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 P R A I S E F O R E C O S O C I A L T H E O RY,
EMBODIED TRUTHS, AND
T H E P E O P L E ’ S H E A LT H

“This book provides a clear, accessible entry into one of the author’s
main contributions to public health literature—the ecosocial
theory of disease distribution—with helpful examples for the ap-
plication and importance of this theory for a general audience.
Many communities of color will resonate with her explanation of
the interdependence of societal and environmental situations on
unequal and disparate health outcomes.”
—RANDALL AKEE,
Department of Public Policy and American Indian Studies,
University of California, Los Angeles

“A tour de force, Nancy Krieger’s latest book weaves together

decades of her own pioneering work integrating ecosocial theory,
empirical research, and transformative policy and politics. This
clear-headed cri de coeur is guided by Krieger’s dazzling intellect,
deep historical and contextual understanding, methodological
knowhow, and above all is motivated by her lifetime of commit-
ment to social and health justice.”
—ANNE-EMANUELLE BIRN,
Global Development Studies,
University of Toronto
“Nancy Krieger’s groundbreaking concept of ecosocial theory
has influenced a generation of environmental and public health
scholars. Her expanded framework on discovering truths explores
how diverse points of pollution, social stratification, and poverty
intersect through the human body. This is a must-read for anyone
seeking to advance environmental and racial justice in the public
health field.”
—MICHAEL MÉNDEZ,
Department of Urban Planning and Public Policy,
University of California, Irvine, and author of Climate Change
from the Streets: How Conflict and Collaboration
Strengthen the Environmental Justice Movement

“In this landmark book, Nancy Krieger makes a compelling case

for not simply working to address health inequities but grounding
that work firmly in ecosocial theory and a deep understanding of
the ‘embodied truths our bodies tell.’ A masterpiece, from one of
the most important public health scholars of the last half century.”
—MEREDITH MINKLER,
School of Public Health, University of California,
Berkeley, and co-editor, Community Organizing and
Community Building for Health and Social Equity

“This book connects all the dots—structural racism, class, power,

gender, white supremacist culture, policy, ableism, and more—
providing the most elegant and accessible explanation of how they
all interact, connect, and shape not only embodied health but our
environment and public policy. The stories, the data, and the anal-
ysis are deftly on point. This book is an absolute game changer.”
—MAKANI THEMBA,
Higher Ground Change Strategies

“Nancy Krieger’s conceptual thinking has been pushing the

boundaries of epidemiological theory for decades now. This ‘small
book’ will rapidly become essential reading for all those who use
epidemiology to tackle the multiple dimensions of inequality af-
fecting our societies.”
—CESAR VICTORA,
International Center for Equity in Health,
Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Brazil

“Building on decades of research, Nancy Krieger’s eloquent writing

takes us on a journey through history, science, and sociology to
peel back surface explanations and reveal what truly shapes our
health. This exposé of how our bodies reflect the embodied truths
of society should be required reading for anyone seeking to under-
stand health disparities.”
—STEVEN WOOLF,
Center on Society and Health,
Virginia Commonwealth University
Small Books, Big Ideas in Population Health
Nancy Krieger, Series Editor
1. J. Beckfield. Political Sociology and the People’s Health
2. S. Friel. Climate Change and the People’s Health
3. J. Breilh. Critical Epidemiology and the People’s Health
4. N. Krieger. Ecosocial Theory, Embodied Truths, and the
People’s Health
ECOSOCIAL THEORY,
EMBODIED TRUTHS, AND
THE PEOPLE’S HEALTH

Nancy Krieger
PROFESSOR OF SOCIAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
AND AMERICAN CANCER SOCIET Y
CLINICAL RESEARCH PROFESSOR
AT T H E H A R VA R D T. H . C H A N S C H O O L
O F P U B L I C H E A LT H

