Basics of transport kinetics

Stresses in the railway track

• Railway track is not firmly embedded in the ground –
floating foundation
• Design based on theory of elasticity with simplified
assumptions
• Track is considered as an elastic member as a whole
• The overall elastic property of the track is represented by
track modulus
• The track is a continuous elastic support for static and
dynamic wheel load and distributes them to the subgrade
with diminished unit pressures
• The assumptions are the supper structure and support will
deflect slightly under load and return to initial position
after load is removed
• Track modulus μ index for stiffness of the track
• i.e. resistance to deformation:
Load/unit Length of rail required to produce a unit
depression in the track
• Track modulus is a function of:
1. Gauge
2. Rail type
3. Sleeper density
4. Ballast
5. Subgrade
• Μ used to find track stresses
• Differentiation between initial track modulus
(under 4 t load) and the true elastic modulus (over
4 t) (IEM and EM)
Example values
 Track stresses
Causes of stresses in rails:
• Wheel loads – static load from wheel is modified for movement to
attain dynamic effect
• Dynamic effect of wheel loads caused by speed and hammer blows by
moving wheels
• Hammer blow due to overbalance of driving wheels of locomotive
• Horizontal thrust -
• Horizontal thrust due to nosing action of locomotive
• Pressure exerted by flanges of wheels on sides of the rail
- Lateral pressure from flanges on rails due to zig zag movement
• Stresses due to irregularities in track – uneven ballast or subgrade,
non-uniform gauge, top of rail not in level
• Stresses in curves – lateral bending due to rigid wheel base, increased
vertical load on inner or outer rail depending on speed and super
elevation, uneven pressure over inner and outer rail
 Dynamic effect of wheel loads
• Impact factor or speed factor is
.
• V – speed km/h
• - track modulus kg/cm2
• New equation differentiate the equations depending
on speed
• V<=100km/h
• V>100km/h

• Wheel load is multiplied with this factor to compute

the dynamic effect in case of static load
 hammer blow or dynamic augment
• a vertical force which alternately adds to and subtracts from
the locomotive's weight on a wheel
• Hammer blow is equal to Bbw2
• B balancing mass, b is the radius
• At high speeds the force of hammer blow can exceed the static
load on wheels and they can be lifted off the rail when the
hammer blow is directed upwards
• The addition of extra
weights on the wheels reduce
the unbalanced reciprocating
forces on the locomotive but
causes it to be out of balance
vertically creating hammer
blow
 Vehicle motion
linear oscillation vs rotational oscillation
Sinusoidal motion of wheelset
 Stresses in rails
• Rails are continuous beams carried on sleeper
that provide elastic support
• The rail distributes the load from the wheel to a
number of sleepers (6 to 7)
• If the rail section is constant and sleeper spacing
is uniform the stresses in rails under the wheel
will be constant
• Eccentric vertical loads lead to
torsion in beam (head and foot
of rail)
• Lateral thrust at rail head – lateral deflection and
twisting of rail
• Horizontal deflection resisted by rail/wheel
friction
• Torque – produced by this causes twist in rail and
bending of rail head and foot
• Effect of lateral deflection of rail is conveyed to
several sleepers causing their lateral movement
• Lateral rail movement is opposed by rail/sleeper
friction, fastening, ballast, sleeper side and end
• Longitudinal stresses in rails are caused by tractive
effort and braking
• High compressive stress causes plasticity of rail leading
to metal flow and rail head deformation over time
• Repeated high contact stress causes fatigue in the
metals of wheel thread and rail
• Irregularities will increase the impact and deflection
• High stresses occur in sharp curves
• Temperature changes cause tensile or compressive
stress in rails
During maintenance in track only the area
around the rail seat is tamped, creating a more
local support (case b)

Spring support (sleepers) Load distribution

New track

Tampered track

Worn track
 Relief of stress
• Bending moment would be higher under a single wheel than
with a group due to negative bending moments under
adjacent wheels
• Negative bending moment causes lifting of sleepers
• Pressure relieves this effect
• Alternate lifting/pressing is the hammer blow
• Magnitude of stress relief depends on distance of
contraflexture point of rail and wheel spacing
 Stresses in sleepers
• Wheel load
• Weight transfer from wheel to wheel on same and different axles
• Rail irregularities increase normal loads
• Speed
• Dynamic effect of wheels on rail
• Real elasticity reduces stress on sleeper
• Fastening efficiency
• Sleeper design and dimension (rigid vs elastic sleeper and cross section
size)
• Strength of sleeper
• Track modulus – ballast compaction and formation govern the track
modulus value
• Track maintenance
• Rail stiffness – greater vertical stiffness reduces load on sleeper
 Center bound sleeper – repeated stress

