writing. One translation
objective is to use as few words as necessary to communicate the meaning from
the original text. Why to use four words when one will convey the same meaning?
A useful rule of thumb when you are writing any text is to keep sentences at a
maximum length of around 20 words. This will improve comprehension and
readability. Translators create punchy sentences by excluding excess information
that does not carry across any important nuance. Reading a sentence out loud will
help a translator notice and eliminate unnecessary words or phrases.

• Precision
Precision means knowing the difference between “there” and “their.” English and
other languages have many homonyms – words with different spellings and
meanings which sound the same. Also, some languages use genders, ensuring these
are used correctly can be the difference between an authentic translation and a text
that reads poorly. We are highly confident in the precision of our translations,
which is why we offer a quality guarantee on all projects.

• Perfect grammar
Any translation must be impeccable, avoiding any spelling or grammar errors. Our
fast and accurate translations are primed to help you find success in international
markets.

• Style
Whether the translation is technical, marketing, or contractual, it is needful to
match your project with a translator who is a subject matter expert and has the skills
to replicate the source style in target language.

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• Use the right tools
As mentioned, translation memory makes translations more accurate and
consistent, as well as reducing costs. Essentially, translation memory is a database
containing previously translated words and phrases for company, saving the
translator time, and ensuring superior output.

• Specialised knowledge
Translation is not just a linguistic challenge; the context of an industry or subject
matter is essential. With almost 20 years of experience, our teams of translators are
often post graduates in the specific subject one is translating in industry, alongside
being language specialists too. We have wide-ranging sector experience across a
variety of industries. From manufacturing to financial services to biotechnology
and pharmaceuticals, we can rise to any challenge.

4.1 Translation and Transcreation

• Translation accurately conveys the meaning of a text in a way that is

understandable for a target audience in another language.
• Transcreation takes the message of a text and adapts it for a new audience in
another language creatively adding, removing, or changing content as needed.

Translation
Translation is the process of transforming information from one language or system
to another. Effective translation requires not only a deep understanding of the
languages involved but also a strong familiarity with the cultural context and the
specific needs of the audience to ensure that the text is completely meaningful in the
new language.

Transcreation

Transcreation is a fusion of the words, translation, and creation.

Transcreation is the process of creatively adapting a message from one language to
another. It requires a deep understanding of both languages and cultures, as well as
a creative approach to make the new text resonate with the target audience.
Transcreation can be used in a variety of contexts, including advertising and
marketing, where it is vital to preserve the intent, emotion, and tone of the original
copy. The transcreator or creative translator captures the meaning of the original text
and expresses it in the target language in a way that is natural, easy to understand,
and culturally relevant.

What is Transcreation?

Transcreation is the process of adapting content from one language to another while
maintaining the existing tone, intent, and style.

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 While creative translation will generally include some of your original content, just
a reworking of specific ideas, transcreation will often be a complete reimagining of
your content so that it better resonates with a different culture.

How is Transcreation Different from Translation?

While translation focuses on replacing the words in one language with

corresponding words in a new language, transcreation services are focused on
conveying the same message and concept in a new language.

Transcreation enables translators to inject his / her own creativity and cultural
knowledge to create content that resonates with a new audience.

4.2 Translation and Multilingualism

Multilingual language professionals play a key role today. In fact, one such type of
multilingual communicative activity, i.e. written translation, has become
increasingly indispensable in a growing area of expertise domains. At a time when
English, Chinese and Spanish are gaining momentum in different parts of the world.

If we consider multilingualism as “the co-presence of two or more languages” (in a

text, individual or society) while translation is traditionally defined as the
“substitution of one language for another,” then translation and multilingualism are
inextricably connected.

Translating the same content into different languages, known as multilingual

translation, is a challenging endeavour. Some of the difficulties that need to be
overcome include the structures of each language, cultural differences, the need for
context or the presence of idioms or colloquialisms.

In a diverse country like ours, where individuals speak different languages, it

becomes even more crucial to bridge the linguistic gaps between language and
culture. Translation is a domain that not only enables people to understand ideas but
also preserves and celebrates the richness of languages and cultures.

4.3 Translation as inter-lingual communication

• Interlingual translation

Interlingual translation involves transposing the meaning of a text from one

language into another to generate a target text that is as faithful as possible to the
original text's sense and purpose. Interlingual translation can also be categorised
depending on types of texts, topics, purposes, and media.

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• Intralingual translation

Intralingual translation involves explaining a word’s meaning with words in the

same language. It is the type of translation you would find in a language dictionary.
This type of translation explains the meaning of a particular word for speakers who
either do not or only partially understand the language.

4.4 Translation and Equivalence

In translation, there are the source and target languages. Here, equivalence involves
an attempt to convert the content while retaining the context and meaning of the
original. Many view languages as having equivalent words, and that translating from
one to another simply involves finding a match.

The concept of equivalence has been of particular concern to translation scholars

since it has been inextricably linked with both definitional and practical aspects of
translating. Becoming an essential feature of translation theories in the 1960s and
1970s, equivalence was meant to indicate that source text (henceforth ST) and target
text (henceforth TT) share some kind of „sameness‟. The question was as to the kind
and degree of sameness which gave birth to different kinds of equivalence. In what
follows, an attempt will be made to critically analyze the equivalence paradigm as
was conceptualized by the following scholars in the field, namely, Vinay and
Darbelnet (1958), Jakobson (1959), Nida and Taber (1969), Catford (1965), House
(1997), Koller (1979), Newmark (1981), Baker (1992), and finally, Pym (2010).

If a specific linguistic unit in one language carries the same intended meaning /
message encoded in a specific linguistic medium in another, then these two units are
equivalent. The domain of equivalents covers linguistic units such as morphemes,
words, phrases, clauses, idioms, and proverbs. So, finding equivalents is the most
problematic stage of translation. It is worth mentioning, however, it is not meant that
the translator should always find one-to-one categorically or structurally equivalent
units in the two languages, that is, sometimes two different linguistic units in
different languages carry the same function.

Dr. Atul Santosh Suryawanshi,

[M.A. (English) B.Ed. M. Phil. Ph. D. PGCTE, NET, SET, TET, CTET,]
Department of English, S. S. M. M. Arts, Sci. & Com. College,
Pachora, Dist- Jalgaon, MS, Pin: 424201.
Email:[email protected]

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