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2021
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Krieger, Nancy, author.
Title: Ecosocial theory, embodied truths, and the people’s health / by Nancy Krieger.
Other titles: Small books with big ideas ; 4.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2021] | Series: Small
books, big ideas in population health ; 4 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021024150 (print) | LCCN 2021024151 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197510728 (hardback) | ISBN 9780197510742 (epub) |
ISBN 9780197510759 (ebook)
Subjects: MESH: Health Status Disparities | Socioeconomic Factors | Social Justice |
Health Equity | Social Medicine | Epidemiologic Methods
Classification: LCC RA563.M 56 (print) | LCC RA563.M 56 (ebook) |
NLM WA 300.1 | DDC 362.1089—dc23
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LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021024151
DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780197510728.001.0001
This material is not intended to be, and should not be considered, a substitute for medical or other
professional advice. Treatment for the conditions described in this material is highly dependent on the
individual circumstances. And, while this material is designed to offer accurate information with re-
spect to the subject matter covered and to be current as of the time it was written, research and knowl-
edge about medical and health issues is constantly evolving and dose schedules for medications are
being revised continually, with new side effects recognized and accounted for regularly. Readers must
therefore always check the product information and clinical procedures with the most up-​to-​date
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9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by Integrated Books International, United States of America
 I dedicate this book to my parents, Dr. Dorothy T. Krieger (1927–​
1985) and Dr. Howard P. Krieger (1918–​1992), who taught me to
value knowledge for the good we can do with it in the world, and to
Mrs. Montez Davis (1913–​1997), who helped raise me and further
opened my eyes to injustice and to living a loving life.
EPIGRAPHS

. . . the crucial distinction for me is not the difference between

fact and fiction, but the distinction between fact and truth.
Because facts can exist without human intelligence, but truth
cannot.
Ton i Mor r ison (2019) 1

. . . true stories are worth telling, and worth getting right, and
we have to behave honestly towards them and to the process of
doing science in the first place. It’s only through honesty and
courage that science can work at all. . . . The more we discover,
the more wondrous the universe seems to be, and if we are
here to observe it and wonder at it, then we are very much part
of what it is. . . . The story continues, and the rest is up to us.
P h i li p P u llm an (2017) 2

Discourse is not just ideas and language. Discourse is bodily.

It’s not embodied, as if it were stuck in a body. It’s bodily and
it’s bodying, it’s worlding. This is the opposite of post-​truth.
This is about getting a grip on how strong knowledge claims
are not just possible but necessary—​worth living and dying for.
D ON NA H A R AWAY (2019) 3
CONTENTS

Preface xi
Acknowledgments xvii

1. From Embodying Injustice to Embodying Equity:

Embodied Truths and the Ecosocial Theory of
Disease Distribution 1
2. Embodying (In)justice and Embodied Truths:
Using Ecosocial Theory to Analyze Population
Health Data 55
3. Challenges: Embodied Truths, Vision, and Advancing
Health Justice 129

Notes 177
Index 327

ix
P R E FAC E

Health, illness, birth, and death: they comprise the embodied

truths of existence on our planet Earth for every single biological
being. It is an elementary truth that to live is to live embodied.
People and all other living beings are constantly engaging with—​
and depending upon and shaping—​the social, biophysical, and
ecological contexts in which life transpires. This translates to lit-
erally incorporating, bringing into the corps, the body—​that is,
embodying biologically—​the dynamic contexts in which our lives
are enmeshed. Patterns of population health—​including, in the
case of people, health inequities—​constitute the living record of
how each population and our planet are faring.
Yet elementary truths are never as simple as they appear to be.
This book aims to provide a systematic rendering of the ideas and
causal claims entwined with the notion of embodying (in)justice
and its implications for public health and social justice in its many
interlinked forms—​including but not limited to racial justice, eco-
nomic justice, reproductive justice, environmental justice, climate
justice, Indigenous justice, queer justice, disability justice, and
more. The basis of this construct is the ecosocial theory of disease
distribution, which I explain in Chapter 1, and which I first articu-
lated in 1994 and have been elaborating since.1 Theories and their
causal constructs matter because they can be a source of power,
xi
xii P reface