End bound sleeper – newly compacted

 Stresses in ballast
• Transmission of stress from sleepers to balast
depends on:
– Sleeper characteristics
– Compaction degree of ballast
– Ballast nature
 Pressure in the subgrade
• Increasing depth and size of ballast decreases
pressure on subgrade
• Quality and ballast grading also effects final
result
• Grading removes voids and prevents foreign
particle accumulation
• Maximum formation pressure due to live
wheel load in kg/cm2
Bearing pressure of subgrade
 Traction and tractive resistances
• Train consists of two units – the engine
(locomotive) and trailing unit (passenger
compartment or goods wagon)
• Numerous resistances oppose the movement
of train
• The tractive force of the engine should be
enough to overcome these resistances
The resisting forces an engine has to encounter to
start and continue moving are:
• Train resistances RT1
– Resistance independent of speed
– Resistance dependent on speed
– Atmospheric resistance
• Resistances due to track profile RT2
– Resistance due to gradients
– Resistance due to curves
• Resistances due to starting and acceleration
– Rs and Ra
• Wind resistance Rw
Train resistances RT1 – independent of speed Rt1
• Rolling resistance – resistance in running train at
constant speed is caused by friction between rails
and wheels
– Includes journal friction, frictional resistance, track
resistance and resistance due to internal parts
– Rt1 =0.0016w
– W- weight in tonnes
– Journal friction – friction of engine, wagons,
compartments
– Frictional resistance – rolling friction resisting
movement of wheels on rails
– Track resistance – wave action of rails
– Internal parts – resistance of internal moving parts
Train resistances RT1 - Resistance dependent on speed
Rt2
• Track irregularities
• Vertical movement of wheels on rail (e.g. joints)
• Flange friction, oscillating, swaying, etc (nosing action –
the zig-zag movement)
• Rt2=0.00008wv
• W – weight in tonnes
• V – speed in km/h
• Atmospheric resistance Rt3
• Resistance developed on ends and sides of the
train when there is no wind
• Smaller at slower speeds and increases with
squared velocity of train
• Rt3=wv2

Total train resistance RT1=Rt1+Rt2+Rt3

Resistances due to track profile RT2 – resistance
due to gradients Rg
• On rising gradients
• N – normal pressure on rails
• Sinθ=Rg/w
• For small grad. OA=OB hence sin θ=tan θ
• tan θ=Rg/w so Rg=wtan θ=weight x slope
• For 2% slope and a train w=2tonne the
• Rg=2000x2/100=40kg
Resistances due to track profile RT2 – resistance
due to curves Rc
• Rigid wheelbase causing flanges on outer wheel
rub against rail head on inner side causing wear
• Slippage of wheels longitudinal and transversal
• Increased pressure on inner rail in case of
inadequate superelevation
• Poor track maintenance,
poor alignment or gauge
• It increases with speed
F- force of sliding friction
Ga – distance
Work is FGa

Resistance increases with gauge and

reduction of R (with degree of curvature D)
Resistances due to starting and acceleration
• Starting resistance Rs
– For locomotives Rs1=0.15w1 (w1 locomotive weight
in tonnes)
– For vehicles Rs2=0.005w2 (w2 vehicle weight in
tonnes)
Rs=Rs1+Rs2
• Acceleration resistance Ra
• Wind resistance Rw
– Component of wind in the direction of movement
– Component opposing the movement direction
– Rw=0.000017av2
– a-area of train exposed to wind in m2
– V – speed of wind km/h

Total resistance to traction is the summation of all

RT=RT1+RT2+Rsa+Rw
 Hauling capacity of a locomotive
• Product of the coefficient of friction and weight of the
driving wheels
• It indicates the power of locomotive
• The friction coefficient between the driving wheels and rails
depends on:
– Rail surface conditions
– Speed of locomotive (greater speed increases friction coeff.)
Hauling capacity=μwn= μ W
 Tractive effort of a locomotive
• It is the force applied by the locomotive to
move it and the train
• Equal or a bit greater than the hauling
capacity
• Tractive effort should be equal or greater than
the tractive power