for good and for ill, especially when deployed and contested in
systems of governance, economics, and politics that set the terms
by which people and this planet can either thrive or be treated as
entities to be exploited for the private gains of a few. Using con-
crete examples to illustrate critical concepts, the goal of this book
is to use the ecosocial theory of disease distribution to promote clear
thinking about the distinct but connected realities of embodying
(in)justice and embodied truths. The intent is to inform critical and
practical research, actions, and alliances to advance health equity
in a deeply troubled world on a threatened planet.
Throughout, the focus on embodying (in)justice and health
equity is central—​albeit with no claims that health is the sole or
most important consideration, since there are so many facets and
features of social justice that warrant deep analysis and concerned
and concerted action. To me, however, concerns about health are
compelling, complex, and multifaceted. So too is the critical work
of critical science, done by real people in real societies, in ways that
can contribute publicly testable and tested ideas and evidence.
I offer this brief book to share insights I have gained through my
35+ years of professional work as a social epidemiologist and as
an advocate and activist linking issues of social justice and public
health. The intent is to provide an invitation and opportunity to
reflect on ideas that can lead to deeper, more rigorous, and action-
able analysis, not a comprehensive review of the literature.
This book is one of several volumes for a series I initiated with
Oxford University Press, on Small Books, Big Ideas in Population
Health.2 I conceived of this series because in my view the practice
and science of the intermingled fields of public health and popu-
lation health sciences could benefit from strengthening the critical
 P reface xiii

conceptual tools of our trade—​that is, the ideas we use to guide

our research and practice in the real world. Reaching out beyond
my own particular expertise, I wanted to bring a sharp focus to a
diversity of key debates and insights in public health and kindred
disciplines that could help hone these tools for thinking—​and
I recognized that this required a format longer than the standard
brief scientific article and shorter than a full-​fledged tome. Hence
small books with big ideas!
The first two books in this series engage with big ideas under
the rubrics of (1) Political Sociology and the People’s Health, by
Jason Beckfield, published in 2018,3 and (2) Climate Change
and the People’s Health, by Sharon Friel, published in 2019.4 The
former cogently explicates how to understand, research, and reveal
the “rules of the game” that structure population health and health
inequities; the latter incisively offers one of the first in-​depth anal-
yses of links between the climate crisis and health inequities, their
common roots in consumptogenic systems, and possibilities for
progressive policy systems change. The third book, published
in January 2021, is by Jaime Breilh; titled Critical Epidemiology
& the People’s Health,5 it deftly presents critical Latin American
perspectives that play an influential role in the epidemiology and
public health (and collective health) of the Global South but that
are less familiar in the Global North. Two other books in prep-
aration are on epigenetics and the people’s health, and on causal
inference and the people’s health, and others are in discussion,
including on Indigenous well-​being, settler-​colonialism, and the
people’s health, with more to come. I am grateful to my colleagues
who have stepped forward to be included in this series.
xiv P reface

My own writing of this book comes at a time of heightened

awareness of the urgent need for critical analyses of the struc-
tural drivers of population health and health inequities—​and the
power of people to change conditions for the better, including for
the people’s health. I began working on the text in mid-​January
2020, when only whispers of a possible new infectious disease
with pandemic potential began circulating into global awareness.
I continued writing until mid-​March and then had to halt, when
the demands of dealing with COVID-​19 and health inequities in
the United States, on top of all the other COVID-​19 disruptions
to work and life, became my priority. Added to this was the hor-
rific public murder of George Floyd on May 25, 2020, by the
Minneapolis police, one that, building on far too many before,
sparked subsequent weeks and months of mass protest throughout
the United States and globally—​against not only police violence
but also structural racism more broadly.6 Addressing racial in-
justice and health, including in relation to other forms of social
injustice, has been central to my work as a social epidemiologist
since the start of my professional career—​and indeed part of why
I entered this field.
In March 2020, I thus put aside work on this book, given
the urgent need to put my epidemiologic skills swiftly to use to
the critical work at hand, regarding the data, debate, and action
around COVID-​19, police violence, and structural racism more
generally.7 I was able to revisit the writing in brief moments during
the summer of 2020, then put it aside again for much of the fall,
given the demands of school, the pandemic, and the presidential
and other elections.8 Nevertheless, in late December, as contest
over the elections began to recede and vaccines started to become
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
L. 1. Ch. 1.
XIII. Cl. 3. S. A. 13.

T H E D E C E M B E R M O T H . Mr. Dandridge took some of its

Caterpillars, at the Beginning of June, on the Hasle; but, observing
they eat but little, gave them fresh Boughs that were wet with Rain,
on which they fed greedily. The next Day he gave them Water and
Honey mixt together, of which they drank a good Quantity, and fell
to eating again very heartily. In this Manner he fed them every Day,
and sometimes twice a Day, till the Middle of the same Month, when
they went into the Earth and changed into Chrysalis. The Moths
came out at the End of December. I took this Year (1748) two of
these Caterpillars on the Leaves of an Oak, wherewith I fed them till
the Middle of June, when they spun a dirty coloured Case which
contained the Chrysalis; and the Moths were bred on the 24th
October.
See Albin, P. 85. Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 60.
 l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. A. 13.

The Nut-tree.
Corylus, Sativa, fructu anguloso. C. B. 418.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
XIV. Cl. 3. S. A. 14.
T H E S P O T T E D R E D and W H I T E U N D E R W I N G M O T H .
I found and fed the Caterpillar on Black Thorn: It made a Spinning,
and changed to Chrysalis in the Middle of April, and the Moth came
abroad about the Middle of May. The Caterpillar lives all Winter, and
the Moth is rarely to be met with.
See Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 43.

l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. A. 14.

Figure 1. The Black Thorn. 2. The Columbine. 3.

The Ranunculus. 4. The White Bells.
 1. Prunus sylvestris. C. B. 2. Aquilegia vulgaris simplex. C. B. 3.
Ranunculus. 4. Hyacinthus, flore albo. C. B.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
XV. Cl. 3. S. A. 15.

T H E W O O D T Y G E R M O T H . This Moth I first discovered in

Cain Wood. The Caterpillar lives all Winter, feeds on Chickweed,
Lettice, the Lesser Plantain, &c. and is full grown about the Middle of
April, when it changes to the Chrysalis within a Spinning: The Moth
is bred in the Middle of May, flies by Day, and may be taken in Cain
or Tottenham Woods; an Afternoon is the best Time.
 l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. A. 15.

The Vredenrick Hyacinth, and Lesser Plantain.

Hyacinthus Belgicus Vredenrick dictus. Plantago minor. I. B.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
XVI. Cl. 3. S. A. 16.

T H E M O T H E R O F P E A R L M O T H . Nettles are the Food of

the Caterpillar, within the Leaves of which (folded together) it lives,
and feeds till the Beginning of June; when it puts on the Chrysalis
Form wrapt up within a Leaf, whose Edges are fastened by a
Spinning: Fourteen Days after the Moth appears, and may be taken,
very commonly, in an Evening, amongst Nettles.
See Albin, P. 73. Rosel, Cl. 4. Tab. 4.

l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. A. 16.

The Cherry-Plumb.
Prunus, fructu majori, rotundo, rubro. Tourn.
L. 1. Ch. 1.
XVII. Cl. 3. S. A. 17.

T H E Y E L L O W J U L Y O A K - M O T H . The Food of the

Caterpillar is the Leaves of the Oak Tree, on which it feeds till the
Middle of June; then it changes to a Chrysalis in some Chink or other
that it meets with in the Bark of the said Tree, over which Chink or
Hole the Caterpillar spins a strong Web, which prevents any Bird or
Insect from getting at it in its Chrysalis State. The Moth is bred in
the Middle of July, and may, now and then, be found on the Barks of
the Oak Trees in Richmond and other Parks, about that Time; but it
is not a common Fly.
See Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 17.
 l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. A. 17.

The May-cherry.
Cerasus, majalis, fructu duro subdulci. Tourn.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
XVIII. Cl. 3. S. A. 18.

T H E S M A L L E G G E R - M O T H . Black and White Thorn are the

Food of the Caterpillars, which are always found in Colonies; the
whole Nest of them feeding together till they are ready to change.
When they are first hatch’d from the Egg, they spin a Web to shelter
themselves from the Weather; and, as they grow, enlarge it with
several Divisions. They seldom go from the Plant they are first
hatched on, till they have eaten it quite bare and want Food. They
ordinarily spin a Thread from their main Web to guide them Home
again; this is very particular, and seems necessary to them. About
the Beginning of July you may find them full fed; then they spin a
Web, within which a Case is formed, shaped like an Egg, which
contains the Chrysalis: In this State they remain all Winter, and the
Moths are bred in March. It is adviseable, if you feed the
Caterpillars, to take the whole Nest with the Web. I have seldom
taken the Moths.
See Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 62. Albin, P. 19.
 l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. A. 18.

The Almond Tree, Blossom and Fruit.

Amygdalus sativa fructu majore. C. B. Pin. 441.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
XIX. Cl. 3. S. A. 19.

T H E F O X C O L O U R E D M O T H . The Caterpillar is hatch’d in

July, lives all Winter, and feeds on Grass, Brambles, &c. I have seen
them in September as large as they are in the Middle of April, which
is the Time they go to Chrysalis, within a Spinning or Web. The Moth
is bred in the Middle of May, and the Cock flies swiftly in an
Afternoon; but may be taken in a Net, by the Sides of Woods and
green Lanes.
See Albin, P. 81.

l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. A. 19.

The Blackberry Fruit.

 Rubus, fructu nigro.

S e c t . 2 A.

Caterpillars having Rings of different Colours surrounding them.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
I. Cl. 3. S. 2 A. 1.

T H E C I N N A B A R - M O T H . The Caterpillars of this Fly are

sociable and feed together in Numbers on the Ragwort; in July they
are full grown, and then some go into the Earth, and others spin on
the Surface of the Ground, in order to their Change into the
Chrysalis State. The Moths are produced in the May following, and
are common in Fields and Gardens.
See Lister on Godart. P. 61. N. 54. Albin, Pl. 34. Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab.
48. Reaumur, Pl. 16. Pag. 342. Vol. 1.
l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. 2. A. 1.

The Ragwort, in Flower.

Jacobea, vulgaris. J. B. H. 1057.

S e c t . 3 A.

Caterpillars having indented Markings.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
I. Cl. 3. S. 3 A. 1.

T H E B R A M B L E M O T H . Its Caterpillar is to be found feeding on

the Bramble, on the Oak, &c. at the Beginning of September; and,
towards the Middle of the same Month, it changes to a Chrysalis,
mixing its Hairs with the Bag it spins: The Moth comes forth the May
following, and is not very common.

l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. 3. A. 1.

The Orange Apricock.

 Malus Armeniaca, fructu aurantio.

S e c t . b.

Caterpillars having hairy, or fleshy Protuberances, on the Head,

Back, or Tail.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
I. Cl. 3. S. b. 1.

T H E L A P P I T - M O T H . The Eggs of this Moth are laid about the

Middle of July, and remain in that State fourteen Days. I fed the
Caterpillars, when first hatch’d, with Black Thorn, and continued
giving them the same Food till October; at which Time they were in
their fourth Skin, and appeared as represented at Letter a; They
there stretched themselves at full Length on the Twigs, and
remained so till the April following, without eating any thing that I
could perceive, notwithstanding at different Times I put in fresh
green Food to try them. About the End of May the Caterpillars are
full grown, in which Condition b represents the Female; they then
make a Spinning, within which the Chrysalis is formed, and remains
in that State for one Month, when the Moth is bred; though it is
rarely met with in the Fly-state. The Caterpillars are to be found, at
the End of May, sticking close to the Boughs of the Black Thorn,
Bramble, &c. You must look for them about a Foot or two from the
Ground; but, as their Colour nearly resembles the Bark of their Food,
it is very difficult to see them.
See Albin, Pl. 16. Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 41. Merian, Vol. 1. Ch. 17.
Reaumur, Pl. 23. Pag. 322. Vol. 2.
 l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. b. 1.

The Privet leaved Phylerea.

Phyllyrea, Ligustri folio. C. B.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
II. Cl. 3. S. b. 2.

T H E D R I N K E R - M O T H . Its Eggs are usually laid about the

Middle of July; in about fourteen Days the Caterpillars come out:
They feed in the Winter-season on long Grass, &c. and change to
Chrysalis at the End of May (within such a Case as is expressed in
the Plate) at which Time they are easily found upon the Grass, by
the Sides of Fields and Hedges. The Moths are bred at the End of
June, and may be taken flying in an Evening, in green Lanes and by
the Sides of Woods.
See Lister’s Godart. N. 82. Albin, Pl. 17. Raii Hist. Insect. P. 142. N.
3. Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 2.

l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. b. 2.
 Figure 1. The Yellow Vetchling. 2. Bistort. 3. The
White Darnel Grass. 4. The Wood-Pease.
1. Lathyrus sylvestris, dumetorum, flore luteo. C. B. 2. Bistorta
major. I. B. 3. Gramen loliaceum spica longiori. C. B. 4. Astragalus
sylvaticus. Ger. Emac.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
III. Cl. 3. S. b. 3.

T H E Y E L L O W - T A I L M O T H . The Caterpillar feeds on Elder,

Oak, Black Thorn, &c. upon all which Growths you may find them at
the End of May. It changes to a Chrysalis, within a Spinning, at the
Beginning of June, and the Moth comes forth at the End of the same
Month. They may be found sticking against the Barks of the Trees in
Parks, and other Places, and also flying in the Evening. They lay
Eggs of a pale Colour, and cover them with a woolly Substance. The
Caterpillars are hatch’d in August, and will feed on Black Thorn till
the End of October; at which Time they spin themselves little Cases,
and remain in them till the Spring following.
See Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 21. Reaumur, Pl. 16. Pag. 342. Vol. 1.
 l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. b. 3.

The Alder-Tree.
Alnus, rotundifolia, glutinosa, viridis. C. B.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
IV. Cl. 3. S. b. 4.

T H E D A G G E R M O T H . The Caterpillar feeds on Rose Trees,

Fruit-trees, and Shrubs; becomes a Chrysalis within the Earth in
October, and in May following the Moth appears, and may be found
sticking against Pales, Walls, Trees, &c. Their Eggs are very small,
and of a fine green Colour, and the Caterpillars are common in
Gardens and other Places. It is observed, that the Protuberance on
the Back of the Caterpillar is of a fleshy Substance, with Hair
growing out of it.
See Albin, P. 86. Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 7. Reaumur, Pl. 42. Pag. 602.

l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. b. 4.

The most double Sweet Briar Rose.

 Rosa sylvestris, sive Eglanteria, flore pleno.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
V. Cl. 3. S. b. 5.

T H E W I L D P I N E - T R E E L A P P I T - M O T H . Mr. Rosel informs

us, That the Caterpillars of this curious Fly feed on the Pinus
sylvestris, or W i l d P i n e : That they are full fed in the Month of June,
at which Time they change to Chrysalis, within such a Spinning as is
represented in the Plate; and, after lying in that State three Weeks
the Moths appear.
About the Middle of September, 1748, I took one of these
Caterpillars upon a White Thorn Bush, near Richmond Park; which is
still alive this 20th Day of January 1748-9, though it has eat nothing,
that I know of, since it has been in my Custody. It remains stretched
out, in the Manner of the Lappit-Caterpillar represented at the Letter
a of the first Plate of this Section; and I do not think it will begin to
feed until there are Buds of Black or White Thorn to give it. This is
the only Caterpillar of the Kind that I have known taken in England.
—For the Drawings exhibited in my Plate, I am obliged to Mr. Rosel.
See Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 59.
l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. s. b. 5.

The Wild Pine-Tree.

Pinus sylvestris. C. B. Pin.
 S e c t . c.

C at e r p i l l a r s , having many Tufts of Hair, producing T u s s o c k - m o t h s .

L. 1. Ch. 1.
I. Cl. 3. S. c. 1.

T H E B L A C K T U S S O C K - M O T H . This Moth is bred about the

Middle of June; at which Time it lays Eggs of a light grey Colour,
inclosed within a woolly Substance; and thus they continue for about
one Month. When the infant Caterpillars appear, they feed on Black
Thorn, White Thorn, Bramble, &c. They live all the Winter in the
Caterpillar State, and change to a hairy Chrysalis, within a Spinning,
about the Middle of May. The Caterpillars may be found, full fed, on
Black Thorn that grows by the Sides of Woods and Hedges; as for
the Moth, it is not commonly taken in the Fly-state.
See Albin, Pl. 26. Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 37.
 l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. c. 1.

The White double Garden-Rose.

Rosa Alba hortensis, flore pleno. I. B. 1144.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
II. Cl. 3. S. c. 2.

T H E Y E L L O W T U S S O C K - M O T H . Its Caterpillar feeds on the

Red Archangel, Oak, Hasle, &c. towards the End of September. It
makes a Spinning, within which a hairy Chrysalis is formed, where it
lives till the Middle of May following, and then the Moth takes its
flight; but it is not a very common Fly.
See Merian, Vol. 1. Ch. 47. Albin, Pl. 26. Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 38.
Reaumur, Pl. 33. Pag. 534. Vol. 1.

L. I. Ch. I. Cl. 3. S. c. 2.

The Red Archangel.

Lamium rubrum. Ger. 568.
L. 1. Ch. 1.
III. Cl. 3. S. c. 3.

T H E R E D - S P O T T U S S O C K - M O T H . The Caterpillars are

very common, feeding on most Elm and Lime Trees about Town.
They make a Spinning under the Copings of Walls, Pales, &c. at the
End of May; and the Moth is bred at the End of June and in July.
The Females have no Wings; but, if you carry one or two of them in
a Box (where there is a Breed of this Moth) the Males will follow you
in order to get at them: So that, if you put the Box on the Ground,
you may easily take the Cocks with your Net. Several other Moths
may be taken by the like Means.
See Albin, P. 89. Reaumur, Pl. 19. Pag. 342. Vol. 1.
 l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. c. 3.

The smooth Leaved Elm.

Ulmus folio Glabro. Ger. Em. 1481.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
IV. Cl. 3. S. c. 4.
T H E O R A N G E T U S S O C K - M O T H . The Food of its Caterpillar
is Hasle, St. John’s Wort, Oak, &c. About the Middle of May it made
a Spinning, and changed to a Chrysalis, and the Moth came forth
three Weeks after. It is very scarce, and the Female has no Wings. I
took one of these Caterpillars, feeding on Oak Leaves, on the 25th of
September 1748; two Days after, it spun up in order to its Chrysalis
State, and, on the 8th of October, the Moth was bred: From whence
I conclude, this Moth breeds twice in a Year.
See Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 40. Albin, P. 90.

l. i. ch. i. Cl. 3. S. c. 4.
 The elegant upright St. John’s Wort.
Hypericum pulchrum Tragi. I. B. III. 383.

L. 1. Ch. 1.
V. Cl. 3. S. c. 5.

T H E N U T - T R E E T U S S O C K - M O T H . The Caterpillar of this

very scarce Fly was fed upon the Hasle. About the Middle of
September it spun up, and changed into a Chrysalis, and the Moth
was bred at the Beginning of April.
See Albin, P. 90. Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 53.